DNA: the code of life

Cells that have organelles which are bound by

membranes are known as eukaryotic cells
Before these cells undergo mitosis and meiosis an
identical copy of all the DNA within the
chromosomes is made
This process is known as DNA replication and is
controlled by enzymes within the cell
Location of DNA in a cell

Nucleus : referred to as nucleur DNA

Mitochondria: mitochondrial DNA of mtDNA
Chloroplasts: chloroplastic DNA – only in plant cells

Mitochondrial and chloroplastic DNA is referred to as extra-nuclear DNA as they

are found outside the nucleus
The nucleus of the cell controls the metabolic activities of the cell
It also provides a mechanism for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from
parent to offspring
Since DNA is found within the nucleus, it is important that the structure and function
of the various parts of the nucleus are known, before one can understand the
structure of DNA and how proteins are synthesised
Location of DNA in the chromosome
Nuclear DNA is found tightly intertwined forming the major part of chromosomes.
In non-dividing cells, chromosomes are not visible, but appear as a mass of tangled threads
known as the chromatin network.
Only when a cell starts dividing, does the chromatin network shorten, to become visible as
chromosomes.
A chromosome consists of lengths of DNA which has specific genes (that code for proteins),
interspersed with non-coding DNA.
Histones are small proteins that help wrap and condense the DNA
 Two English biophysicists, Maurice Wilkins and
Rosalind Franklin, studied the structure of DNA using
X-rays.
History of They realized that if DNA could be extracted and
the discovery made into a concentrated viscous solution, it could
be separated into fibres that, under the right
of the DNA conditions were like crystals through which an X-ray
beam could be passed to produce an X-ray pattern
molecule on a protographic film. Franklin’s photo of DNA,
which was later named photo 51 showed the three
dimensional structure of DNA indicating that DNA
was helical in nature and had a regular shape
In the early 1950’s Dr James Watson and Francis Crick worked on producing a model
of DNA
Watson and Crick realized that the two strands were made up of sugar and
phosphate, that the bases between the strands were paired, and also that the
molecule was coiled structure, hence leading to the term double helix when
describing the DNA molecule
Watson and Crick, together with Wilkins in 1962 received the Nobel prize for
discovering the structure of DNA
Franklin’s died of cancer and did not receive the award
 Deoxyribonucleic acid is made up of smaller units
Structure of (monomers) called nucleotides
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
DNA
 A phosphate ion (P)

A nucleotide
consists of A deoxyribose sugar (S)

three parts
A nitrogen base
 Adenine which pairs with Thymine

There are Guanine which pairs with Cytosine

four The base pairs are held together by weak hydrogen bonds.

nitrogen There are two hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine
and three hydrogen bonds between guanine and cytosine

bases: The ladder like DNA molecule twists so that one strand coils
around the other to form a double helix

The double helix further coiled around bead-like proteins

called histones
 Controls the functioning of the cell
Function of Controls protein synthesis and hence, the formation
DNA in the of proteins, hormones and enzymes

nucleus Stores hereditary information and transmits this

information from one generation to the next
DNA is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.
These characteristics, like eye colour, tallness, are located in short segments of DNA called
genes
A gene is made up of at least 150 nucleotides in a specific sequence
One gene is only a small part of a chromosome that is made up of hundreds of other genes
The other function of DNA is to control protein synthesis
Proteins consist of long chains of amino acids and the sequence of amino acids is unique to
each protein.
The parts of DNA that code for the formation of proteins are called exons while the sections
that do not code for the formation of proteins are known as introns
 Non-coding DNA sequences are components of an
organism’s DNA that do not encode protein
sequences
Non-coding Some non-coding DNA is transcribed into functional
non-coding RNA molecules
DNA The amount of non-coding DNA caries greatly among
(Introns) species
A large proportion of non-coding DNA with no known
biological functions has been referred to as “junk
DNA
 DNA replication occurs during interphase of the cell
DNA cycle and involves the making of an identical copy of
DNA
replication The process occurs within the nucleus before mitosis
and meiosis and is controlled by enzymes
 - The DNA- double helix molecule unwinds within the nucleus

- Weak hydrogen bonds between the two strands break/ the

molecule unzips

- Each strand serves as a template to form a new strand

Process of - Free DNA nucleotides attach to the individual strands - with

complementary
replication nitrogenous bases pairing (A to T and C to G)

- Two genetically identical DNA molecules are formed

- Process is controlled by enzymes

 Mitosis is a process whereby one cell (mother cell)
gives rise to two cells (daughter cells) with the
identical genetic make-up as the original cell.
This is possible due to a process called DNA
replication, where an identical copy of DNA material
The cell cycle is made just before the cell starts to divide
Once DNA replication has occurred, each
chromosome appears as two chromatids, which are
held together by a centromere.
Mitosis takes place in the body cells (somatic cells) of
both plants and animals
DNA replication takes place in the nucleus of a somatic cell during interphase of the
cell cycle
 DNA replication ensures that the daughter cells in
mitosis will have the identical genetic make-up as the
Significance parent cell
DNA replication before mitosis ensures that the
of DNA chromosome number in each daughter cell is the
replication same as the number in the parent cell
DNA replication ensures genetic properties are
transmitted from one generation to the next
 Biological tissue such as blood, hair with its root, semen
can be collected and the DNA profile of that person to
whom the biological tissue belongs is established
Each pattern obtained is unique to an individual and is
known as their DNA profile.
With the exception of identical twins, the probability of
two people having the same DNA profile is very rare.
DNA profiling This is why DNA profiling became such a popular method
for determining guilty from the innocent.
However this method may not always be accepted in
court since there is no uniform method or standard for
taking the profile
DNA can also be planted at the crime scene to frame a
person
 To identify crime suspects in forensic
investigations
As proof of paternity
Uses of To determine the probability and/or causes of
DNA genetic defects
Tracing missing persons
profiling Identifying dead bodies
To establish the compatibility of tissue types for
organ transplants
Advantages Disadvantages
Criminal cases Expensive process
Identify individuals Subject to human error
Identify human remains Used to frame innocent people
Paternity tests Not everybody’s DNA is profiled
Diagnosis of genetic disorders Profiling an innocent person’s DNA may infringe on the
individual’s rights
Organ transplants

Advantages and disadvantages of DNA

profiling
 All the nuclear DNA in a cell of an organisms is said
to make up its genome
DNA Every organism has its own unique genome with a
sequences complete set present in every cell
and the The DNA sequence of an organism refers to the
particular sequence in which the nucleotides are
relationship arranged in the DNA molecule
between Determining the DNA sequence of an individual is a
long and expensive procedure
organisms The DNA sequence of only a few species has been
determined
These include humans and chimpanzees
When studying two organisms thought to be descended from a common ancestor the
physical appearance and behavioural patterns can be observed and compared. This
was the only comparison used until very recently
Now scientists can analyse the DNA of organisms to see how closely related they are
The more similar the nucleotide sequences of organisms the more closely related
these organisms are.
There is about a 40% similarity between the DNA of humans and a banana, 85%
similarity with a mouse, 98% with a chimpanzee and 99% with any other human
beings
 Ribonucleic acid is single stranded and shorter than
DNA

Structure of It is made up of nucleotides each consisting of a

phosphate ion, a ribose sugar and a nitrogen base
RNA The four nitrogen bases in RNA are adenine, uracil,
guanine and cytosine
Note that the base thymine is not found in RNA
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): which combine with
There are proteins to form ribosomes
Messenger RNA (mRNA); formed in the nucleus
three types and moves into the cytosol it plays a role in
protein synthesis
of RNA Transfer RNA (tRNA): found in the cytoplasm. It
also plays a role in protein synthesis
DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Helical shape No helical shape
Nitrogen bases: A-T and C-G Nitrogen bases: A-U-G-C
Chains are very long Chains relatively shorter
Bases are paired No pairing of bases occur

Differences between DNA and RNA

 Protein synthesis is a process whereby proteis
are manufactured in a cell
Proteins are made up of long chain of small
units (monomers) called amino acids
Protein All enzymes and most hormones are proteins

Synthesis Some hormones are steroids and are lipids.

It should be noted that a protein type is
determined by the number and sequence of
amino acids in the chain
DNA controls the synthesis of proteins
Process of Transcription: takes place in the nucleus
protein Translation: takes place in the cytoplasm at the
ribosome
synthesis
 1. Double helix DNA molecule unwinds
2. Double stranded DNA unzips / weak hydrogen bonds break
3. To form two separate strands
4. One strand serves as a template

Transcription 5.
6.
To form mRNA
Using free-floating RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
7. The mRNA is complementary to the DNA
8. mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis
9. mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and
attaches to the ribosome
 1. Each tRNA caries a specific amino acid
2. When the anticodon on the tRNA
3. matches the codon on the mRNA

Translation 4. then tRNA brigs the required amino acid to the

ribosome
5. Amino acids become attached to each other by
peptide bonds
6. to form the required protein
 - The DNA is located in the
nucleus/chromosome/genes/mitochondria

THE - DNA is a nucleic acid

- It has a doublestranded - helix
LOCATION, - consisting of building blocks called nucleotides

STRUCTURE The three components of a nucleotide are as follows:

- Nitrogenous bases
AND - Phosphate portion

FUNCTIONS - Deoxyribose sugar portion (in DNA)

- 4 nitrogenous bases are A,T,C,G of DNA:
OF A DNA - adenine (A) bonds with thymine (T)  - cytosine (C) bonds with
guanine (G) 
MOLECULE - by weak hydrogen bonds
- Sections of DNA carry hereditaryinformation
- DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA
AND RNA.

DNA RNA
Double stranded molecule Single strandedmolecule
Has a helixshape Is a straight molecule
One of the nitrogen bases is thymine The nitrogen base uracilin place of
thymine
Contains deoxyribose sugars Contains ribosesugars
A longermolecule A shortermolecule
Paired bases Unpaired bases
 - A mutation is a change in the
nucleotide/nitrogenous base sequence
HOW A GENE - of a DNA molecule/a gene
MUTATION - since mRNA is copied from the DNA molecule
- during transcription
INFLUENCES - This will result in a change in the codons
THE - As a result, different tRNA molecules
STRUCTURE - carrying different amino acids will be required
OF A - The sequence of amino acids changes
PROTEIN - resulting in the formation of a different protein
- If the same amino acid  is coded for
- there will be no change in the protein structure
 SUBSTANCE FUNCTION
Onion, strawberry, wheatgerm Source of DNA
etc.
Dishwashing liquid Breaks down cell membranes
Salt Combines with nucleic acid to
form visible
crystals, since DNA is not visible Practical
Meat tenderizer, pineapple Contains enzyme to break down
juice, contact lens solution the histone proteins
Alcohol/ methylated spirits DNA is NOT soluble in these
solvents and will therefore
appear as a stringy or cloudy
mass