ORITSESHOLAYE OLUTAYO
Chapter 11 Critical Thinking Questions
29. What is the relationship between a genome, chromosomes, and genes?
Genome
* The complete set of genetic material, made up of all the DNA in an organism.
* Contains all the instructions needed for a cell to function, grow, and reproduce.
Chromosomes
* Thread-like structures found in the cell's nucleus that package the DNA into manageable units.
* Made of a long molecule of DNA coiled around proteins.
* Each chromosome is like a chapter in the "book" of the genome, containing many genes.
* Humans typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Genes
* Specific sequences of DNA located on a chromosome.
* Each gene contains the code for a specific protein or functional RNA molecule.
* You can think of genes as the sentences within the "chapters" (chromosomes) that provide
specific instructions for a trait.
30. How can chromosomes that are thousands of times longer than a cell fit inside the nucleus?
Chromosomes fit inside the nucleus by being compacted through a multi-step process called
DNA packaging. The DNA double helix first wraps around proteins called histones to form
structures called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes are then coiled and folded into thicker
fibers, and this complex, known as chromatin, is further condensed into tightly packed
chromosomes, allowing the long DNA molecules to fit into the small nuclear space.
Process
* Histone proteins
* Nucleosomes
* Chromatin fibers This compaction allows long DNA to fit inside a small nucleus.
31. Briefly describe events in each phase of interphase.
Interphase consists of three phases: G1, in which the cell grows and synthesizes proteins; S,
during which DNA replication occurs; and G2, where the cell continues to grow and synthesizes
proteins while preparing for cell division. Each phase is crucial for ensuring the cell is ready to
divide correctly in the subsequent stages of the cell cycle.
* G1 (Gap 1): The cell grows significantly, produces proteins, and gathers the energy and
nutrients needed for replication. It also checks for DNA damage before committing to division.
* S (Synthesis): The cell's genetic material, or DNA, is replicated. Each chromosome is
duplicated, resulting in two identical sister chromatids connected at the centromere.
* G2 (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and synthesize more proteins and organelles needed
for the new cells. It checks that the DNA has been replicated correctly and is ready for the
process of mitosis.
33. Similarities and differences between cytokinesis in animal vs. plant cells.
Both animal and plant cells divide their cytoplasm during cytokinesis to form two daughter cells,
but they do so through different mechanisms due to the presence of a rigid cell wall in plants.
Animal cells divide from the outside-in using a cleavage furrow formed by a contractile ring,
while plant cells build a new cell wall from the inside-out via a cell plate, supported by a
structure called the phragmoplast.
Similarities
* Outcome: Both processes result in two genetically identical daughter cells with an equal share
of the cytoplasm and organelles.
* Timing: Cytokinesis begins in late anaphase and continues through telophase, following the
separation of the chromosomes during mitosis.
* Goal: The ultimate goal is the division of the cell's cytoplasm to complete the process of cell
division.
Differences
Feature Animal CellsPlant CellsMechanismCleavage furrow: The plasma membrane pinches
[Link] plate: A new cell wall is built between the two daughter cells.
DirectionCentripetal: Divides from the outside toward the [Link]: Divides from the
center toward the [Link] StructureContractile ring: A ring of actin and myosin filaments
that contracts to pinch the cell in two.
Phragmoplast: A structure made of microtubules that guides vesicles to form the cell
[Link] of New Membrane
The cell membrane does not require a new origin as it pinches [Link] from the Golgi
apparatus containing cell wall materials fuse to form the cell plate and new cell membrane.
36. General conditions needed at the three main cell-cycle checkpoints.
The three main cell-cycle checkpoints require the cell to meet specific conditions before
proceeding: the G1 checkpoint checks for adequate cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and DNA
integrity; the G2 checkpoint confirms that all chromosomes have been duplicated correctly and
that there is no DNA damage; and the M checkpoint verifies that all chromosomes are correctly
attached to the spindle fibers before anaphase begins.
G1 checkpoint
* Adequate cell size: The cell must be large enough to divide.
* Sufficient nutrients: There must be enough energy reserves and building materials.
* Growth factors: External signals, like growth factors, must be present to stimulate division.
* DNA integrity: The cell checks for any damage to the DNA; if damage is found, the cell cycle
can be halted for repair or entry into a quiescent state (G0).
G2 checkpoint
* Chromosome replication: All chromosomes must have been successfully and fully duplicated.
* DNA repair: Any errors or damage in the newly synthesized DNA must be repaired before
entering mitosis.
M checkpoint
* Chromosome alignment: All chromosomes must be correctly attached to the spindle fibers at
the metaphase plate.
* Spindle attachment: Each sister chromatid's kinetochore must be firmly anchored to at least
two spindle fibers originating from opposite poles of the cell.
* Correction of errors: The cycle will not proceed to anaphase until all chromosomes are
properly aligned, ensuring that sister chromatids can be accurately separated.
38. Steps necessary for Cdk to become fully active.
Steps for CDK activation
* Cyclin binding: The Cdk must bind to a cyclin protein. This initial binding alone can result in a
partially active complex, but this complex is not fully functional.
* Phosphorylation by CAK: A CDK-activating kinase (CAK) phosphorylates a specific threonine
residue (Thr-160 in human CDK2, for example) within the Cdk's activation loop (T-loop).
* This phosphorylation causes a conformational change that repositions the T-loop, allowing for
better substrate and ATP binding.
* Removal of inhibitory phosphates: Other enzymes, such as Cdc25, may need to remove
inhibitory phosphate groups that were previously added to the Cdk. This is a key step for the
activation of many CDKs.
* Complex maturation: For some CDKs, additional steps, potentially involving substrate binding,
might be necessary for the complex to become fully catalytically mature and active.
[Link] the common components of eukaryotic
cell division and binary fission.
Here are the common components shared by eukaryotic cell division (mitosis) and binary fission
(prokaryotic division):
Common Components
1 . DNA Replication
Both processes must replicate the genetic material before the cell can divide.
2 . Segregation of DNA
After replication, each daughter cell must receive an identical copy of DNA.
3 . Cell Growth
Both cells grow in size before dividing to ensure each daughter cell gets enough cytoplasm and
organelles (or macromolecules in prokaryotes).
4 . Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm divides to form two separate daughter cells.
5 . Use of Enzymes and Proteins
Both rely on proteins such as:
* DNA polymerase (for DNA replication)
* Structural proteins to help separate chromosomes/ DNA
* Cell membrane proteins to help pinch the cell during cytokinesis.
6 . Production of Genetically Identical Daughter Cells
Both result in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell (barring
mutations).