Module 3: Designing for strength

Raj Kumar Pal

Fall 2025

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 1 / 48

Types of Gears

Spur Gears: These gears transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts.
Helical Gears: These gears transmit motion between parallel or nonparallel shafts.
Bevel Gears: Transmit rotary motion between intersecting shafts.
Worm Gearsets: Transmit rotary motion between nonparallel and nonintersecting shafts.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 2 / 48
Types of Gears

Spur Gears Worm Gears

Helical Gears Bevel Gears

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 3 / 48

Nomenclature
Circular Pitch: The distance, measured
on the pitch circle, from a point on one
tooth to a corresponding point on an
adjacent tooth.
Base Pitch: The distance between two
involute teeth or parallel curves.
Module m: Ratio of pitch diameter to
the number of teeth.
Diametral Pitch: Ratio of the number
of teeth to the pitch diameter.
Addendum a: The radial distance
between the top land and the pitch circle.
Clearance Circle: Circle tangent to the
addendum circle of the mating gear.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 4 / 48
Key geometric relations

N
P = ,
d
d
m= ,
N
πd
p= = πm,
N
pP = π

where,
P = diametral pitch, teeth per inch
N = number of teeth
d = pitch diameter, in or mm
p = circular pitch, in or mm

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 5 / 48

Graphical Representation

[Link]

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 6 / 48

Gear Trains
Relation between two gears:

n1 N1 = n2 N2 ,
N2 d2
n2 = n2 = n2
N1 d1
where n is the angular velocity in
rev/min, N is the number of teeth and d
is the pitch diameter.
For the gear train shown, and considering
gear 2 is the driving gear, the speed of
gear 6 is given as,

N2 N3 N5
n6 = − n2
N3 N4 N6

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 7 / 48

Gear Trains: Example

The double-reduction helical gearset is driven

through shaft a at a speed of 700 rev/min.
Gears 2 and 3 have a normal diametral pitch of
12 teeth/in a 30 degrees helix angle, and an
normal pressure angle of 20 degrees.
The second pair of gears in the train, gears 4
and 5, have a normal diametral pitch of 8
teeth/in, a 25 degree helix angle, and a normal
pressure angle of 20 degrees.
The tooth numbers are:
N2 = 12, N3 = 48, N4 = 16, N5 = 36.
Find the speed and direction of shaft C.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 8 / 48

Spur Gears

For Spur Gears: Typically only the torque is given and we

need to determine the tangential and radial loads from this
information. For transmitted loads:

πdn T H H
V = , Wt = = 33, 000 , Wr = Wt tan ϕ = 60, 000 .
12 r V πdn
V Pitch-line velocity
T Torque.
r Radius.
Wt Tangential force.
Wr Radial force.
d Gear diameter.
n Gear speed.
H Power (in horsepower).
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 9 / 48
Spur Gears: Example

The figure shows a pair of shaft-mounted spur

gears having a diametral pitch of 5 teeth/in
with an 18-inch tooth 20◦ pinion driving a
45-tooth gear. The power input is 32-hp at
1800 rev/min. Find the direction and
magnitude of the forces acting on bearings
A, B, C, and D.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 10 / 48

Loads on helical gears

T H
Wt = = 33, 000 ,
r V
H
Wr = Wt tan ϕt = 60, 000 ,
πdn
Wa = Wt tan ψ,

Note: There is now an axial component.

V = (πdn)/(12) Pitch-line velocity

ϕn Normal pressure angle
ψ Helix angle
ϕt = tan−1 tan ϕn
tan ψ Tangential pressure angle
Pn Normal pitch
Pt = Pn cos ψ Tangential Pitch
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 11 / 48
Example: Helical and Miter Gears

The figure shows a gear train consisting of a

pair of helical gears and a pair of miter gears.
The helical gears have 17.5◦ normal pressure
angle and a helix angle as shown. Determine
the following:
The speed of shaft c.
The distance between shafts a and b.
The pitch diameter of the miter gears.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 12 / 48

Helical Gear: Example

An electric motor transmits 1-hp at 1800

rev/min in the clockwise direction, as viewed
from the positive x axis. Keyed to the motor
shaft is an 18-tooth helical pinion having a nor-
mal pressure angle of 20◦ , a helix angle of 30◦ ,
and a normal diametral pitch of 12 teeth/in.
The hand of the helix is shown in the figure.

Make a three-dimensional sketch of the motor

shaft and pinion, and show the forces acting
on the pinion and the bearing reactions at A
and B. The thrust should be taken out at A.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 13 / 48

Bevel Gears

For transmitted loads:

T
Wt = ,
rav
Wr = Wt tan ϕ cos γ,
Wa = Wt tan ϕ sin γ,

T is the torque, rav is the pitch radius, Wt is

the tangential force, Wr is the radial force and
Wa is the axial force.
ϕ Pressure angle
γ Pitch angle

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 14 / 48

Example: Bevel Gears

The bevel pinion shown rotates at

600 rev/min in the direction shown
and transmits 5 hp to the gear. The
mounting distances, the location of
all bearings, and the average pitch
radii of the pinion and gear are shown.
For simplicity, the teeth have been re-
placed by pitch cones. Bearings A
and C should take the thrust loads.
Find the bearing forces on the gear-
shaft.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 15 / 48

Combined Loading
Combined loading occurs when the external forces give rise to normal and shear internal
forces and possible internal moments.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 16 / 48

Internal Loading: Reminder

Bending moments are My and Mz , torsional moments are Mx .

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 17 / 48

Stress formulas: Combined Loading
• General axial stress due to normal loads and bending moments,

Nx M z y My z q
σ= − + , |M | = My2 + Mz2 . (1)
A
|{z} Iz Iy | {z }
| {z }
Axial Bend. Moment Magnitude
Bending

• General shear stresses due to shear loading V .

Mx ρ Vy Qz Vz Qy
τ= + + , M =T . (2)
J } Iz bz Iy by | x{z }
Twisting Moment
| {z | {z }
Torsion Transverse

2D 3D
Load F = Nx î + Vy ĵ F = Nx î + Vy ĵ + Vz k̂
Moment M = Mx î + Mz k̂ M = Mx î + My ĵ + Mz k̂
• Find the internal load and moment vectors first. This will inform the type of stresses.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 18 / 48
Transverse Shear
Transverse shear is applied when a load causes bending
It is assumed that the shear load is constant across the cross section. The load must act on
the beam cross section itself.
If the load is not acting on or near the cross section, then the transverse shear can be
neglected.
The formula for transverse shear is,
Vy Qy Vz Qz
τ= + , (3)
Iz b Iy b

where b is the beam width, Q and I are the 1-st and 2-nd area momentsof inertia.
Z Z R R Z
dA ydA
Q = ydA → ydA R = R dA = ȳA,
dA dA

where ȳ is centroid of the area being sheared, measured from the centroid of the entire
cross-section.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 19 / 48
Transverse Shear

Z Z c
VQ V V V 2
τ= = ydA = b ydy = (c − y12 )
Ib Ib Ib y1 2I
bh3 b(2c)3 [2bc](2c)2 A(4c2 ) Ac2
I= = = = = .
12 12 12 12 3
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 20 / 48
Stress formula: Transverse Shear

The max shear stress occurs when y1 = 0:

y12
 
3V 3V
τ= 1− 2 = .
2A c 2A
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 21 / 48
Stress formula’s: Transverse Shear

Alternatively,

VQ 12ȳA′ 12(1/2)(bc2 ) 12bc2 V 3V 3V

τ= =V 2 3 =V 2 3
= 2 3
= = .
It 8b c 8b c 16b c 2(2bc) 2A
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 22 / 48
Stress formula’s: Transverse Shear

The maximum transverse shear occurs at the center of the cross section.
Maximum bending moment occurs at the top and bottom of a beams cross section,
where the transverse shear is zero.
The magnitude of stress at the edges is much larger than at the center. Thus we ignore
the transverse shear for failure analysis.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 23 / 48
Maximum shear stress formulas in standard beam cross sections

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 24 / 48

Combined Loading: Determine the stress at a point

The shear stress at point A: is it

transverse or torsional shear?
Determine a stress at point A.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 25 / 48

Combined loading: Example

At point H is the shear stress due to

transverse or torsional shear?
What is the stress at point H.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 26 / 48

Stress: definition

A general state of stress at a point is

shown. If you look at any stress component
the first index is the normal direction.
The normal direction is the perpendicular
direction to the plan of load application.
The second index is the direction of the
force.
A common convention is to use σ for
normal stresses and τ for shear stresses.
To write a specific stress component, in Stress is symmetric, thus σij = σji .
general, we use the index notation. The In matrix notation it has the form
first index ’i’ represents the normal  
direction. The second index ’j’ represent σxx τxy τxz
the stress direction. σ = [σ] =  τyx σyy τyz  (4)
τzx τzy σzz
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 27 / 48
Stress

Triaxial Stress: A state of stress in which all 3 normal stresses are present. If there are
no accompanying shear stresses, then this stress state is called a principal stress state.
In the case that all principal stresses are the same, the stress state is called hydrostatic
or dilatational
Plane Stress or Biaxial Stress: In this stress state there are only two normal stresses
(the third normal direction ignored). In the case of Pure shear, there are no normal
stresses just shear stresses.
Uniaxial Stress: In this stress state there is only one normal stress. If there are only
shear stresses this stress state is called Simple Shear.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 28 / 48

Plane Stress

Figure (a) shows a 2D stress state represented on a 3D volume element.

In this stress state all stresses lie in one plane, as shown in figure (b).
Once the 2D components of the stress are determined, we can rotate the coordinate axes
to get the normal and shear stresses in the body at any orientation.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 29 / 48
Eigenvectors, Eigenvalues
For an arbitrary linear transformation A.
A vector n is said to be an eigenvector of A if A transforms n into a constant value, λ,
times the vector n:

An = λn → (A − λI) · n = 0 (5)
For convenience we shall call (A − λI) = B.
If B has an inverse then B−1 (Bn) = B−1 · 0 → n = 0
If the vector n ̸= 0 then B does not have an inverse and the determinant of B is zero.
The set of numbers λ are called the eigenvalues of A.
The determinant of det(A − λI) = 0 gives a 3rd order equation whose roots are the
eigenvalues.

λ3 − IA λ2 + IIA λ − IIIA = 0 (6)

IA , IIA , and IIIA are the tensor invariants.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 30 / 48

Principal stresses: Eigenvalue, Eigenvector Analysis
Let us solve for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors with the following example,

    
3 2 1 x1 x1
2 4 0  x2  = λ x2 
1 0 −7 x3 x3
    
3−λ 2 1 x1 0
 2 4−λ 0  x2 = 0
 
1 0 −7 − λ x3 0
 
3−λ 2 1
det  2 4−λ 0  = 0
1 0 −7 − λ
λ3 − 42λ + 60 = 0
λ = 1.511, 5.592, −7.102

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 31 / 48

Principal stresses: Eigenvalue, Eigenvector Analysis
Now to find eigenvectors:
a.) First we take one of the eigenvalues and plug it into the eigenvalue problem.
b.) Two of the equations will be redundant, so we can only use two. However the third equation
we can use to set this vector to be a unit vector (by choice).
x21 + x22 + x23 = 1.
c.) Three equations, three unknowns, use algebra to solve for the unknowns.
Let’s look at the first eigenvalue,

    
3 − 1.511 2 1 x1 0
 2 4 − 1.511 0  x2 = 0
  (8)
1 0 −7 − 1.511 x3 0
Using x21 + x22 + x23 = 1 and solving the above equations:
x1 = 0.776, x2 = −0.624, x3 = 0.0912
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 32 / 48
Principal stresses: Eigenvalue, Eigenvector Analysis

Using the same analysis, the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors are

λ1 = 1.51 →(0.776, −0.624, 0.0912),

λ2 = 5.59 →(0.622, 0.781, 0.0494),
λ3 = −7.10 →(−0.102, 0.0184, 0.995).

Use software to determine eigenvalues and eigenvectors.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 33 / 48

Principal stresses, Principle planes

The principle planes n for principal stresses:

σn = P n
The quantity σn is called the traction vector.
Here the P ’s are the principal stress values, and the corresponding n’s are the normals to
the principle planes.
Each principal stress lies on a plane that carries zero shear stress.
For a general (3D) state of stress the equation det(σ − P I) = 0 yields,

P 3 − I1 P 2 + I2 P − I3 = 0, (9)
where I1 , I2 and I3 are the stress invariants

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 34 / 48

Principal stresses, Principle planes
Principal stresses and principal planes are very important for failure analysis.
Let us take the example of a cylinder subjected to purely torsional
loading.
The stress tensor becomes,
 
0 T 0
σ = T 0 0
0 0 0
The characteristic equation becomes

P 3 − T 2 P = 0 → P (P 2 − T 2 ) = 0 → P (P − T )(P + T ) = 0,

Thus the principle values become

P = 0, ±T → P1 = T, P2 = 0, P3 = −T.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 35 / 48
Principal stresses, Principle planes

The eigenvector for P1 = T is n = √1

2
(1, 1, 0). This is a unit vector, oriented at 45◦ to in
the x-y plane.

The principal stress is τ = TJc and it lies

on the principle plane, n = √12 (1, 1, 0).
As noted by the stress at c.
Accordingly the failure of this cylinder will
lie on a plane that is oriented at 45◦ to
the x-axis.

We are designing machine parts against failure. These are the stresses that become
critical in the failure theories that will be developed in the next module.
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 36 / 48
Stress Transformations
Once we know the current state of stress, we can rotate the coordinate system to obtain
the stress in new axes.
This mathematical operation gives us the stress transformation equations.

σ ′ = RσRT ,
 ′ ′ (11)
    
σxx σxy cos θ sin θ σxx σxy cos θ − sin θ
′ ′ =
σyx σyy − sin θ cos θ σyx σyy sin θ cos θ
Can be simplified to,
′ σxx + σyy (σxx − σyy )
σxx = + cos(2θ) + σxy sin(2θ),
2 2
′ σxx + σyy (σxx − σyy )
σyy = − cos(2θ) − σxy sin(2θ), (12)
2 2
′ (σxx − σyy )
σxy =− sin(2θ) + σxy cos(2θ).
2
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 37 / 48
Principal stresses, Principle planes: 2D
Principal stress: These are stress whose direction normal (perpendicular) to the plane
that carries no shear stress. The principal stress is maximized on a principle plane.
Principle Planes: These are planes, within a body, that carries no shear stress.
Using equation (12), we determine the angle to rotate to obtain a principal stress.
′
 
dσxx d σxx + σyy (σxx − σyy )
= + cos(2θ) + σxy sin(2θ) ,
dθ dθ 2 2
σxx − σyy
0 = −2 sin(2θ) + 2σxy sin(2θ), (13)
2
2σxy
tan(2θp ) = .
σxx − σyy
′ .
The angle θp is the angle of rotation to obtain a principle plane for σxx
′ is θ + π .
The principle plane for σyy p 2
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 38 / 48
Principal stresses, Principal planes
The plane for maximum shear stress can be obtained from a similar procedure,

′
dσxy
 
d (σxx − σyy )
= − sin(2θ) + σxy cos(2θ), ,
dθ dθ 2
(σxx − σyy )
0 = −2 cos(2θ) − 2σxy sin(2θ), (14)
2
(σxx − σyy )
tan(2θs ) = − .
2σxy
′ .
The angle θs is the angle of rotation to obtain a maximum shear plane for σxy
To obtain the principal stresses in terms of the known stresses, we use:
s
σxx − σyy 2

σxx − σyy 2 .
σ1,2 = ± + σxy (15)
2 2

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 39 / 48

Principal stresses

A rolled steel beam supports a load as shown (despite

the image, assume a rectangular cross section for ease of
calculation). Given:

b = 8 cm., h = 10 cm.,

determine the following:

The magnitude and location of the largest normal
and shearing stress in the beam. Are these
locations the same?
What are the principal stresses at the location of
maximum normal stress?

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 40 / 48

Example

Given load P = 75 lb, and shaft BDE has a

diameter of 3/4 in. determine the following:
The stress at location H.
The principal stresses at H.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 41 / 48

Stress formulas: Combined Loading
For a circular cross section (assuming no axial loading), the stress is given by
32M 16T
σ= 3
, τ= . (16)
πd πd3
In general, we will be designing the diameters of the different sections of a shaft.
The moment M that is used is the maximum moment. For most shafts we determine the
max moment using
q
M = My2 + Mz2 .
The general procedure is as follows:
◦ Determine the unknown reactions, followed by internal shear, moment, and torque.
◦ Use shear force and bending moment diagrams to determine the points of maximum
moment.
◦ From these critical point(s), determine the point of maximum moment, and torque,
and then determine the stress via (16).
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 42 / 48
Bending and Torsional Stress
At the point of maximum moment, determine the axial and torsional stresses.
At the point of maximum moment, determine the principal stress and the maximum shear
stress.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 43 / 48

Stress Concentrations
In the basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending and torsion, we assumed
that no geometric irregularities occurred in the member.
Experiments have shown that changes in geometry cause concentrations in stress.
These stress concentrations can arise from irregularity not inherent in the member, such
as tool marks, holes, notches, grooves, or threads,
σmax = Kt σo , τmax = Kts τo . (17)
A theoretical or geometric, stress concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to relate the
maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress.
The steps are as follows:
◦ Determine the internal loading.
◦ From the internal loading determine the stress distribution.
◦ At points where there are stress determination, determine the stress at that point
using (17).
Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 44 / 48
Stress Concentrations

For keyways we consult the chart from

table 7.1 for stress concentrations.
In general we would use tables to
determine the stress concentrations.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 45 / 48

Stress concentration factor charts

Three commonly used charts are shown below. These can be found in the appendix of your
textbook, (also they are provided on the equation sheet).

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 46 / 48

Stress Concentration

Using the shaft from the previous problem

perform an analysis of the critical points
now considering the keyways and fillets.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 47 / 48

Critical Points
Draw free body diagrams and the internal bending moment, twisting torque, normal stress and
shear stress for each section of the shafts a, b, and c.

Raj Kumar Pal Module 3: Designing for strength Fall 2025 48 / 48