CHAPTER 3

Equivalence above word level

No book was ever turned from one language into another, without imparting something of its
native idiom; … single words may enter by thousands, and the fabrick of the tongue continue
the same, but new phraseology changes much at once; it alters not the single stones of the
building, but the order of the columns.
(Samuel Johnson, Preface to the Dictionary, 1755:xii)

much of what we say and write in our own language is both routine and predictable because of
what we and others have already said and written. Routine is not a bad thing, however. It is
what allows the creative use of language to be identified as such.
(Kenny 1998:515)

In the previous chapter, we discussed problems arising from non-equivalence at

word level and explored a number of attested strategies for dealing with such
problems. In this chapter, we will go one step further to consider what happens
when words start combining with other words to form stretches of language.
It goes without saying that words rarely occur on their own; they almost always
occur in the company of other words. But words are not strung together at random
in any language; there are always restrictions on the way they can be combined to
convey meaning. Restrictions which admit no exceptions, and particularly those
which apply to classes of words rather than individual words, are usually written
down in the form of rules. One of the rules of English, for example, is that a deter-
miner cannot come after a noun. A sequence such as beautiful girl the is therefore
inadmissible in English.1 Some restrictions are more likely to admit exceptions and
apply to individual words rather than classes of words. These cannot be expressed
in terms of rules, but they can nevertheless be identified as recurrent patterns in the
language. In the following sections, we will concentrate on this type of lexical
patterning. We will discuss, for instance, the ‘likelihood’ of certain words occurring
with other words and the naturalness or typicality of the resulting combinations. In
particular, we will address the difficulties encountered by translators as a result of
differences in the lexical patterning of the source and target languages.
Lexical patterning will be dealt with under two main headings: collocation and
idioms and fixed expressions.
52 IN OTHER WORDS

3.1 COLLOCATION

Why do builders not produce a building or authors not invent a novel, since
they do invent stories and plots? No reason as far as dictionary definitions of
words are concerned. We don’t say it because we don’t say it.
(Bolinger and Sears 1968:55)

There are virtually no impossible collocations, but some are much more likely
than others.
(Sinclair 1966:411)

When I discussed lexical meaning in Chapter 2, I made a brief reference to collo-

cation under presupposed meaning and defined it tentatively as ‘semantically
arbitrary restrictions which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of a
word’. Another way of looking at collocation would be to think of it in terms of the
tendency of certain words to co-occur regularly in a given language.
At one level, the tendency of certain words to co-occur has to do with their prop-
ositional meanings. For example, cheque is more likely to occur with bank, pay,
money and write than with moon, butter, playground or repair. As Sinclair explains
(1987a:320), ‘To some extent, the nature of the world around us is reflected in the
organization of language. … Things which occur physically together have a stronger
chance of being mentioned together’. However, meaning cannot always account for
collocational patterning. If it did, we might expect carry out, undertake or even
perform to collocate with visit. Yet, English speakers typically pay a visit, less typi-
cally make a visit and are unlikely to perform a visit. We do not speak of grilling
bread, even though we put it under the grill (Newman 1988). When butter or eggs
go bad they are described in English as rancid and addled, respectively. Both rancid
and addled mean ‘stale/rotten’, but addled butter and rancid eggs are unacceptable
or at least unlikely collocations in English (Palmer 1976). Moreover, words which we
might think of as synonyms or near-synonyms will often have quite different sets of
collocates. English speakers typically break rules but they do not break regulations;
they typically talk of wasting time but not of squandering time. Both deliver a verdict
and pronounce a verdict are acceptable collocations in English. Likewise, pronounce
a sentence is acceptable and means more or less the same as deliver/pronounce a
verdict. And yet, deliver a sentence is an unlikely collocation. Cruse gives a similar
example (1986:281). The adjectives unblemished, spotless, flawless, immaculate
and impeccable can be thought of as synonyms or near-synonyms, and yet they do
not combine freely with the same set of nouns (see Table 1).
When two words collocate, the relationship can hold between all or several of
their various forms, combined in any grammatically acceptable order. For example,
achieving aims, aims having been achieved, achievable aims and the achievement
of an aim are all equally acceptable and typical in English. On the other hand, it is
often the case that words will collocate with other words in some of their forms but
 EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL 53

Table 1 Unpredictability of collocational patterning

unblemished spotless flawless immaculate impeccable
performance - - + + +
argument - - + - ?
complexion ? ? + - -
behaviour - - - - +
kitchen - + - + -
record + + - ? +
reputation ? + - ? ?
taste - - ? ? +
order - - ? + +
credentials - - - - +
+ = common/acceptable collocation
- = unacceptable/unlikely collocation
? = questionable/may be acceptable in some idiolects

not in others. We bend rules in English but are unlikely to describe rules as
unbendable. Instead, we usually talk of rules being inflexible.
It would seem, then, that patterns of collocation are largely arbitrary and inde-
pendent of meaning. This is so both within and across languages. The same degree of
mismatch that can be observed when comparing the collocational patterns of synonyms
and near-synonyms within the same language is evident in the collocational patterning
of dictionary equivalents/near equivalents in two languages. For example, the English
verb deliver collocates with a number of nouns, for each of which Arabic uses a
different verb. The Arabic ‘dictionary equivalent’ of deliver is yusallim.

English Arabic
deliver a letter/telegram yusallimu khitaaban/tillighraafan
deliver a speech/lecture yulqi khutbatan/muhaadaratan
deliver news yanqilu akhbaaran
deliver a blow yuwajjihu darbatan
deliver a verdict yusdiru hukman
deliver a baby yuwallidu imra’atan

The last Arabic expression, yuwallidu imra’atan, literally means something like
‘deliver a woman’ or ‘assist a woman in childbirth’. In the process of childbirth,
54 IN OTHER WORDS

Arabic focuses on the woman, whereas English prefers to focus on the baby; it
would be unacceptable, under normal circumstances, to speak of delivering a
woman in Modern English. This suggests that differences in collocational patterning
among languages are not just a question of using, say, a different verb with a given
noun; they can involve totally different ways of portraying an event. Patterns of collo-
cation reflect the preferences of specific language communities for certain modes of
expression and certain linguistic configurations; they rarely reflect any inherent order
in the world around us. As Sinclair so aptly puts it, ‘there are many ways of saying
things, many choices within language that have little or nothing to do with the world
outside’ (1987a:320). This is not to say that collocations do not often reflect the
cultural setting in which they are embedded. Some collocations are in fact a direct
reflection of the material, social or moral environment in which they occur. This
explains why bread collocates with butter in English but not in Arabic. Buy a house
is a frequent collocation in English, but in German it is rare because the practice of
house-buying is very different in the two cultures (Alexander 1987). Law and order
is a common collocation in English; in Arabic a more typical collocation would be
al-qanuun wa altaqaalid (‘law and convention/tradition’). The English collocation
reflects the high value that English speakers place on order and the Arabic collo-
cation reflects the high respect accorded by Arabs to the concept of tradition.

3.1.1 Collocational range and collocational markedness

Every word in a language can be said to have a range of items with which it is
compatible, to a greater or lesser degree. Range here refers to the set of collo-
cates, that is other words, which are typically associated with the word in question.
Some words have a much broader collocational range than others. The English verb
shrug, for instance, has a rather limited collocational range. It typically occurs with
shoulders and does not have a particularly strong link with any other word in the
language. Run, by contrast, has a vast collocational range, some of its typical collo-
cates being company, business, show, car, stockings, tights, nose, wild, debt, bill,
river, course, water and colour, among others.
Two main factors can influence the collocational range of an item (Beekman and
Callow 1974). The first is its level of specificity: the more general a word, the
broader its collocational range; the more specific, the more restricted its colloca-
tional range. The verb bury is likely to have a much broader collocational range than
any of its hyponyms, such as inter or entomb. Only people can be interred, but you
can bury people, a treasure, your head, face, feelings and memories. The second
factor which determines the collocational range of an item is the number of senses
it has. Most words have several senses and tend to attract a different set of collo-
cates for each sense. For example, in its sense of ‘manage’, the verb run collocates
with words like company, institution and business. In its sense of ‘operate or
provide’, it collocates with words like service and course. It is, of course, perfectly
reasonable to argue that the opposite is also true, that it is the collocational patterning
of a word that determines its different senses (see 3.1.3 below). Either way, it is
 EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL 55

clear that there is a strong relationship between the number of senses a word has
and its collocational range.
It will be obvious from our discussion of collocation so far that, unlike gram-
matical statements, statements about collocation are made in terms of what is
typical or untypical rather than what is admissible or inadmissible. This means that
there is no such thing as an impossible collocation. New and unusual combinations
of words occur frequently and we do not necessarily dismiss them as unacceptable.
The reason for this is that collocational ranges are not fixed. Words attract new
collocates all the time; they do so naturally, through processes of analogy, or
because speakers create unusual collocations on purpose. But how does this work
in practice and what do unusual patterns of collocation achieve?
Patterns of collocation which have a history of recurrence in the language
become part of our standard linguistic repertoire and we do not stop to think about
them when we encounter them in text. By contrast, collocations which have little or
no history of recurrence catch our attention and strike us as unusual. In wording his
or her message, a speaker or writer has two broad options. He or she can reinforce
the patterns of collocation which already exist in the language by adhering to them:

Herman J. Mankiewicz had been a fine screenwriter … , a compulsive

gambler, a famous drunk, a slashing wit, and a man who was almost fero-
ciously accident prone.
(Shirley MacLaine, You Can Get There From Here, 1975:66–67; my
emphasis)

Alternatively, a speaker or writer can create variations on an existing pattern by, for
instance, extending the range of an item:

I first met Hugh Fraser in 1977. Charming, rather hesitant, a heavy smoker
and heavy gambler, he had made such headway through his fortune that he
had decided to sell his last major asset, the controlling shares in the business
which his father had built up and named Scottish and Universal Investments.
(Lonrho, A Hero from Zero:1; my emphasis)

The difference between compulsive gambler and heavy gambler is that the first is a
common collocation in English, whereas the second represents an attempt to
extend the range of heavy to include heavy gambler, by analogy with heavy smoker
and heavy drinker. The collocation heavy gambler does not strike us as particularly
unusual because it only involves a slight extension of an existing range. This kind of
natural extension of a range is far less striking than marked collocations which
involve deliberate confusion of collocational ranges to create new images – a
marked collocation being an unusual combination of words, one that challenges our
expectations as hearers or readers.2 Marked collocations are often used in fiction,
poetry, humour, news reporting and advertisements precisely for this reason:
56 IN OTHER WORDS

because they can create unusual images, produce laughter or irony, and catch the
reader’s attention. Moon (1998:161) offers a good example from the Bank of
English corpus:

President Clinton fanned the flames of optimism in Northern Ireland.

The expression ‘to fan the flames’ is normally associated with very negative collo-
cates such as ‘racial tension’ and ‘hatred’. As Louw (2000) explains, what we
understand from this line is that the author is ironically suggesting that the peace
process in Northern Ireland is ‘almost as aggressive as the war it is designed to end’.
See also the discussion of semantic prosodies in Chapter 7, section 7.3.1.
The following example of marked collocation is from John Le Carré’s The
Russia House (1989:102; my emphasis):

Some tout at the book fair wanted me to take UK rights in a book on glasnost
and the crisis of peace. Essays by past and present hawks, reappraisals of
strategy. Could real peace break out after all?

War normally breaks out, but peace prevails. These unmarked collocations suggest
that war is a temporary and undesirable situation and that peace is a normal and
desirable one. The deliberate mixing of collocational ranges in the above extract
conveys the unexpected image of peace being an abnormal, temporary and possibly
even an undesirable situation.
To sum up, we create new collocations all the time, either by extending an
existing range or by deliberately putting together words from different or opposing
ranges. As well as being reinforced, the established patterns in a language can
therefore be used as a backdrop against which new images and new meanings can
be invoked. New collocations often catch on, are reinforced by usage and eventually
become part of the standard repertoire of the language. In turn, they can be used as
a backdrop for communicating new meanings by creating new collocations, and so
the cycle continues.

3.1.2 Collocation and register

Collocational patterns are not always typical/untypical in relation to the language
system as a whole. You may have noted that all the examples used so far have been
of common, everyday collocations which are more or less familiar to all of us,
regardless of our occupations, special interests or hobbies. Some collocations may
seem untypical in everyday language but are common in specific registers. Sinclair
(1966) explains that dull highlights and vigorous depressions may sound odd in
everyday English but are common collocations in the fields of photography and
meteorology, respectively. In statistics, collocations such as biased error and
tolerable error are common and acceptable. A reader who is not familiar with the
register of statistics may wrongly assume that these collocations are marked.
 EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL 57

However, collocational markedness is not an absolute quality; it always depends on

what the norm is in a given register.
Register-specific collocations are not simply the set of terms that go with a disci-
pline. They extend far beyond the list of terms that one normally finds in specialized
dictionaries and glossaries. It is not enough, for instance, to know that data in
computer language forms part of compound terms such as data processing and
data bank and to become familiar with the dictionary equivalents of such terms in the
target language. In order to translate computer literature, a translator must, among
other things, be aware that in English computer texts, data may be handled,
extracted, processed, manipulated and retrieved, but not typically shifted, treated,
arranged or tackled. A translator of computer literature must also be familiar with the
way in which the equivalent of data is used in his or her corresponding target texts,
that is, with the set of collocates which are compatible with the equivalent of data.
Being a native speaker of a language does not automatically mean that the trans-
lator can assess the acceptability or typicality of register-specific collocations. This is
largely why courses in specialized and technical language form an important
component of translation training syllabuses.

3.1.3 Collocational meaning

In Chapter 2, meaning was discussed almost as if it was a property that each word
possesses in its own right. It is, however, disputable whether a word on its own can
‘mean’ anything. What we do when we are asked to give an account of the meaning
of a word in isolation is to contextualize it in its most typical collocations rather than
its rarer ones. Asked to explain what dry means, we are likely to think of collocations
such as dry clothes, dry river and dry weather, which would prompt the definition
‘free from water’. As we move away from the most common collocations of dry, it
becomes clear that the meaning of dry depends largely on its pattern of collocation
and is not something that the word possesses in isolation.
Try paraphrasing the meaning of dry in each of the following combinations:

dry cow dry sound dry book

dry bread dry voice dry humour
dry wine dry country dry run

Most, if not all of the above collocations have unique meanings. This suggests that
what a word means often depends on its association with certain collocates. When
the translation of a word or a stretch of language is criticized as being inaccurate or
inappropriate in a given context, the criticism may refer to the translator’s inability to
recognize a collocational pattern with a unique meaning different from or exceeding
the sum of the meanings of its individual elements. As Hunston and Francis explain,
even in the case of a straightforward collocation such as start a family, where both
start and family retain their basic dictionary meaning as isolated words, ‘the meaning
58 IN OTHER WORDS

of the whole … includes also a further meaning: “have one’s first child”’ (2000:9).
Collocations that involve one or both items being used in other than their discrete
dictionary meaning raise similar issues. A translator who renders dry voice for
instance as ‘a voice which is not moist’ would be mistranslating dry in this context,
having failed to recognize that when it collocates with voice it means ‘cold’, in the
sense of not expressing emotion. Likewise, a translator who renders run a car as
‘drive a car fast’ would be misinterpreting run in this context. Taking account of
collocational meaning rather than substituting individual words with their dictionary
equivalents is therefore crucial at the first stage of translation, that is when the trans-
lator is interpreting the source text.
Note that even when there appears to be a close match between collocational
patterns in two languages, they may not carry the same meaning. For example, to
run a car in English means ‘to own, use, and be able to maintain a car financially’. In
modern Greek, to speak of a car ‘running’ simply means that it is being driven fast or
with excessive speed.

3.1.4 Some collocation-related pitfalls and problems in

translation
Differences in the collocational patterning of the source and target languages create
potential pitfalls and can pose various problems in translation. Some of these
problems are more difficult to handle than others. The following are some of the
more common pitfalls and problems that are often encountered in translating non-
literary texts. Where applicable, examples are given of strategies used by profes-
sional translators to overcome the problems under discussion. The English collocation
which poses a translation problem is underlined. The collocation or expression which
substitutes it in the target text is highlighted in bold.

[Link] The engrossing effect of source text patterning

It is easy to assume that as long as a collocation can be found in the target
language which conveys the same or a similar meaning to that of the source collo-
cation, the translator will not be confused by differences in the surface patterning
between the two. For example, strong tea is literally ‘dense tea’ in Japanese;
break the law is an unacceptable collocation in Arabic, the common collocation
being, literally, ‘contradict the law’; likewise, keep a dog/cat is unacceptable in
Danish, where the usual expression is ‘hold a dog/cat’. A Japanese, Arabic or
Danish translator, one might assume, would not hesitate to make the necessary
adjustment since, to all intents and purposes, the English/Japanese, English/
Arabic and English/Danish collocations have the same meanings, respectively.
There are, nevertheless, many published translations which testify to the contrary.
Translators sometimes get quite engrossed in the source text and may produce
the oddest collocations in the target language for no justifiable reason. Here is an
example from A Hero from Zero (p. iv).
 Understanding
Collocations
COLLOC and Their
Impact on
ATION Translation
Choices
IN
TRANSL
ATION Name/Date
OBJECTIVE

INTRODUCE THE EXPLAIN ITS EXPLORE HOW

CONCEPT OF IMPORTANCE. COLLOCATIONS
COLLOCATION IN IMPACT TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION. CHOICES.
 Defnition Collocation
refers to words that often
appear together, forming
natural expressions. INTRODU
CTION TO
COLLOCA
Example 'Make a TION
decision' vs. 'Do a
decision.'
 IMPORT
Ensures
Translators must
be aware of ANCE
translations
sound natural.
common word
combinations in
both source and
OF
target languages.
COLLOC
ATION
 COLLOC
ATION
Collocation as a
lexical relation.
IN
Goes beyond
MONA
grammar to
accepted word BAKER’
S IN
combinations in a
language
community.
OTHER
WORDS
NON-EQUIVALENCE IN
COLLOCATIONS

Translators
Example
face
'Strong tea' in
challenges due
English vs.
to diferent
'Heavy tea' in
collocational
Arabic.
norms.
Literal
Translation
Produces
unnatural
COMMON
expressions. COLLOCA
TIONAL
Example PROBLEM
'Powerful car' vs. S
'Fast car.'
FREQUENCY
DIFFERENCES

SOME COLLOCATIONS ARE TRANSLATORS MUST

COMMON IN ONE ADAPT FOR NATURAL
LANGUAGE BUT RARE IN USAGE.
ANOTHER.
CULTURE-SPECIFIC
COLLOCATIONS

Some phrases depend on cultural

norms.

Example 'Take a shower' in English

might need cultural adjustment in
other languages.
STRATEGIES FOR
TRANSLATING COLLOCATIONS

Natural Equivalents Seek

idiomatic phrases in the target
language.

Example 'Make a decision' may

become 'Take a decision' in British
English.
 When no
direct
translation
exists,
paraphrasing
PARAPHRASI
can help,
though it may NG
lose idiomatic
expression.
 USING
NEUTRAL/G
ENERAL
A FALLBACK IT MAY RESULT IN TERMS
STRATEGY WHEN LOSS OF
OTHER METHODS EXPRESSIVENESS.
FAIL.
COMPEN Introducing idiomatic expressions
elsewhere in the text to maintain
SATION natural fow.
EXAMPL
ES
ENGLIS English Commit suicide
H VS. Arabic Uses a diferent phrasing,
'kill oneself.'
ARABIC
COLLOC
ATION
EXAMPLES FRENCH VS.
ENGLISH COLLOCATION

French Prendre un café (literally

take a cofee)

English Have a cofee.

EXERCISES FOR
STUDENTS IDENTIFY
COLLOCATIONS
Examples for identifcation
'She made a cake.'
'He gave a speech.'
EXERCISES
TRANSLATION
PRACTICE
Translate 'heavy rain' from
English to another language.
Discuss challenges faced.
EXERCISES
COMPARE
TRANSLATIONS
Present two translations of the
same text.
Analyze how collocations were
handled and discuss which
sounds more natural.
CONCLUSION

Translators need to be
sensitive to collocations to
ensure naturalness.
Good translation balances
meaning with fuency in
the target language.
FURTHER
READING
Mona Baker In Other Words
(Chapter on Collocation).
Encourage deeper exploration of
the topic.
Exercise 1: Fill in the Blanks with Appropriate Collocations ###

She has a great deal of _______ (passion, passion for, passionate about) .1
.her work

He made a _______ (big decision, large decision, great decision) to move .2

.abroad

The project was _______ (facing difficulties, facing difficult, faced .3

.difficulties) due to lack of funding

They always find ways to _______ (overcome challenges, overcome the .4

.challenge, overcome challenging) in their work

.The novel was well _______ (received well, well received, received good) .5

Exercise 2: Match the Collocations with Their Meaning

A. A piece of cake

B. Break the news

C. Hit the books

D. Go the extra mile

E. Keep in touch

.A phrase meaning to study hard .1

.To inform someone about something significant .2

.To maintain communication with someone .3

.To make an extra effort to achieve something .4

.Something that is very easy to do .5

Exercise 3: Choose the Correct Collocations

.Select the correct word from the options provided to complete each sentence

They were _______ (caught, taken, trapped) off guard by the .1

.announcement

The team needs to _______ (make, do, create) a commitment to work .2

.together

.It’s essential to _______ (address, tackle, hit) the issue promptly .3

.She has a _______ (strong, big, heavy) interest in environmental issues .4

.The meeting was _______ (held, conducted, made) yesterday .5

Grammatical equivalence

In translation studies, Mona Baker's concept of "grammatical equivalence" refers to

the relationship between the grammatical structures of the source and target
languages and how these structures influence the translation process. It is a key
topic in her seminal work, In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation, where she
outlines the challenges and strategies translators encounter when dealing with
.grammatical differences

Key Aspects of Grammatical Equivalence

:Word Order and Syntax .1

Different languages have distinct rules for word order (e.g., Subject-Verb-Object -
.in English vs. Subject-Object-Verb in Japanese)

Translators must adjust the syntax to conform to the grammatical norms of the -
.target language without losing the meaning

:Tense and Aspect .2

Languages vary in how they express time and the progression of actions. For -
example, English distinguishes between "I have eaten" (present perfect) and "I ate"
.(simple past), while some languages may not

A translator must account for these differences, often through rephrasing or -

.adding context

:Gender and Number .3

Some languages, like French and Arabic, require gendered nouns and adjectives, -
.while others, like English, do not

Translators must recognize and accommodate these features when translating -

.between such languages

:Voice (Active vs. Passive) .4

The preference for active or passive constructions varies between languages. -

English frequently uses both forms, while other languages may favor one over the
.other

:Case and Agreement .5

Grammatical features like case (e.g., nominative, accusative) and agreement -

.(e.g., subject-verb agreement) differ among languages

For instance, Russian employs a case system that English lacks, requiring a -
.translator to reorganize the sentence while maintaining meaning
:Ellipsis and Sentence Complexity .6

Some languages allow for greater ellipsis (leaving words out when they are -
.understood), while others require explicit terms

Sentence length and complexity may need adjustments to align with the -
.grammatical norms of the target language

Challenges and Solutions in Grammatical Equivalence

Untranslatability: When grammatical structures in the source language have no -

direct equivalent in the target language, translators may use techniques such as
.paraphrasing, explicitation, or compensation

Maintaining Meaning: While adapting grammar, the translator must preserve the -
.intended meaning, tone, and style of the original text

Cultural Considerations: Grammar sometimes carries cultural implications (e.g., -

.formality or politeness levels) that must be respected in translation

Significance in Translation Studies

Baker’s exploration of grammatical equivalence highlights how linguistic and

grammatical differences are not just technical challenges but also cultural and
stylistic ones. Her work helps translators navigate these complexities to produce
.translations that are both accurate and culturally resonant

grammatical equivalence in Mona Baker's In Other Words, with practical examples to

clarify key points:

Certainly! Here's a more detailed explanation of grammatical equivalence in Mona

:Baker's In Other Words, with practical examples to clarify key points

Word Order and Syntax .1

Different languages have unique rules for arranging words in a sentence, which can
.affect meaning and emphasis in translation

:Example -

".English: "She reads the book every night

"。Japanese: "彼女は毎晩その本を読みます**

)".Literal: "She every night the book reads(

In Japanese, the word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while English follows -
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO). Translators must rearrange the syntax for naturalness in
.the target language

Tense and Aspect .2

.Languages differ in how they express time and the completion of actions

:Example -

English: "I have been waiting for an hour." (Present perfect continuous)

".‫ "أنا أنتظر منذ ساعة‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "I am waiting since an hour(

Arabic lacks a direct equivalent of the present perfect continuous tense. The -
translator must adapt the sentence to fit Arabic grammar while retaining the
.meaning

Gender and Number .3

Some languages assign grammatical gender to nouns and adjectives, which can
.influence translation

:Example -

".English: "The teacher is intelligent

English does not indicate gender in nouns or adjectives, whereas French does. -
The translator must be mindful of this distinction when translating between these
.languages

Voice (Active vs. Passive) .4

.The use of active or passive voice varies across languages

:Example -

".English (Passive"The cake was eaten by the child**

".‫ "أكل الطفل الكعكة‬:Arabic (Active)

)".Literal: "The child ate the cake(

Arabic prefers active constructions, so a passive English sentence might be -

translated into an active one for naturalness
Case and Agreement .5

Case systems and agreement rules can pose challenges, especially when the source
.language uses features not present in the target language

:Example -

".German: "Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch

)".Literal: "The book lies on the table(

German uses case (e.g., nominative "das Buch" and dative "dem Tisch") to show -
grammatical relationships. English relies on prepositions and word order, requiring
.careful adjustment

Ellipsis .6

Languages vary in how much they allow the omission of elements understood from
.context

:Example -

English: "Who is coming to the party?

"Spanish: "¿Quién viene a la fiesta

Literal: "Who comes to the party(

Spanish omits auxiliary verbs like "is" in such questions, requiring the translator to -
.understand and match grammatical norms

Sentence Complexity: Long and complex sentences in one language may need .7
.to be broken into simpler ones in another

:Example -

English: "The man who was wearing a red shirt and standing near the tree is my
".friend

)".Literal: "The man wearing a red shirt standing by the tree is my friend(

Chinese condenses relative clauses into a single phrase, often omitting words that -
are implied
Strategies to Overcome Grammatical Challenges

Paraphrasing: Rewriting the sentence in a way that fits the target language .1
.grammar

Example: Translating "He broke the vase" (active voice) into a language that -
".favors passive as "The vase was broken by him

Compensation: Adding or modifying other elements in the text to convey .2

Meaning lost due to grammatical constraints

Example: If a tense distinction is lost, the translator might include a time phrase -
".like "earlier today

Explicitation: Making implicit elements explicit to conform to the grammar of the .3

.target language

Example: Adding "he said" to clarify speech in languages that lack quotation -
.marks

These examples illustrate how grammatical equivalence goes beyond direct word-for-
word substitution, requiring careful adaptation to maintain both meaning and
naturalness.

Examples of grammatical equivalence challenges and solutions in English-Arabic

:translation, focusing on different grammatical features

Word Order and Syntax .1

Arabic often uses Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) order, while English uses Subject-Verb-
Object (SVO)

:Example -

".English: "The teacher explained the lesson to the students

".‫ "شرح المعلم ال درس للطالب‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "Explained the teacher the lesson to the students(

Solution: The translator adapts the word order to align with the target language -
.norms
Tense and Aspect .2

Arabic has fewer verb tenses compared to English. For example, English differentiates
between "I ate" (simple past) and "I have eaten" (present perfect), while Arabic often
.uses the simple past for both

:Example -

".English**: "I have finished my homework**

".‫ "أنهيت واجبي‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "I finished my homework(

.Solution: Context or additional phrasing can clarify the aspect if necessary -

Gender and Number .3

Arabic requires agreement in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular,

.dual, plural), while English is more neutral

:Example -

".English: "The student is intelligent

".‫ " الطالب ذكي‬:Arabic (masculine)

".‫ "الطالبة ذكية‬:Arabic (feminine)

Challenge: Translators must determine the correct gender and number based on -
.context, which may not always be explicit in English

Voice (Active vs. Passive) .4

Arabic uses the passive voice less frequently than English, often replacing it with
.active constructions

:Example -

".English: "The letter was written by Ahmed

".‫ "كتب أحمد الرسالة‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "Ahmed wrote the letter(

Solution: The translator prioritizes naturalness in Arabic, rephrasing the sentence

.actively
5-Case and Agreement .5

Arabic has a case system (e.g., nominative, accusative, genitive), which is absent in
.English. It also requires verbs, nouns, and adjectives to agree in number and gender

:Example -

".English: "The two boys are diligent

".‫ "الولدان مجتهدان‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "The two boys [dual form] diligent [dual form](

Challenge: Translators must ensure all elements in Arabic match in case, gender,
.and number

Ellipsis .6

English tends to be more explicit than Arabic. Arabic often omits words that can be
.understood from context

:Example -

".English: "I know that he is coming

".‫ "أعلم أنه قادم‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "I know that coming(

.Solution: Maintain ellipsis where natural in Arabic but ensure clarity -

Cultural and Grammatical Idiomaticity .7

English phrasal verbs or idiomatic expressions may not have a direct Arabic
.equivalent

:Example -

".English: "He broke the news to his family

".‫ "أخ بر عائلته باألخبار‬:Arabic

)".Literal: "He told his family the news(

Challenge: Arabic avoids verb-object idioms like "broke the news." Translators -
.adapt to standard Arabic expressions

Sentence Complexity .8
 Arabic prefers coordination (using "and") over English's frequent use of
.subordination

:Example

".English: "He went to the store because he wanted to buy some milk**

".‫ "ذهب إلى المتجر وأراد أن يشتري الحليب‬Arabic:

)".Literal: "He went to the store and wanted to buy milk(

.Solution: Simplify or split clauses to match Arabic norms -

EX

The grammatical equivalence challenges :

Exercise Sentence in Translate to Comment

English Arabic
1- Passive vs. Active Voice The house was ‫بُنِي المنزل عام‬ Arabic allows
built in 1990 1990 the passive
voice but
often prefers
active when
natural
The book was ‫كتب الكتاب مؤلف‬ Shifted to
written by a ‫مشهور‬ active voice to
famous author align with
Arabic stylistic
norms
A decision was ‫اتخذت اللجنة‬ Active voice
made by the ‫قرارا‬
ً used for
committee better fluency
in Arabic
Articles I saw a bird in the ‫طائرا في‬
ً ‫رأيت‬ Arabic conveys
2- sky ‫السماء‬ indefiniteness
with tanween
The teacher ‫| شرح المعلم‬ Definite
explained the ‫الدرس‬ articles ("the")
lesson are
represented
by "‫ "ال‬in
Arabic
She bought an ‫اشترت تفاحة من‬ Indefiniteness
apple from the ‫السوق‬ marked by
market tanween in
".‫"تفاحة‬
3- Gendered Nouns and The doctor said ‫قال الطبيب إنه‬ Arabic
Pronouns they will come ‫ قالت‬/ .‫سيأتي غدًا‬ pronouns and
tomorrow ‫الطبيبة إنها ستأتي‬ verbs reflect
‫غدًا‬ gender, unlike
English
 The student .‫نسي الطالب كتابه‬ Gender-
forgot their book ‫ نسيت الطالبة‬/ specific forms
‫كتابها‬ for "student"
and "their
book
The teacher gave ‫أعطى المعلم‬ Pronouns and
her advice ‫نصيحتها‬ possessives
reflect both
gender and
grammatical
role
5- Tense and Aspect I have finished my ‫أنهيت واجبي‬ Arabic lacks a
homework direct equivalent
for the perfect
aspect ("have
finished") .
She is studying ‫هي تدرس اللغة‬ Arabic uses
English ‫اإلنجليزية‬ context or
auxiliary words
like "‫ "تدرس‬to
show ongoing
actions
They will travel next ‫سيسافرون األسبوع‬ Future tense
week ‫القادم‬ marked by "‫ "سـ‬in
Arabic
Plurality There are books on ‫توجد كتب على‬ Plural forms like
the table ‫الطاولة‬ "‫"كتب‬are
explicitly marked
in Arabic
The children are ‫األطفال يلعبون في‬ Plural forms are
playing outside ‫الخارج‬ integral to Arabic
grammar and
vocabulary
The teacher greeted ‫حيّا المعلم الطالب‬ "‫"الطالب‬explicitly
the students marks the plural
Word Order The girl ate the apple ‫أكلت الفتاة التفاحة‬ Arabic typically
uses VSO (Verb-
Subject-Object)
word order
The dog chased the ‫طارد الكلب القطة‬ Word order
cat reflects
traditional Arabic
syntax
The boy helped his ‫ساعد الولد والده‬ The verb-first
father structure is
common in
Arabic sentences
 Textual Equivalence in
Translatin - With Tables
Key Insights frim Mina Baker's
 Defnitin if Textual Equivalence
• Textual equivalence ensures that a translated
text aligns with the siurce text in terms if
cihesiin and ciherence. It ficuses in hiw
the text iperates as a while within its cultural
and linguistc cintext.
Key Aspects if Textual Equivalence
• 1. Cihesiin: Explicit markers like priniuns
and cinjunctins that link text parts tigether.
• 2. Ciherence: Ligical irganizatin if ideas fir
the reader’s interpretatin if meaning.
• 3. Marking if Themes and Rhemes: Adjustng
infirmatin fiw ti ft TL nirms.
• 4. Cultural and Cintextual Implicatins:
Adaptng expressiins, idiims, and metaphirs.
 Example 1: Cihesiin
• Siurce Text: 'The sun was setng. She grabbed
her ciat. It was giing ti be a cild evening.'
• Explanatin: Ligical sequence if events helps
the reader infer meaning.
• Translatin (Arabic):‫رب أمممسكت‬
. ‫تممم‬
‫شمس غم‬ ‫كانمت الم‬
‫بمممدًا‬
‫مساءم ار‬
‫يكون الم‬
‫ سمم‬.‫معطفهما‬
‫ بممم‬.
 Example 2: Cultural Adaptatin
• Siurce Text: 'It's raining cats and digs.'
• Explanatin: This idiim means heavy rain in
English but needs adaptatin fir cultural
relevance.
• Translatin (Arabic): ‫زارة‬ ‫بممم‬
‫مطر غم‬‫( تممم‬It's
raining heavily).
 Challenges in Textual Equivalence
• 1. Structural Diferences: Balancing
faithfulness ti the siurce text and naturalness
in the target language.
• 2. Audience Expectatins: Understanding
readers’ familiarity with specifc genres ir
styles.
• 3. Genre-Specifc eatures: Tailiring cihesiin
and ciherence ti the text type.
 Practcal Strategies fir Translatirs
• 1. Analyze the Siurce Text: Understand its
cihesiin and ciherence.
• 2. Adapt ti Target Language Nirms: Midify
structures and wird chiices fir the TL.
• 3. Cinsider the Target Audience: Ensure
cultural and cintextual relevance.
• 4. Use Parallel Texts: Match genre cinventins
by studying similar texts in the TL.
 Cinclusiin
• Textual equivalence invilves creatng a
translatin that functins efectvely and
naturally within the target language. It
requires balancing linguistc features with
cultural and cintextual expectatins.
 Cihesiin and Ciherence
Aspect Source Text Example Translaton and
Explanaton
Cihesiin The sun was setng. Ligical links cinnect
She grabbed her ciat. ideas. In Arabic:
‫ أمسكت‬.‫كانت الشمس تغرب‬
‫بمعطفها‬.
Ciherence He lef early because if Cintext-based
the weather. inference in Arabic:
‫مبكرا بسبب سوء‬
ً ‫غادر‬
‫الحوال الجوية‬.
Cultural Nirms Breakfast is the mist Adjust fir cultural
impirtant meal if the diferences:
day. ‫الفطار هو الوجبة الكثر أهمية‬
‫بالنسبة لبعض الثقافات‬.
Idiims and Cultural Metaphirs
Aspect Source Text Example Translaton and
Explanaton
Idiimatc Expressiin It's raining cats and In Arabic:
digs. ‫تمطر بغزارة‬.
Literal translatin wiuld
cinfuse the audience.
Cultural Metaphir He kicked the bucket. In Arabic:
‫انتقل إلى رحمة الله‬.
Adaptatin aviids literal
misunderstanding.
Tine Adaptatin Break a leg! In Arabic:
‫!بالتوفيق‬
Maintains pisitve tine
while adaptng
culturally.