TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

SCHOOL OF CONSTRUCTION AND PROPERTY STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF REAL ESTATE AND PROPERTY MANAGEMENT
BACHELOR OF REAL ESTATE

EAEQ 2106: BUILDING SERVICES NOTES SEP-FEB 2024-2025 48 HOURS

PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

To equip students with know-how on the aspects of the built environment that ensure the performance and
productivity, comfort, safety and well-being of building occupants.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the vital types of both primary and secondary building services and systems installed
in buildings to make them comfortable, functional, efficient and safe.
2. Demonstrate knowledge of the basic and vital services to the daily running of a building.
3. Describe the following services; water supply, drainage and plumbing (this includes sustainable urban
drainage systems), lighting, security and basic alarm systems and energy distribution.
4. Ability to identify a variety of likely hazards and recommend strategies to make buildings safer.

COURSE DESCRIPTION

A. BUILDING SERVICES (MECHANICAL) 24 Hours

1. Water services- properties and quality of water, sources, reservoirs, trunk mains, treatment and
filtration, reticulation including urban distribution.
2. Drainage services:- Principles of sewerage disposal and treatment, cesspools, septic tanks, biological
digesters, urban mains sewers and others.
3. Energy distribution:- the source of energy for use in buildings –solar, biogas, natural gas and others.
Utilization and energy conservation and appropriate technology application.
4. Waste Disposal Services-Principles of sewerage disposal and treatment:- sanitary appliances,
cesspools, septic tanks, biological digesters, council main sewers and recycling plants

B. BUILDING SERVICES (ELECTRICAL) 24Hours

1. Electric services- installation, principles of generation, transmission and distribution of electrical

energy, single and 3-phase supply, earthlings, and subcircuits, electrical installations to simple
domestic houses. Power-saving techniques in a simple building
2. Security and Alarm Systems- in a domestic house. Alarm systems that serve a single purpose of
burglary protection; combination systems -provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm
systems uncombined/ combined with closed-circuit television surveillance (CCTV) systems to
Page 1 of 46
 automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for
electrically locked doors. Systems range from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated,
multivalley systems with computer monitoring and control.
3. The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to detect intruders, and an alerting device to
indicate the intrusion. Typical premises security alarm employs the following components: Premises
control unit (PCU), alarm control panel (ACP), Sensors: Alerting devices: Keypads:
and interconnections between components.

DELIVERY METHODS
The course work shall be taught through:
1. Lectures
2. Demonstrations
3. Guided classroom discussions
4. Student presentations
5. Relevant video clips
6. Site/industrial visits.

ASSESSMENT METHOD
1. Continuous assessment tests 20%
2. Assignments 10%
3. Final Examination 70%
RECOMMENDED READING MATERIAL
1. Roger Greano (2014). Building Services, Technology and Design. CRC Press.
2. Fred Hall & Roger Greeno (2017). Building Services Handbook. Routledge; Taylor and Francis
eBooks.
3. David [Link](2009). Building Services Engineering. Routledge publishers. Taylor and Francis
Group. London.

Page 2 of 46
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY
Water supply system and treatment, Wastewater system, Water supply scheme
Plumbing system Inspection, Pipe sizing and tests.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
❖ The purpose of t h e distribution system is to deliver water to
consumers with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure.
❖ Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to
supply water from its source to the point of usage.
Methods of water distribution
1. Gravity system
❖ Suitable when the source of supply is at sufficient height.
❖ Most reliable and economical distribution system.
❖ The water head available to the consumer is just t h e minimum
required.
❖ The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.

2. Pumping system
❖ Treated water is directly pumped in to the distribution main without
storing.
❖ Also called pumping without storage system.
❖ High lifts pumps are required.
❖ If power supply fails, complete stoppage of water supply.
❖ This method is not generally used.

Page 3 of 46
 3. Combined gravity and pumping system
❖ Most common system.
❖ Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution
reservoir.
❖ Then, it is supplied to the consumer by the action of gravity.
❖ The excess water during low-demand periods gets stored in the reservoir
and supplied during high-demand periods.
❖ Economical, efficient and reliable system.

Water supply systems:

1. Cold water system
2. Hot water system
Cold water system
Cold water supply is nothing but an external water supply. However, cold water supply
systems can also use filters, water softener appliances, or any other fixture. The
cold-water system's connection is done so that other appliances can receive it through
fixtures and taps. Such appliances include sinks, hot water heaters, faucets, bathtubs,
showers etc.

Hot water system

Certain appliances can be used to provide hot water, such as water heaters. Cold water
supply system supplies a volume of water to such appliances, where they heat the
water and provide hot water.
Page 4 of 46
TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS ARE:
• Direct supply system
• Indirect supply system
Direct systems source water straight from the mains water supply. Indirect water
systems require larger storage and more pipework because they provide water for hot
and cold services.
Types of pipes for cool water supply
A water pipe is any pipe or tube designed to transport treated drinking water
to consumers. The varieties include large-diameter main pipes, which supply entire
towns, smaller branch lines that supply a street or group of buildings, or small-
diameter pipes located within individual buildings. Materials commonly used to
construct water pipes include cast iron, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copper, steel or
concrete.

Page 5 of 46
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM :
The methods of distribution of water in a multistoried building are:
▪ Direct pumping systems
▪ Hydro–pneumatic systems
▪ Overhead tank distribution
Direct pumping systems :
Water is pumped directly into the distribution system without the aid of any overhead
tank, except for flushing purposes. The pumps are controlled by a pressure switch
installed on the line.
Over-head tank distribution :
This is the most common distribution system adopted by various types of buildings.
The system comprises pumping water to one or more overhead tanks placed at the
topmost location of the hydraulic zone. Water collected in the overhead tank is
distributed to the various parts of the building by a set of pipes located generally on
the terrace.
Hydro-pneumatic systems :
The hydro-pneumatic system is a variation of the direct pumping system. An air-tight
pressure vessel is installed on the line to regulate the operation of the pumps. The
hydro-pneumatic system generally eliminates the need for an overhead tank and may
supply water at a much higher pressure than available from overhead tanks
particularly on the upper floors, resulting in even distribution of water at all floors.
The system is configured into 5 types they are :
1. Single booster system
2. Zone- divided system
3. Roof tank system
4. Series-connected systems with intermediate break tanks
5. Series- connected system

Water supply system design consideration:

The water supply system must be designed to achieve appropriate water pressure and
flow and to avoid contamination to potable water.

•Water pressure

Page 6 of 46
•Water flow rate
•Flow rate and pipe size
•System layout
•Connection to the mains supply
•Backflow
•Mains connection
•Pipe materials and specifications

Water pressure
If water pressure is too low, this will be inconvenient for building users. If pressure is
too high, this will lead to wastage of water, as well as high wear and tear on the system.
New buildings in areas with mains water supply will have mains pressure systems.
Existing buildings, and buildings that are not connected to mains water, may have low-
pressure systems or unequal pressure systems (with different pressures for hot and cold-
water supply).
Mains pressure systems require pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves to control
water pressure and temperature. Typically, pressure limiting or pressure reducing valves
will be used to control pressure in mains-supplied hot water systems or where high
pressure may lead to problems such as burst pipes.
Low-pressure systems require few valves or controls. In low or unequal pressure
systems, pressure can be increased to adequate levels by storing water in a header tank
so that gravity can be used to create water pressure. Pressure can also be raised to
adequate levels using a pressurizing pump, in which case it may be necessary to use
pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves.
Water flow rate
The Building Code requires that sanitary fixtures and appliances have adequate water
supply at an adequate flow rate.
As with water pressure, flow rates are crucial. A flow rate that is too high will result in
water being wasted, whereas a flow rate that is too low will mean that sanitary fixtures
and appliances don’t work properly.

Flow rate is affected by:

•Water pressure
•Pipe diameters – The smaller the internal diameter of the pipe, the lower the pressure
and flow rate.
•Water temperature – higher temperatures will tend to raise pressure and flow rates

•Aflow regulator can be used to maintain a constant flow, independent of water

pressure.

•Limiting the flow for a tap or appliance to a reasonable rate helps balance the available
pressure throughout the system. Regulating flow allows a simpler design and minimum
pipe sizes as peak flow rates can be specified accurately and can also reduce noise,
splashing taps, and water hammer.
•Flow rate can also be controlled by specifying low-flow outlets.
System layout
In the design process, the layout of the plumbing system will largely follow room layout.
Page 7 of 46
Nonetheless, there are many things to consider which relate to Code compliance,
building users’ comfort, and sustainability.

When planning a water supply layout, the following must be considered:

•Pipe runs and lengths – Keep pipe runs as short as possible. Pass pipes close to
fixtures to minimize the number of branches and unnecessary elbows, tees and joints.
Having longer pipe runs and more fixtures will reduce the flow rate, increase heat
losses, and increase the use of materials
•Point of entry into the building – This should be into a utility space such as
a garage/laundry and include an accessible isolating valve, line strainer and pressure
limiting valve (if required)
•Water heating system – Locate centrally to reduce the length of pipe runs to fixtures
because longer pipe runs require more water to be drawn off before hot water is
discharged. Install a separate point-of-use water heater for fixtures that are more than 10
m from the main water heater
•Noise prevention – Avoid running pipes over or near bedrooms and living areas.

Backflow
Backflow is the unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the
water supply system. The system must be designed and used to prevent contamination
from backflow.
Mains connection
Where the water source is a mains supply, the network utility operator is responsible for
the water supplied to the property boundary. The property owner is then responsible for
providing the pipework to bring the water into the building.

An isolating valve must be fitted at the point of connection to allow for maintenance and
repair of the building’s water supply system if required.
Pipe materials and specifications
The pipes used in a building must not contaminate potable water supply, and must be
suitable for the water pressure, flow rate and temperature of water they will be carrying.
This will be influenced by the materials used and also by other factors such as the wall
thickness. Other considerations are durability, ease of installation, cost, and
sustainability.
Pipe materials and components must not contaminate potable water. They must also be:

• suitable for the expected temperatures and pressures

• compatible with the water supply, to minimize the potential for electrolytic
corrosion
• suitable for the ground conditions (if used underground) to minimize the
potential for corrosion of the exterior of the pipe
• suitable for the local climate (if used outdoors) such as freezing
conditions or atmospheric salt
So, when selecting materials for water supply pipes, consider water pressure,
water temperature, compatibility with water supply, durability, support, ease of
installation, and cost.
Piping design considerations The design of the piping must also take into consideration
Page 8 of 46
 other factors, including expansion and contraction in the piping and the static and
dynamic loads of the piping, as they will be reflected in the structural steel framing
system of the building; the need for access to expansion joints and the anchors and
guides for the piping, which should be subjected to periodic inspection after the
building is constructed; the provision of fire stopping between the pipe and the sleeve
located at all penetrations of rated slabs, walls, and partitions; and, if required, seismic
restraints on the piping systems and the pumps.
WASTE WATER SYSTEM
Wastewater (liquid waste) from flushing the toilet, bathing, washing sinks and general
cleaning goes down the drain and into a pipe, which joins a larger sewer pipe under the
road. The larger pipe also joins a major pipe that leads to the treatment center.
Methods of treatment
1. Primary Treatment
Raw wastewater first passes through screens which extract larger waste materials. The
grit tanks remove grit and sand. Primary tanks separate the bulk of the solids from the
liquid waste.
2. Secondary Treatment
Further separating solids and liquid, reactor/clarifiers remove nutrients - in particular,
nitrogen
- which can be harmful to the environment.

Page 9 of 46
 3. Tertiary Treatment
The wastewater is filtered and disinfected using ultraviolet (UV) light, which
destroys bacteria and viruses, before it is conveyed to the intertidal storage basin.

System of plumbing
Following is the four principal systems adopted in plumbing work in building
1) Two pipe system.
2) One pipe system.
3) Single-stack system
4) Partially ventilated single stack system.
Two-pipe system:-
1. This is the best and most improved type of system of plumbing.
2. In this system, two sets of vertical pipes are laid, i.e. one for draining
soil and the other for draining sullage.
3. The pipes of the first set carrying soil are called soil pipes. and the
pipes of the second set carrying sullage from baths etc. are called sullage
pipe or waste pipe
4. The soil fixtures, such as latrines and urinals are thus all
connected through branch pipes to the vertical pipe.
5. Where the sludge fixtures such as baths, sinks, wash-basins, etc.
are all connected through branch pipes to the vertical waste pipe.
6. The soil pipe as well as the waste pipe are separately ventilated by
providing a separate vent pipe.

Page 11 of 46
One pipe system:-

• In this system, instead of using two separate pipes(for carrying sullage and
soil, as it is done in the two-pipe system), only the main vertical pipe is
provided which collects the soil as well as the sullage water from their
respective fixtures through the branch pipes.
• This main pipe is ventilated in itself by providing a cowl at its top and in
addition to this, a separate vent pipe is also provided.

Page 11 of 46
Single Stack System:-
• This system is a single pipe system without providing any separate
ventilation pipe.
• It uses only one pipe which carries the sewage as well as sullage, and is not
provided with any separate vent pipe , except that it itself is extended up to
about 2m higher than the roof level and provided with a cowl for removal of
foul gases as
Partially ventilated single stack:-

• This is an improved form of single stack system in the sense that in this
system, the traps of water closets are separately ventilated by a separate vent
pipe called relief vent pipe.
• This system uses two pipes as in single pipe system but the cost of branches
is considerably reduced compared to single pipe system.

Drainage system considerations

• In the drainage system for a multi-storey building, the drains from the
plumbing fixtures are connected to vertical drain stacks that convey the
waste and sewage to below the lowest floor of the building.
• The fixture drain traps must be vented to prevent their water trap seal from
being siphoned by negative pressure or blown out by positive pressure in the
drain piping.
• The fixture vent pipes must extend through the roof to outdoors. They can be
run individually or be combined into one or more vents through the roof.
• Where buildings are over 10 storeys high, the drainage stacks require relief
vent connections at specified intervals from the top, and connected to a vent
Page 11 of 46
 stack that terminates above the roof. This relieves and equalizes the pressure
in the drainage stack to maintain the water seal in traps serving plumbing
fixtures.
• Wherever possible, the sanitary drainage system from a building should
discharge to the public sewer by gravity.
• All plumbing fixtures located below ground level should be pumped into the
public sewer or the drainage system leading to the sewer. The pump line
should be as short as possible and looped up to a point above ground level to
prevent back siphonage of sewage.
• The pump discharge rate should be controlled so as not to cause scouring of
the internal bore of the pump line or the drainage or sewer system into which
it discharges. High- velocity discharge rates may also cause the flooding of
adjoining plumbing fixtures or overloading of the sewer itself.

Plumbing inspection

A plumbing inspection is a systematic process of assessing the critical areas of the

plumbing system of a property. It is performed by certified plumbers to avoid the
risk of pipe corrosion, clogs, leaks, and burst tubes that can cause flooding and
property damage.

Importance of Plumbing Inspection

• Conducting regular plumbing inspection keeps the system running smoothly

which helps businesses or households prevent costly and unexpected repairs.
• Detect early problems to mitigate the risk of damaged pipelines and
plumbing systems;
• Eliminate the hassle of delayed work due to clogs and water leaks;
• Avoid bigger water damage; and
• Prevent a drastic increase in the water consumption bill

Defects in Water Supply System

1) Rusting
2) Leakage
3) Dents & Buckles
4) Blockage
5) Cracks Rusting / Corrosion
•Inspection of main pipeline, distribution pipe or branch pipes.
•Inspect for signs of corrosion and leakage in the pipe linkage
• Inspect for the water tank/storage Leakage
•Inspection of leakage underground pipe
•Inspection of loose joints or fitting in the pipelines
• Inspection of old pipeline Dents & Buckles
•Inspection of pipe shapes and size; is it normal to the standard size or
changes in original size
• Inspection of anomalies that could result to failure of pipes Blockage
Page 11 of 46
 •Inspection for possible causes of blockage such as tree roots, rust,
accumulation of sand and stone
• Inspect the water pressure level in the pipeline Cracks
•Inspect for the weld area is it the cause of the crack or not
•Inspect for the sign of crack

QUALITY OF WATER: CAUSES, IMPORTANCE AND INDICATORS

✓ Water is one of the building blocks of life on Earth.
✓ Life on earth can't survive without the availability of potable water.
✓ Other than drinking, water is required for various other purposes as well.
✓ To determine the suitability of water for different purposes like drinking or washing, it is
imperative to determine the quality of water.
✓ For ascertaining the quality of water, its physical, chemical, and biological properties are
checked. After thorough analysis, experts determine the quality of water and also prescribe
its suitability for different purposes.
✓ If the quality of water is not up to the mark, then it becomes important to purify water first,
before starting to use it.
What is Water Quality?
✓ Water quality refers to the measure of the suitability of water for any specific use or
process.
✓ It is determined by various physical, chemical, and biological characteristics present in the
water such as pH, ions, temperature, etc.
✓ The concentration of these characteristics determines whether the water quality is suitable for
drinking, for invertebrates to conduct life processes, for industrial use or even for the natural
formations that occur in the environment.
✓ Water quality can also be defined in terms of the range of variables which limit the way
water can be used.
✓ This depends on the users and the variations in quality and quantity that they require from the
water. Water quality is also determined by the concentration and the state of dissolved,
organic, and inorganic particles present in the water as well as the physical characteristics of
water.
Water Quality Indicators
✓ While determining what the water quality is, certain measurements need to be made to
determine whether the quality is suitable for a particular use.
✓ These measurements include comparing the concentration of various chemicals to the
concentrations of water that are natural or considered as the baseline.
✓ The concentrations of these particles in the water indicate the water quality.
✓ Various factors like the temperature or pH of the water also act as water quality indicators.
✓ The key components that act as water quality indicators are:
1. Dissolved Oxygen-
✓ The levels of dissolved oxygen, or DO, in the water indicate whether it is suitable for
drinking or for aquatic animals to live in.
✓ High levels of DO can be harmful for aquatic animals although it is an essential component
needed for living organisms.

Page 11 of 46
✓ DO is measured in milligrams per litre with 4.0 to 12.0 mg/L being the baseline required for
most organisms.

2. Temperature-
All aquatic animals require a certain range of temperature, from a minimum of 2° C to 35° C
for them to thrive.
✓ The temperature of the water affects the amount of DO present, the kinds of living organisms
present, pollution as well as diseases.
3. pH-
✓ The normal or neutral pH level of water is 7.
✓ A reading over 7 indicates the water is alkaline in nature, while readings below 7 indicate
that the water is acidic.
✓ Extreme levels on the pH scale affect all kinds of living organisms.
✓ Changes in the pH level can be caused by acid rain, pollutants, agricultural runoff and sewer
overflows.
4. Specific Conductance
✓ Specific conductance refers to the ability of water to conduct or pass electric current.
✓ Organic and inorganic materials like dissolved solids, chloride, sodium, calcium, etc.,
temperature and the geology of the area affect the conductivity of the water.
✓ The higher the concentration of ions in the water, the higher its ability to conduct electricity.
5. Nutrients
✓ The level of organic and inorganic nutrients in the water determines its suitability to allow an
aquatic ecosystem to survive.
✓ The plants and animals found in water bodies require nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus,
iron, manganese, and copper in specific amounts for them to survive.
✓ Nutrients can be found in different forms, whether organic, inorganic or dissolved.
✓ Large amounts of nitrogen in the form of nitrates increase algal growth and toxicity for
human consumption.
6. Industrial Chemicals
✓ There are certain kinds of industrial chemicals present in water that are suitable for various
agricultural, manufacturing, pharmaceutical and chemical processes.
✓ However, some of the chemicals required can become toxic for aquatic ecosystems.
7. Metals
✓ Various metals present in water are required to sustain biochemical processes.
✓ These metals include manganese, zinc and copper. These metals have to be present in a
specific concentration as high concentrations will become toxic for living organisms.
✓ The toxicity of the metals also depends on the form and the oxidation state in which they are
present.
✓ The characteristics of metals in water like solubility, toxicity, etc. are influenced by pH,
dissolved oxygen levels, and hardness.
What is ‘Good Water’?
✓ ‘Good water’ refers to the water quality of a specific source or body of water that is the most
suitable for a particular use. This water has all the required amounts of particulates that will
allow the water quality to be considered perfect for that use. For example, good water for
drinking is the water that contains all the necessary nutrients in all the right amounts, good
water for industrial use has all the required amounts of chemicals, good water for an aquatic
Page 11 of 46
 ecosystem has the required temperature, nutrients, metals, etc. required to sustain that
ecosystem.
Why is Water Quality Important?
There are various reasons why water quality is important. These include:
o Sustaining ecosystems- In order for aquatic ecosystems to grow and thrive, the water quality
should be optimal and free of any kind of pollutants or chemicals that may alter the water
quality. If the water quality is not optimal, the ecosystem will begin to shrink and eventually
cease to exist.
o Drinking water- As we know, numerous animals including human beings depend on
drinking water. It is one of the most important sources that continue to sustain animal life. If
the water quality of drinking water diminishes it will result in many forms of diseases that
may be life threatening.
o Agricultural or industrial use- If the water quality of water needed for agricultural use does
not meet the baseline required to help agricultural growth, then agriculture will not flourish.
On the other hand, the water quality needed for industrial use in manufacturing, etc. has to be
optimal. If the water quality differs from that required severe damages and accidents may
occur.
What Causes Poor Quality?
Poor water quality is caused by many factors. One of the main factors is the excessive
presence of particulates required or the insufficient presence of particulates required. Some
other factors that cause poor water quality are:
o Light and temperature- Shallow and stagnant water bodies like lakes, etc. often receive
sunlight that can reach the bottom. This light can increase the water temperature which
causes weeds and algae to grow while suppressing other life forms. Higher water
temperatures often decrease the level of dissolved oxygen as well which may be harmful for
agricultural and industrial use.
o Nutrients- Excessive nutrients in the water also alter the water quality making it unsuitable
for specific purposes.
o Distribution systems- Often, drinking water in developing countries is available only in the
form of bottled water. This is due to the lack of proper distribution systems which alter the
water quality and make it unfit for drinking.

How Do Humans Affect Water Quality?

Human beings are one of the main sources that have depleted the water quality of many
naturally occurring water bodies. Water quality has been altered through pollution, disruption
of ecosystems, etc. Some ways that human beings have affected water quality include:
o Land conversion- The health or quality of water of various rivers, lakes, ponds, etc. are
dependent on the surrounding land. With land being converted for agriculture, timber
harvesting, housing, industries, roads, etc. the water bodies around the land have been greatly
affected.
o Developed lands- Once converted lands have been developed, the runoff from rain, etc. is
not absorbed by the soil. The runoff travels over the land surface and gathers various kinds of
Page 11 of 46
 pollutants like sediments, pathogens, and debris which alter the water quality once they settle
in any nearby water body. Urban areas have an increased amount of runoff infected with
various pollutants like fertilizers, detergents and waste which contain high amounts of
phosphorus and are detrimental to water quality. Runoff gathered from construction,
industrial and residential sites all contain different kinds of particulates which damage water
quality in one way or another.
o Agricultural activities- Improper animal waste management and soil management on
agricultural lands as well as insecticide and pesticide runoff affect the water quality of
surrounding bodies of water. The high concentration of nutrients from animal waste and
manure can turn to run off which settles in a water body affecting its quality.
o Modifications to rivers and water bodies- Construction of dams or any kind of hydropower
generation usually occurs on rivers or other water bodies. This has an adverse effect on the
water quality altering its flow water level and sediment concentrations. The stream flow of
the river or water body is also affected by man-made modifications. This disrupts the flow
and occurrence of particulates throughout the water body and affects the water quality.
o Air emissions- Air emissions from power plants, industrial manufacturing and motor
vehicles not only cause air pollution, but they also affect the water quality of any water body.
The harmful compounds emitted from these sources are transported by wind or rain over
large distances to finally settle on a water body.
o Infrastructure for transportation- The increase in development comes with the increase in
the need for various infrastructures for transportation needs. This includes structures like
roads, embankments, drainage systems, railroads, driveways, parking lots, recreation paths,
sidewalks, airport runways, etc. The poor planning and management of these structures lead
to pollution of rivers and streams and transport of sediments from soil erosion, which both
affect the water quality of any nearby water body.

WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment means the cleansing of water through various phases to be available for end-
use by the people. The treated water is then used for various purposes like irrigation,
industrial water supply, drinking, river flow maintenance, or any other such uses. The
treatment of water removes harmful contaminants and compounds or the concentration of
these is reduced for public use. This treatment is mandatory to promote human health and its
uses for drinking and irrigation.
The water contaminated with feces of humans and animals pose a great threat to the public
because of the presence of microbial elements in them that cause various diseases. Feces are
the main source of viruses, pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. The destruction or
removal of such substances from the water is essential for it to be used by humans. Reactive
chemical agents like suspended solids are used in the process of purification of water. These
agents help in removing bacteria, viruses, algae, fungi, iron, and manganese.

Methods Of Water Treatment

Water is naturally a pure substance containing hydrogen and oxygen. However, the

Page 11 of 46
 distribution and supply of water come in contact with various organic minerals, manmade
pollutants, and chemicals. This makes water unfavorable for drinking purposes as it contains
deadly viruses, bacteria, and other dangerous agents.
Different methods of water treatment are set up to make drinking water accessible. Below are
some of the methods of water treatment.
o Coagulation/ Flocculation
Coagulation is the process of adding alum, liquid sulfate, to untreated or raw water. After
completion of the process, dirt particles coagulate in the water or stick together. Flocs are
formed by large dirt particles and can be easily removed by filtration or setting. Coagulation
methods include ionic layer compressions, surface complexation, and charge neutralization,
sweep coagulation, and polymeric bridging.
Flocculation is what allows the coagulated water to mix with the particles that collide to form
further flocs.
o Sedimentation
During the treatment process, flocs and water make their way into the sedimentation basins.
In these basins, water moves slowly allowing the flocs to settle at the bottom. The
accumulated flocs are known as sludge and are carried to the drying lagoons. Storing such
water for a couple of hours will allow the sedimentation of dense and large particles like silt
and sands, microbes, and smaller particles. Settling time of 1 to 2 days will help remove
larger particles and microbes like algae and clay.
o Filtration
Filtration helps in removing the particles as the water passes through a filter. These filters are
composed of sand and gravel or crushed anthracite. Filtration combines all the dangerous
impurities and particles that float on the water. This helps boost the effectiveness of
disinfection. Filters are regularly serviced by backwashing for better filtration.
o Disinfection
Water is disinfected before it makes its way to the distribution system. Disinfection removes
disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Chlorine is better known to help in the
disinfection of water. It includes oxidizing agents that instantly remove all the bacteria in
water.
o Oxidation
Inorganic contaminants like iron, manganese is removed by the process of chemical
oxidation and its further aids in the removal of coagulated particles to destroy odor-causing
and taste compounds. It is often used before coagulation, adsorption, and sedimentation for
efficient removal of particulates, inorganics, taste, or odor. Oxidants are injected in the form
of liquid or gas.
o Adsorption
The adsorption process removes both organic and inorganic contaminants from water.
Adsorption forms on the surface by the accumulation of a solid called adsorbents. They
include stationary media like metal oxide, ion exchange, and activated carbon. Flocculation
forms floc that can adsorb both inorganic and organic carbon like arsenic. Activated carbon
helps in removing hundreds of organic contaminants.
o Fluoridation
Fluoridation is used mainly in communities as it treats water supplies to bring a balance in
Page 11 of 46
 the concentrated free fluoride ions. This is done till an optimal level is reached which helps
avoid dental cavities.
Steps Of Water Treatment
Large scale water treatment plant follows the below steps for urban water supply. These are
as follows: –
1) Screening
Screens are used to protect treatment plant units to help in the efficiency of operations.
Screens remove large floating or suspended solids in the process of inflow. Materials like
leaves, paper, twigs, and other debris are removed so as to avoid equipment or plant damage.
There are two types of screens.
o Coarse screens: These are large and heavy screens used to minimize large materials like fish
and logs from entering the water treatment plant. They help in the proper functioning of the
mechanical equipment.
o Fine screens: These are used to avoid blockage in the pipes at the treatment plant. Solids that
are caught in the pipes are removed by jet water and are taken for disposal.

2) Aeration
Aeration takes place after the screening process. Water becomes aerated after it has been
exposed in order to take in oxygen from the air. Harmful soluble gases like CO2
and hydrogen sulfide are expelled by aeration.
3) Coagulation And Flocculation
Coagulation is used after aeration to remove any remaining fine particles suspended in the
water. Coagulant chemicals are mixed in the water for further cleansing.
4) Sedimentation
Large flocs which are spread on the floor of a tank are settled out by the process of
sedimentation. The accumulated material is called sludge which is taken for proper disposal
after the process.
5) Chlorination
✓ To further disinfect the water after sedimentation a chemical called chlorine is used to help
remove pathogenic microorganisms. The remaining chlorine is known as residual chlorine
which gets through the process of the distribution system.
Importance Of Water Treatment
✓ The availability of pure water is of utmost importance in society. The water treatment
process caters to this by supplying suitable water for industries or individuals. Only when the
contaminants are removed from the water can they be used and accessible to everyone.
Several processes like filtration and disinfection are used to purify water.
✓ Water is the key element to an individual’s survival and without water survival is difficult.
Recent global research conducted showed that many deaths take place mainly due to poor
quality of water causing various types of diseases. Hence, it is vital to ensure the public has
access to pure drinking water. Water treatment industries are being set up in large numbers to
help in the purification of water thus saving the lives of the people.
✓ Fatal diseases like typhoid and cholera are caused by impure water alone which can be life-
threatening for individuals. Desalination helps in avoiding the scarcity of water faced by the
Page 11 of 46
 people where they do not have access to water. The source of seawater is unlimited and can
be utilized accordingly and be provided to the people after getting salt content removed and
converted to safe drinking water.
Purposes Of Water Treatment
✓ Water treatment’s main objective is to remove the impure residuals of the water to make it
accessible for drinking. These impurities are responsible for various types of diseases among
humans.
✓ The main purpose of water treatment is to ensure the public has safe access to drinking water
devoid of any contaminants. At the community level, untreated or raw water is obtained
through an underground aquifer or through lakes, or rivers. Once obtained, it is then taken for
proper treatment and to remove harmful substances present in the water.
✓ Water treatment plants are maintained to minimize high radiation levels in a facility.
Impurities and corrosion may become highly radioactive and must be removed to prevent
these harmful substances from entering the water and dispersing throughout.
Raw Water Treatment
Raw water must be treated before use in utility processes. The treatment removes harmful
substances like suspended and dissolved solids and other kinds of impurities that are present
in large numbers. Treated raw water can be used for various purposes like cooling water,
rinsing water, purified, and even drinking water. The process of raw water treatment
includes:
o Reverse osmosis: Water flows at high speed across a membrane leaving only water and
some unwanted residues behind. Major pollutants like iron, manganese, and pesticides, can
be expelled by reverse osmosis.
o Turbidity: Suspended particles cause turbidity in the water. Many suspended particles arise
from turbidity which is used to measure the quality of water. Turbidity is present in large
volumes mainly due to rainfall, bank erosion, and so on.
o Ultrafiltration: Water is treated with a screen filter before the actual high-pressure filtration
through a membrane. This method separates the contaminants from the water.
Types Of Water Treatment Plants
Based on the types of water industries, they can be divided into 3 major categories.
o Water purification
o Wastewater treatment
o Desalination
o Water purification: Natural water may not contain harmful elements still the water is sent
for purification to become drinkable. Natural and purified water has a similar appearance but
is different in taste and smell as there are plenty of bacteria present in the natural water.
Water pollution is on the rise and thus purification of water is mandatory everywhere.
o Wastewater treatment: The wastewater treatment industry is set up to control the flow of
wastewater in the society or community. Also, these industries help convert wastewater to
become accessible to the public mainly for irrigation purposes, or fertilization.

Page 11 of 46
o Desalination: Desalination implies converting salt or seawater into drinkable water or pure
water. Seawater is easily accessible and available across giving a rise in the setting up of
desalination industries.

Overview Of Sewage
✓ Sewage forms by a community of people as a result of the accumulation of various types of
BW remains of water from a storm and industrial effluents. Handling or recycling sewage
requires significant investment and manpower.
✓ During the early days when such systems were scarce, sewers were left discharged into the
main river body streams such as lakes, oceans, or bays.
✓ Nowadays, a separate plant is built to cater to these problems known as a wastewater
treatment plant.
✓ The strategies laid to handle such problems include separating surface runoff from sewage
and handling the separation of greywater from toilet water.
✓ Communities are making proper sewage management a norm in industrialized localities.

Types Of Sewage
The nature and type of sewage can be broadly classified into three groups. These are:
o Domestic Or Sanitary Sewage
These types of wastes are mainly carried off by people residing in residential areas and
institutions in the form of feces and urine, laundry wastes, food wastes, and so on.
o Commercial Wastes
These types of wastes are categorized as domestic if their nature of flow is of household
ones. Commercial wastes are mainly released from shops and service establishments with a
focal point of serving communities. Wastes that originate from industrial processes are
known as industrial wastewater which forms by either manufacturing or production of
goods.
o Surface Runoff
Precipitation flowing on a surface to a defined channel is known as surface runoff. They
carry all the chemicals from the atmosphere while dissolving and leaching materials from
soil and vegetation. After collecting all these pollutants, they flow to a certain connection
point.
POLLUTANTS OF SEWAGE
Untreated sewage consists of mainly harmful substances like pathogens (bacteria and
viruses), nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) organic matter (solids).
o Organic Pollutants and Nutrients
As seen above, sewage has complex chemical characteristics consisting of chemical
mixtures. They include highly concentrated ammonium, nitrate, phosphorus, nitrogen, high
alkalinity, high conductivity, and pH ranging between 7 and 8.
Page 11 of 46
 To determine and measure the parameters of sewage, Biochemical oxygen demand and
chemical oxygen demand are used. These tests point out the load organic carbon carries into
the environment.
o Pathogens
Pathogen simply means any organism that can produce diseases. As sewage consists largely
of human feces, pathogens are commonly found in them with any of the four types.
o Bacteria
Different types of bacteria are present like salmonella and vibrio cholerae. Whereas a small
group of pathogenic bacteria may prove dangerous and lead to infectious diseases. These
types of bacteria are potent enough to enter the cell and cause damage to the immune system
of the body by producing endotoxins. Pneumonia is one such globally common disease
caused by pathogens.
o Viruses
Potential viruses like hepatitis A, enteroviruses, and rotavirus. Viruses are typically small
particles ranging between 20 to 300 nanometers in length that contain DNA or RNA. Viruses
undergo a replication process that requires them to host a cell. Chickenpox, influenza,
mumps, measles, Ebola, and HIV, are such diseases caused by viral pathogens.
o Protozoa
Such as Entamoeba, histolytica, and Cryptosporidium. They are known to possess
behaviours like animals by their methods of predation and motility.
o Parasites
Roundworm, hookworm, and whipworm are some parasites present in sewage water. They
are visible to the naked eye. These worms dwell and breed in their living host receiving
nourishment and refuge while mutilating the nutrients of the host. They are also known to
manipulate their host’s immune system by a secreting method called immunomodulatory
products. This allows them to live and grow for many years.
o Micro-pollutants
Sewage contains a large concentration of pharmaceuticals (roughly 70%) that comes from
households alone, 20 per cent coming from livestock farming, hospital effluent (5%), and the
rest coming from runoffs. Trihalomethanes are also present due to past disinfection.

COLLECTION OF SEWAGE
Sewage is collected by sewer pipes and is transferred for treatment or is discharged. This
process is called a sewage system. The lack of sewerage systems is taken care of by
collecting waste from households through pipes into septic tanks which is then treated or
collected for disposal.
There are many ways of collecting sewage.
o Combined Systems
A mixture of both domestic and storm sewage is known as combined sewers. They usually
Page 11 of 46
 contain vast parameters of pipes as they must deal with a variety of waste. They are not
developed in big cities as wastewater plants cannot handle stormwater.
o Separate Systems
They are meant to carry either domestic sewage or stormwater, but not both. Storm sewers
handle the surface runoff to a point of a river or in a stream where it is disposed of. Storm
sewers are developed with a section of enclosed concrete pipes.
o Alternative Systems
When the cost of building gravity sewers crosses significant expenses due to the low
concentration of population, three alternatives are derived to combat this. These are small-
diameter sewers, pressure sewers, and vacuum sewers. In the small-diameter, floating solids
are removed by using septic tanks. Pressure sewers are utilized in flat areas or where rocky
excavations are needed. Vacuum sewers flow by gravity directly into a tank from where
vacuum pumps pull it.

TREATMENT OF SEWAGE
Sewage is treated to remove the toxins and contaminants to produce solid and liquid that is
preferably suitable for discharge or reuse.
This process of treatment is known as sewage treatment, also a kind of waste management.
Sewage sludges are formed during the treatment and further sludge treatment is required for
disposal.
Several approaches are undertaken to stabilize biomass and reduce solid content. The most
popular anaerobic digestion is chosen due to its cost-effective nature and bioenergy
production. Sewage sludges are best used for agriculture and to produce electricity by
converting biogas.
Some of the common sewer treatments include: –
o On-site Disposal Systems
Wastes Recurring from toilets, laundry, bathrooms, and sinks make their way towards a pipe
to a septic tank. Effluent is disposed of through its disposal and is soaked in the surrounding
soil.
o The Effluent Wastewater Disposal System
Community effluents are carried off by pipes to the septic. These pipes are built mainly to
serve houses in the community.
o Full Sewage System
All the waste from houses, showers, and toilets, is carried by pipes and then pumped to a
septic/tank. Full sewage systems are of three types. One goes untreated, the other passes
through a process of cutting blades, and the final gets treated in a septic tank.
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE
✓ Sewage disposal has several ways. Two are considered vital. Sewage is disposed of using on-
site sanitation procedures or removed by waterborne sewer systems.
✓ Domestic waste is collected by pipes called sanitary sewers which go to a discharge point.
Collecting stormwater is taken care of by storm sewers. It is then discharged and drained in an
area.
✓ Municipalities have their system called sewage treatment plants which directly feed all into the
system. Sewage lagoons directly flow into a lagoon of still water.
Page 11 of 46
 ELECTRIC SERVICES: ENERGY AND ALARMS
Energy efficiency techniques:
1. Variable Speed Drives for Pumps, Fans, and Compressors:
•Pump and fan capacities can be reduced and energy saved by
controlling their speed with variable speed drives. Reductions in
both peak and off-peak energy costs can be obtained by using
variable-speed drives on pumps, fans, and compressors that operate
at varying loads.
2. Dedicated Outdoor Air Systems:
•A DOAS uses a separate air handler to condition the outdoor air
before delivering it directly to the occupied spaces. While a DOAS
can be applied in any design, it is the most beneficial in a facility
with multiple spaces with differing ventilation needs. It reduces a
building’s energy use compared to mixed air systems, which
require overventilation of some spaces. It allows the designer to
decouple the latent load from the sensible load, providing more
accurate space humidity control.
3. Supply Air System Control: .
•Using Variable Air Volume boxes and dedicated individual control
for 50 per cent of the occupied people or all closed cabins in the
occupied area will become mandatory to ensure human comfort
and energy-saving benefits.
4. Demand Control Ventilation:
•In order to maintain the IAQ of the occupied area, it is required to
install a fresh air system which controls, measures, and monitors
continuously the flow of fresh air (Outdoor air) supplied to the
occupied area. CO2 sensors can be used to measure or control the
per-person ventilation rate and, in turn, allow the designer to
introduce a ventilation demand control strategy.
5. Heat Recovery System: A heat exchange enthalpy wheels can be
used in comfort applications, where energy in the exhaust stream would
otherwise be wasted.
6. Chilled Beams: Chilled beams do not require a secondary fan so
they are inherently more energy efficient than fan coil units, their main air
terminal device rivals.
7. Thermal Storage System for Cooling: Consider a thermal storage
system when designing a chiller plant. With a thermal storage system, the
idea is to run chiller equipment off-peak and store cooled water or ice, then
draw on this cooling during the peak times of the day.

Page 11 of 46
Electrical system
The distribution system is a part of the power system, existing between distribution
substations and consumers.
It is further classified based on the voltage
• Primary distribution system- 11 KV or 6.6 KV or 3.3 KV
• Secondary distribution system- 415 V or 230 V

Primary distribution system:

• voltages are somewhat higher than general utilization and handle larger blocks of
electrical energy than the average low-voltage consumer uses.
• Commonly used primary distribution voltage 11KV, 6.6 KV,3.3 KV.
• Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the
substation located in or near the city.
• At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of a step-down
transformer.
• Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big consumers at this
voltage.
The secondary distribution employs a 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
□ It is that part of the A.C. distribution system which includes the range of voltages at
which the ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to him.
□ The secondary distribution employs a 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.

Diesel generator :
o Electric power generators can be grouped into one of three different types
depending on their style of operation (ISO 8528)
1. Continuous
2. Standby
STANDBY :
o Supply emergency power for a limited duration during a power outage.
o Designed to operate at a maximum of 200 hours per year.
o No overload capabilities built into the units.
o Variable load factor is 70 % of standby rating.
o Not for maintained utility paralleling applications. PRIME :
o Can accommodate varying loads on an unlimited basis throughout the year.
o The average power factor cannot exceed 70 per cent of the prime rating.
o Designed to operate at a maximum of 750 hours per year.

Page 11 of 46
o 10% overload available, but limited to 1 in 12 hours and not to exceed 25 hours per
year.

CONTINUOUS :
o Unlimited hours of usage.
o The average output of a continuous power gen set is 70 to 100 per cent of the rating
and is designed to provide 100 per cent power load for every hour during the year.
o Used in situations where a limited amount of power load fluctuation occurs.

LIGHTING DESIGN
Light defines space, enhances colour and reveals the intricacies of texture and form. The
lighting design should take into consideration the following aspects:
1. Illumination level (right quantity of light)
2. Proper placement of luminaire ( proper location)
3. With efficient integrated controls
Lighting design can be governed based on the following criteria:
1. Light distribution:
✓ Task and ambient lighting
✓ Day lighting integration
✓ Light pollution and light trespass.
2. Lighting quality and quantity:
✓ Illumination levels
✓ Adaptation levels
3. Lighting on people and objects:
✓ Modeling faces and objects
✓ Surface characteristics
✓ Points of interest
✓ Sparkle

4. Space and workplace considerations:

✓ Flexibility
✓ Appearance of the space and luminaires
✓ Color appearance
✓ Luminance of room surfaces
✓ Flickering of light
✓ Direct and reflective glare

Lighting systems:
Page 11 of 46
Lighting systems can be divided into six generic types. In many applications, a combination
of these basic systems is used.
✓ General Lighting
✓ Localized Lighting
✓ Ambient Lighting
✓ Task Lighting
✓ Accent Lighting
✓ Decorative Lighting

LIGHTING CONTROL:
✓ Dimming
✓ Occupancy sensing
✓ Scheduling
✓ Daylight harvesting
✓ task/ambient lighting
✓ Personal (manual) control of workstations

Some rules for the design of efficient electric lighting :

1. Use light-coloured surfaces for ceilings, walls, floors, and furniture.
2. Use local or task lighting to prevent the unnecessary high illumination of non-work
areas.
3. Use task/ambient lighting for most work areas.
4. Use electric lighting to complement daylighting.
5. Use the lowest recommended light level for electric lighting.
6. Carefully control the direction of the light source to prevent glare and veiling
reflections.
7. Use high-efficacy lamps (e.g., metal halide, fluorescent, and LED).
8. Use the full potential of manual and automatic switching and dimming to save
energy and the environment.
9. Use occupancy sensors, photo sensors, timers, and central energy management
systems whenever possible.
10. Use Energy Star–labelled lamps.

Page 11 of 46
Lighting design consideration criteria are as follows:
• The analysis of the quality and quantity of light
• Consider colour appearance, colour rendering
• Consider lamp life and luminaire efficiency
• Consider light distribution
• Consider luminaire position and maintenance
• Consider controls and use of daylight
Electrical power metering
A device that measures the amount of electrical energy consumed by electrically Powered devices.
There are two types of EM which work on different mechanisms.
1. Electromechanical induction type meter
2. Electronic meter or solid-state meter
Earthlings and Electrical Installations in Domestic Houses

Page 11 of 46
Earthlings (Grounding):

• Definition: The process of connecting electrical systems to the Earth to prevent electrical shock,
reduce the risk of fire, and protect appliances.
• Components:
o Earth Rod/Plate: A metal conductor buried in the ground.
o Earth Wire: A wire connecting the installation to the earth rod or plate.
o Equipotential Bonding: Links all metal parts to ensure no potential difference exists in
case of a fault.
• Importance:
o Redirects fault current safely to the ground.
o Protects humans and animals from electric shocks.
o Ensures circuit breakers or fuses operate during faults.

2. Subcircuits in Electrical Installations

Definition:

• Subcircuits are smaller circuits branched off the main supply to distribute power within a
building.

Examples in a Domestic Setting:

1. Lighting Circuit:
o Typically uses 1.5 mm² cable.
o Protected by a 6-10A circuit breaker.
2. Power Circuit:
o Supplies outlets (sockets) for appliances.
o Uses 2.5 mm² cable with a 16-20A breaker.
3. High-Power Circuit:
o For heavy appliances like ovens or water heaters.
o Requires 4-6 mm² cable with a 32-40A breaker.
4. Dedicated Circuits:
o Separate lines for specific devices like air conditioners or refrigerators.
5. Auxiliary Systems:
o Circuits for alarms, intercoms, or internet connections.

3. Power-Saving Techniques in a Simple Building

Key Strategies:

1. Lighting:
o Use LED bulbs: They consume up to 90% less energy than incandescent bulbs.
o Install motion sensors: Automates lighting in low-traffic areas like hallways.
o Utilize natural light: Position windows to maximize daylight.
2. Appliances:
o Use energy-efficient appliances: Look for ENERGY STAR ratings.

Page 11 of 46
 o Unplug idle devices: Avoid phantom loads (standby power consumption).
o Choose smaller or multipurpose appliances where applicable.
3. Heating and Cooling:
o Insulate walls, roofs, and windows to reduce heat loss/gain.
o Use ceiling fans to complement air conditioning.
o Install a programmable thermostat.
4. Water Heating:
o Lower the thermostat setting on water heaters (50°C is generally sufficient).
o Use solar water heaters if feasible.
o Insulate hot water pipes.
5. Power Management:
o Use smart power strips: Automatically cut off power to idle devices.
o Install energy monitoring systems to track and manage consumption.
6. Renewable Energy:
o Integrate solar panels for electricity generation.
o Use battery storage to maximize the use of generated solar power.
7. Behavioral Changes:
o Turn off lights, fans, and appliances when not in use.
o Schedule heavy energy-consuming activities (e.g., laundry) during off-peak hours.

REGULATION IN KENYA ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION

✓ Kenya has established several regulations to govern energy consumption, aimed at promoting
renewable energy adoption, improving efficiency, and ensuring sustainability. Here are the key
highlights:

1. Net Metering Regulations (2024)

• Overview: These regulations enable consumers with renewable energy systems (like solar or
wind) to supply surplus electricity to the national grid in exchange for credit against their
consumption.
• Features:
o Applicable for systems with an installed capacity below 1 MW.
o Consumers receive one credit unit for every two units of electricity banked, redeemable
during periods of low production or high consumption.
o Unused credits at the financial year's end are forfeited.
• Limitations:
o No monetary compensation for surplus power fed into the grid.
o Capped aggregate capacity of 100 MW for the first five years.
• Benefits: Encourages renewable energy adoption and offers financial incentives through reduced
energy bills.

2. Open Access and Electricity Market Regulations (2024)

• These rules promote competition by allowing consumers to purchase electricity from multiple
suppliers rather than solely from state utility Kenya Power (KPLC).

Page 11 of 46
 • Encourage renewable energy integration through mechanisms like feed-in tariffs and grid
enhancements.

3. Carbon Credits

• Renewable energy projects, including solar PV systems, can earn carbon credits by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. These credits can be traded in carbon markets, providing additional
financial returns to energy producers.

4. Challenges and Criticisms

• Impact on Utilities: Net metering reduces revenue for KPLC, potentially leading to higher costs
for non-renewable users.
• Grid Management: The intermittent nature of renewables like solar can strain the grid during
peak production.
• Economic Disparities: Wealthier consumers are better positioned to benefit from renewable
energy programs, potentially increasing inequality.

THE PRINCIPLES OF GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, SINGLE AND 3-PHASE INSTALLATION SUPPLY
1. Generation of Electrical Energy

Principles:

• Conversion of Energy: Electrical energy is generated by converting mechanical energy (from

turbines) into electrical energy using generators.
• Sources of Mechanical Energy:
o Fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil) for thermal power plants.
o Hydropower using water flow.
o Wind power through wind turbines.
o Nuclear energy and renewable sources like solar PV and geothermal.
• Types of Current Produced:
o Alternating Current (AC) is the standard due to its efficiency in transmission over long
distances.

2. Transmission of Electrical Energy

Principles:

• High Voltage Transmission: Electricity is transmitted at high voltage (e.g., 132 kV, 220 kV) to
reduce current and minimize energy losses due to resistance.
• Transformers:
o Step-up transformers increase voltage levels for transmission.
o Step-down transformers reduce voltage for distribution.
• Transmission Lines:
Page 11 of 46
 o Overhead lines or underground cables carry the electricity.
o AC is predominantly used, but DC transmission (HVDC) is employed for very long
distances to reduce losses further.
• Grid Systems:
o Power grids interconnect multiple generation sources and regions for reliability.

3. Distribution of Electrical Energy

Principles:

• Voltage Reduction: Voltage is stepped down to safer levels (e.g., 11 kV for industrial use,
230V/400V for residential and commercial use).
• Local Distribution:
o Primary distribution supplies industrial areas directly.
o Secondary distribution provides power to smaller businesses and residential areas.
• Distribution Networks:
o Radial systems, ring systems, and interconnected networks are common.

4. Single-Phase and Three-Phase Installation Supply

Single-Phase Supply:

• Structure: A single live (phase) wire and a neutral wire.

• Applications:
o Residential homes and small appliances.
o Power demand is low, typically up to 3 kW.
• Advantages:
o Simpler and less expensive installation.
• Limitations:
o Limited capacity and less efficient for high-power applications.

Three-Phase Supply:

• Structure: Three live wires (phases) and a neutral wire.

• Applications:
o Industrial facilities, large buildings, and equipment requiring high power.
o Ideal for motors, pumps, and heavy machinery.
• Advantages:
o Higher efficiency and power capacity.
o Smaller conductor size for the same power output.
o Smooth power delivery reduces equipment wear.
• Limitations:
o More complex and costly installation.

Comparison of Single-Phase and Three-Phase Systems

Page 11 of 46
 Aspect Single-Phase Three-Phase
[Link] Levels ✓ Typically, 230V ✓ Typically, 400V (line-to-line)
2. Power Delivery ✓ Pulsating, lower power output ✓ Continuous, higher efficiency
[Link] ✓ Homes, small businesses ✓ Factories, large buildings

ENERGY IN RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL REAL ESTATE

1. Energy in Residential Real Estate

Key Uses:

• Heating and Cooling: HVAC systems for maintaining indoor temperatures.

• Lighting: General illumination, both indoor and outdoor.
• Appliances and Electronics: Refrigerators, washing machines, TVs, and other devices.
• Water Heating: Heating water for bathing, cleaning, and cooking.

Challenges:

• Energy Efficiency: Older homes often have poor insulation, outdated systems, and inefficient
appliances.
• Cost: Rising energy prices increase the financial burden on homeowners.
• Environmental Impact: High energy use contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.

Energy Optimization Strategies:

1. Energy-Efficient Appliances: Switching to ENERGY STAR-rated devices reduces energy

consumption.
2. Smart Home Systems: Automated thermostats and lighting systems optimize energy use.
3. Renewable Energy Integration: Installing solar panels or using wind energy.
4. Better Insulation: Upgrading windows, walls, and roofs to prevent energy loss.
5. LED Lighting: Replacing traditional bulbs with energy-efficient LED lighting.

2. Energy in Commercial Real Estate

Key Uses:

• HVAC Systems: For heating, cooling, and ventilation in large spaces.

• Lighting: Offices, retail spaces, and external signage.
• Operational Equipment: Elevators, escalators, computers, and other machinery.
• Water Heating: For restrooms, kitchens, and industrial processes.
Page 11 of 46
Challenges:

• High Energy Demand: Commercial buildings often operate 24/7 or during extended hours.
• Operational Costs: Energy bills are a significant operational expense.
• Sustainability Pressures: Businesses are increasingly held accountable for their carbon footprint.

Energy Optimization Strategies:

1. Building Management Systems (BMS): Automating energy use based on occupancy and
activity.
2. Green Building Design: Incorporating passive solar design, natural ventilation, and green roofs.
3. Lighting Systems: Using motion sensors, daylighting techniques, and efficient fixtures.
4. Energy Audits: Identifying inefficiencies and implementing corrective measures.
5. On-Site Renewable Energy: Installing solar panels, wind turbines, or geothermal systems.
6. LEED Certification: Ensuring buildings meet energy efficiency and sustainability standards.

Trends and Innovations in Energy for Real Estate:

Smart Buildings:

• Equipped with IoT devices to monitor and optimize energy use in real-time.
• Integration of AI for predictive maintenance and efficient energy management.

Energy Storage Solutions:

• Battery systems to store renewable energy (e.g., Tesla Powerwall).

• Reduces dependency on the grid during peak hours.

Net-Zero Buildings:

• Structures designed to produce as much energy as they consume annually.

• Achieved through renewable energy, advanced insulation, and efficient systems.

Energy Benchmarking and Reporting:

• Many cities now require commercial buildings to disclose energy performance.

• Drives competition and innovation in energy efficiency.

WASTE DISPOSAL SERVICES

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Wastewater treatment is crucial for protecting the environment and public health. The five basic
principles of wastewater treatment are physical, chemical, biological, tertiary, and disinfection.
1. Physical Treatment: Physical treatment involves the removal of solid particles from wastewater
through physical processes such as screening, sedimentation, and filtration. Large solids such as

Page 11 of 46
 sticks, rags, and plastic are removed from the wastewater using screens during the screening
process. After screening, sedimentation removes smaller particles such as sand and silt by
allowing the wastewater to sit in a basin until the particles settle to the bottom. Filtration is then
used to remove the remaining small particles from the wastewater.
2. Chemical Treatment: Chemical treatment involves the use of chemicals to remove contaminants
from wastewater. This process involves adding chemicals to the wastewater to coagulate or
precipitate impurities to remove them through sedimentation or filtration. Chemical treatment is
often used in conjunction with physical treatment to achieve optimal results.
3. Biological Treatment: Biological treatment is used to remove organic matter from wastewater.
This process involves the use of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae to break down
organic matter into simpler, more stable compounds. This process occurs naturally in rivers and
lakes, but in wastewater treatment plants, it is artificially accelerated by controlling the conditions
in which the microorganisms grow, such as temperature and pH levels.
4. Tertiary Treatment: Tertiary treatment is the final stage of the treatment process, where the
water is treated to a high standard before being released back into the environment. This process
involves the removal of dissolved solids and other contaminants that have not been removed
during the previous stages of treatment. Tertiary treatment may include processes such as reverse
osmosis, activated carbon adsorption, and membrane filtration.
5. Disinfection: Disinfection is the final stage of the wastewater treatment process, where any
remaining pathogens, bacteria, or viruses are destroyed to ensure that the water is safe for release
into the environment. Disinfection methods may include chlorine, ultraviolet radiation, and ozone.

Advantages of the Basic Principles of Wastewater Treatment

1. Protection of Public Health: Wastewater treatment is essential to protect public health by
ensuring that wastewater is treated to a high standard before being released into the environment.
Wastewater can contain pathogens, bacteria, and viruses that can be harmful to human health, so
effective wastewater treatment is necessary to protect public health.
2. Protection of the Environment: Wastewater treatment is essential to protect the environment by
removing contaminants and pollutants from wastewater before it is released into the environment.
Wastewater can contain nutrients, heavy metals, and other pollutants that can be harmful to
aquatic life and ecosystems. Effective wastewater treatment can help to protect the environment
and promote healthy ecosystems.
3. Water Conservation: Wastewater treatment can help conserve water by treating wastewater to a
high standard before it is released back into the environment. This treated wastewater can then be
reused for non-potable purposes such as irrigation, landscaping, and industrial uses, reducing the
demand for freshwater resources.
4. Energy Conservation: Wastewater treatment can also contribute to energy conservation. For
example, anaerobic digestion can be used to treat wastewater, which produces biogas that can be
used as a renewable energy source. Additionally, energy-efficient equipment and processes can be
used to reduce energy consumption during the treatment process.
5. Economic Benefits: Effective wastewater treatment can also provide economic benefits. Reusing
treated wastewater for non-potable purposes can reduce the demand for freshwater resources,
Page 11 of 46
 which can result in cost savings for water utilities and industrial users. Additionally, recovering
resources such as biogas and nutrients from wastewater can create new revenue streams and
reduce operating costs.

1. CESSPOOLS
Cesspools, or cesspits, are simple underground chambers that collect and store wastewater without any
treatment. They are typically constructed using concrete, brick, or other impermeable materials, allowing
sewage to leach into the surrounding soil passively:
Merits of Cesspools:
1. Cost-Effective Installation: Cesspools are generally less expensive than septic tanks, making
them an attractive option for homeowners on a budget.
2. Low Maintenance: Cesspools require minimal maintenance since they lack mechanical
components or treatment systems. This can save you both time and money in the long run.
3. Compact Size: Cesspools are usually smaller than septic tanks, making them suitable for
properties with limited space.
Demerits of Cesspools:
1. No Treatment: The most significant drawback of cesspools is that they do not treat wastewater.
This means harmful pathogens and contaminants can leach into the groundwater, posing potential
health and environmental risks.
2. Frequent Pumping: Cesspools need frequent pumping to remove accumulated sludge and
prevent overflows. This ongoing expense can add up over time.
3. Environmental Concerns: The discharge from cesspools can contaminate nearby groundwater,
leading to water pollution and potential harm to ecosystems.

2. SEPTIC TANKS
Septic tanks are more sophisticated wastewater treatment systems commonly used in rural and suburban
areas. They consist of two chambers: one for separating solids and liquids and another for treating
wastewater.
Septic tanks are commonly used for treating wastewater in areas without centralized sewer systems.
Advantages of Septic Tanks
1. Environmentally Friendly: Properly functioning septic systems can treat wastewater naturally
and return filtered water to the soil.
2. Low Maintenance: Requires less frequent maintenance compared to other wastewater treatment
systems, provided it is properly designed and installed.
3. Property Value: Having a septic system can add value to properties in areas without access to
sewer services.
4. Cost-Effectiveness: Septic tanks are the budget-friendly heroes of wastewater management. It has
lower installation and maintenance expenses than its city-slicker relative, the centralized sewer
system. Septic Tanks are a cost-effective option for intelligent homeowners.

Page 11 of 46
 5. Independence from Public Sewers Picture this: you're in the rural haven of your dreams, but the
city sewer system hasn’t made its way there. Fear not! Septic tanks give you the independence to
manage your waste without relying on distant public sewers. Rural charm meets modern
convenience.
6. Efficient Wastewater Treatment: Inside the septic tank, a natural dance unfolds. Solids take a
bow and settle, while effluent gets a VIP treatment before waltzing into the drain field. It’s a
backstage pass to efficient wastewater treatment right in your backyard. Nature approves.
Disadvantages of septic tanks
1. Potential for Failure: If not maintained properly, septic tanks can fail, leading to backups and
environmental contamination.
2. Limited Capacity: The size and design of the tank limit the amount of wastewater it can handle,
which can be problematic for large households or increased water usage.
3. Maintenance Requirements: Regular pumping and maintenance are necessary to prevent
buildup and system failure, which can incur costs.
4. Environmental Risks: Improperly maintained systems can lead to groundwater contamination
and environmental hazards.
5. Potential for Contamination: septic tanks might spill their secrets. Leakages or system failures
could contaminate groundwater. It’s the dark side of septic tanks, and it’s why responsible
ownership is crucial.
6. Limited Lifespan: Like a superhero with a finite timeline, septic tanks have a lifespan. They’re not
immortal. Knowing when to bid farewell and welcome a new tank is part of the septic tank
journey. Be prepared for the changing of the guard.
7. Land Use Restrictions: Septic tank installations may come with land use restrictions. i.e.
swimming pools Setback requirements and construction constraints might play gatekeepers to your
grand plans. Installation requires sufficient land area, as the system needs space for drainage fields,
which may not be feasible on smaller properties
Mitigating Disadvantages with Proper Practices
1. Regular Inspections: Think of inspections as health check-ups for your septic tank. Regular
professional inspections can spot issues early, preventing major system failures. It’s like giving
your tank an annual wellness visit.
2. Responsible Chemical Usage: Chemicals—they can be friends or foes. When it comes to septic
tanks, be kind. Harsh chemicals can throw off the delicate balance inside the tank.
3. Mindful Water Usage: Water is the unsung hero in this tale. How you use it matters. Mindful
water usage prevents overloading the septic system. Less water down the drain means a happier
and healthier tank. It’s a simple equation.

3. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINE FOR BIO-DIGESTERS

Biogas and anaerobic digestion
✓ Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is the conversion of organic non-woody material (organic matter) in
the absence of oxygen into stable and commercially useful compounds.
✓ AD feedstock can be biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure or sewage, municipal
waste, green waste etc.
✓ Besides the process of anaerobic digestion takes place in the intestines of humans and animals.

Digestion process
Page 11 of 46
 ✓ The digestion process consists of 4 stages: hydrolysis, acidification, acetogenesis and
methanogenesis.
✓ In the first phase anaerobic bacteria use enzymes to decompose high molecular organic
substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, cellulose and fats into low molecular compounds.
✓ During the second phase acid forming bacteria continue the decomposition process into organic
acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia.
✓ Acid bacteria form acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen during the acetogenesis phase.
✓ The methanogenesis phase involves methane-forming bacteria producing methane, carbon
dioxide and alkaline water.
Use of anaerobic digestion
✓ Anaerobic Digestion is widely used to treat wastewater sludge and organic waste because it
provides volume and mass reduction of the input material.
✓ Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a renewable energy source because the process produces
methane and carbon dioxide-rich biogas suitable for energy production helping replace fossil
fuels.
✓ Also, the nutrient-rich digestate can be used as fertiliser.
The Bio-digester
✓ A bio-digester is a tank that facilitates anaerobic digestion.
✓ It is an anaerobic treatment technology that produces (a) a digested slurry and (b) biogas.
✓ Bio-digester is used as an alternative to a conventional septic tank, since it offers a similar level of
treatment, but with the added benefit of biogas.
✓ A bio-digester can come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the general requirements, the
needs and the local possibilities in building materials.
✓ A bio-digester or biogas system is a waste-management solution that traps methane as it is
produced, making it available for heating, cooking or even electricity generation.
✓ By preventing methane from venting freely into the atmosphere, the system can help reduce
emissions that contribute to climate change.
✓ Biogas is a sustainable substitute for the propane, kerosene, and firewood often used in Kenya for
energy needs.
Outputs from the digestion process
The outputs from the digestion process are:
1. Biogas – a mixture of ~ 60 % methane (C2H4), ~ 40 % carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide
(less than 1 %) and traces of other ‘contaminant’ gases. This biogas is then combusted to generate
heat, power or road fuel.
2. Digestate (slurry) – an inert and sterile wet product with valuable plant nutrients and organic
humus. This product can be separated into ‘liquor’ and fibre for application to land or secondary
processing.
Biogas
✓ The valuable component of Biogas is methane (CH4) which typically makes up 60 %, with the
balance being carbon dioxide (CO2) and small percentages of other gases.
✓ The proportion of methane depends on the feedstock and the efficiency of the process, with the
range for methane content being 40 % to 70 %. Biogas is saturated and contains hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) that is partially responsible for the foul odour of rotten eggs and flatulence.
Use of biogas

Page 11 of 46
 1. Used with suitably designed burners for cooking. It gives a clean, smokeless blue flame. Where
biogas replaces firewood as a fuel for cooking, this technology helps to reduce deforestation.
Also, as biogas burns much cleaner than traditional wood stoves, it helps to reduce eye- and
respiratory diseases caused by smoke in unventilated houses (the World Health Organisation
estimates that exposure to indoor air pollution may be responsible for nearly 2 million excess
deaths in developing countries).
2. Besides, biogas can fuel an internal combustion gas engine in a Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
unit to produce electricity and heat.
3. The gas can also be upgraded and used in gas supply networks. The use of biogas in solid oxide
fuel cells is being researched

Slurry
✓ Only a small proportion of the total mass of the feedstock is converted into biogas. The slurry that
is produced is rich in organics and nutrients, but almost odourless and partly disinfected
(complete pathogen destruction would require thermophilic conditions).
Use of slurry
✓ The slurry is rich in various plant nutrients such as Nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. Nutrients
are conserved with more than 90 % of nutrients entering anaerobic digesters conserved through
the digestion process.
✓ Well-fermented biogas slurry improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil
resulting in qualitative as well as quantitative yields of food crops.
✓ Other uses of slurry include putting into ponds as feed for algae, water hyacinth, fish or ducks,
and mushroom cultivation.
Feeding material
✓ In theory, any organic material can be decomposed anaerobically to produce biogas, but some
materials work better than others. In general, materials need to be rich in energy and easily
digestible.
✓ Manure works very well, coming from cows, pigs, or horses. Bio-digesters can be fashioned from
septic tanks, but the waste production is often not enough to produce enough biogas, and cleaning
agents (bleach etc.) kill the anaerobic bacteria necessary for digestion.
✓ Plant material can be used, but acidic matter should be avoided, for they disturb the anaerobic
processes. Plant matter is also often low-energy and slow to digest, creating several difficulties
for digesters relying solely on such material.
Production capacity
It is very difficult to estimate the production capacity of a bio-digester for the following reasons:
1. Biogas production is best measured by scientific processes.
2. Biogas production varies with the type of material used to feed the bio-digester.
3. Biogas production varies with the temperature of the mixture inside the tank.
4. Biogas production varies with the acidity or alkalinity of the mixture inside the tank.
5. Other factors, such as defects in construction, can make true measurements of biogas production
very difficult.
Layout
A bio-digester is a chamber or vault that facilitates the anaerobic degradation of blackwater, sludge,
Page 11 of 46
and/or biodegradable waste. It also facilitates the separation and collection of the biogas that is produced.
The tanks can be built above or below ground. Prefabricated tanks or brick-constructed chambers can be
built depending on space, resources and the volume of waste generated. Figure 1 displays the rough
layout of a bio-digester.
Figure 1: Layout of a bio-digester

Hydraulic retention time (HRT)

The hydraulic retention time (HRT) in the reactor should be a minimum of 15 days in hot climates and 25
days in temperate climates. For highly pathogenic inputs, a HRT of 60 days should be considered.
Normally, bio-digesters are not heated, but to ensure pathogen destruction (i.e. a sustained temperature
over 50°C) the reactor should be heated (although in practice, this is only found in the most industrialized
countries).
Gas utilisation
Once waste products enter the digestion chamber, gases are formed through fermentation. The gas forms
in the sludge but collects at the top of the reactor, mixing the slurry as it rises.
Bio-digesters can be built as fixed dome or floating dome reactors. In the fixed dome reactor the volume
of the reactor is constant. As gas is generated it exerts pressure and displaces the slurry upward into an
expansion chamber. When the gas is removed, the slurry will flow back down into the digestion chamber.
The pressure generated can be used to transport the biogas through pipes. In a floating dome reactor, the
dome will rise and fall with the production and withdrawal of gas. Alternatively, the dome can expand
(like a balloon).
Size
Most often bio-digesters are directly connected to indoor (private or public) toilets with an additional
access point for organic materials. At the household level, reactors can be made out of plastic containers
or bricks and can be built behind the house or buried underground. Sizes can vary from 1 m³ for a single
family up to 100 m³ for institutional or public toilet facilities.
Emptying
Depending on the design and the inputs, the reactor should be emptied once every 6 months to 10 years.

Efficiency
If the bio-digester is connected to (sanitation) facilities and also receives a lot of water (e.g. greywater
form showers and sinks) the efficiency of the reactor can be improved significantly by also adding animal
manure and biodegradable organic waste.
Location
Depending on the soil, location, and size required, the reactor can be built above or below ground (even
below roads). For more urban applications, small biogas reactors can be installed on the rooftops or in a
Page 11 of 46
courtyard.
To minimize distribution losses, the reactors should be installed close to where the gas can be used.
Climate aspects
Bio-digesters are less appropriate for colder climates as gas production is not economically feasible
below 15°C.
Health Aspects / Acceptance
The digested slurry is not completely sanitized and still carries a risk of infection. There are also dangers
associated with the flammable gases that, if mismanaged, could be harmful to human health.
The bio-digester must be well built and gas tight for safety. If the reactor is properly designed, repairs
should be minimal. To start the reactor, active sludge (e.g. from a septic tank) should be used as a seed.
The tank is essentially self-mixing, but it should be manually stirred once a week to prevent uneven
reactions.
Gas equipment should be cleaned carefully and regularly so that corrosion and leaks are prevented.
Grit and sand that has settled to the bottom should be removed once every year.

Advantages of Bio-digester technology

Processing organic waste anaerobically to create biogas is a sustainable, renewable waste-to-energy
solution. While waste needs to be added and effluent removed daily, bio-digesters are typically very
reliable systems that require little maintenance. The process offers numerous advantages over
conventional technologies/wastewater treatment options:
1. Reducing the transport of wastewater and waste as it is treated on-site;
2. Reduce contamination of surface water, groundwater and other resources;
3. Reduce odours and pathogens (closed vessel processing confines odorous compounds which are
converted to other chemicals);
4. Generation of a clean, renewable, valuable energy source;
5. Preventing the uncontrolled emissions of CH4;
6. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions;
7. No electrical energy required;
8. Low capital and operating costs;
9. Underground construction minimizes land use;
10. Long life span;
11. Can be built and repaired with locally available materials;
12. Bio-fertiliser produced displaces mineral fertilisers;
13. Improvement in slurry characteristics such as fluidity, crop compatibility, homogeneity,
and reduction of weed germs.
14. Can accommodate a wide variety of organic wastes including animal manure, night soil, crop
stalks, straw, slaughterhouse wastes, biodegradable garbage and wastewater.
15. Production of electricity and heat provides valuable income.
16. Positive use of organic waste materials reduces land and water pollution.
Page 11 of 46
Disadvantages
Bio-digesters function poorly in colder climates unless an external heat source is applied. The
methanogenic bacteria responsible for generating biogas require temperatures well above freezing
(optimal temperature ranges - mesophilic: 30 to 40°C; thermophilic: 50 to 60°C), so bio-digesters are not
ideal in cooler areas.
To keep the anaerobic digestion process going continually, bio-digesters require a daily amount of work
and a consistent source of organic materials:
1. If organic waste and not only wastewater is fed into the digester, each day, the waste to be added
needs to be mixed with water and/or ground to a liquid state. Manure and wastewater from
sanitation facilities are water-soluble, but kitchen scraps, such as banana and orange peels need to
be ground into smaller which can be time-consuming.
2. Each day, the bio-digester effluent needs to be removed from the effluent tank.
3. Biogas provides much less energy compared to fuels such as propane and natural gas.
4. Requires expert design and skilled construction.
5. Gas production below 15°C is not economically feasible.
6. Digested sludge and effluent still requires treatment.

Operation and maintenance requirements of digesters and biogas plants

Factors affecting the biogas plant
To ensure a sufficient treatment process while at the same time increasing the biogas conditions such as
air tightness, suitable temperature, necessary nutrients, water contents, and maintaining a suitable pH
balance must be maintained. The following factors affecting the digestion process have to be optimised
and observed during operation:
1. Temperature: The optimum temperature for methane-producing bacteria is about 35°C. When
the slurry temperature is low gas production is greatly reduced. At 10°C (slurry temperature) the
production of biogas more or less stops.
2. Retention time: The retention time is temperature-dependent. The higher the temperature, the
faster the bacteria use the food from the slurry and the sooner it needs replacing.
3. Air: Methane-producing bacteria are anaerobic. So air should be excluded from the plant interior.
4. Bacterial concentration: It is greatly affected by methanogenic bacteria. If they are less in
number, gas production is greatly reduced. The fermentation process involves two stages. Firstly,
bacteria break down complex organic materials and secondly, the breakdown of organic materials
produces methane by a kind of bacteria known as a methanogenic microorganism. If this type of
bacteria is not developed to attack cellular materials in the dung, methane cannot be formed.
5. Carbon-Nitrogen ratio (C: N ratio): The elements of carbon and nitrogen are the main nutrients
for anaerobic bacteria. Carbon is utilized for energy and nitrogen for the building of cell
structures. Bacteria use carbon 25 – 30 times faster than they use nitrogen. So the ratio seems 25-
30:1. If the carbon-nitrogen ratio is not appropriate, we can increase or decrease the ratio by
adding a certain amount of urea or gypsum.

Page 11 of 46
 6. pH: pH for bacteria is usually 7-8, but can go up or down further by 0.5. pH can be checked
either with a universal indicator or pH paper or a pH meter. It is quite easy to find out the pH with
the help of pH paper.
7. Gobar water ratio: The ratio is dependent upon the feeding materials (dry matter). However,
there should not be any stratification in the digester. In other words, mixing of the gobar should
be properly done, which can be easily observed by calculating the percentage of dry matter
(DM %). If there is a great change in DM % of the top as well as the bottom, there will be
stratification. Generally, the gobar water ratio should be 1:1. If the amount of water is more the
gas production is less. The slurry should be neither too thick (more than 14 %) nor too thin (less
than 6 %) but should be 8 – 10 % of total solids.
8. Solid contents: The solid contents of the slurry should be 8-10%.
The table below describes standard operating procedures for the bio-digester with respective intervals.
Table 1: Standard Operating Procedures for the bio-digester
Procedure Description Interval
Feeding of bio- Feed the digester regularly with the right material. If Daily
digester the plant is fixed to toilets, they should be under
constant use to guarantee regular feeding to ensure
continuous gas production.
Increasing the The concentration of the anaerobic bacteria can be If required
micro-bacterial increased by first putting fresh cow dung into the
activity by digester which already contains bacteria. Cow dung
the addition of has methanogen bacteria which are of the same type
extra waste as the ones in the digester.
Slurry analysis Slurry analysis should be done at least once a year annually
and whenever the need arises especially when gas
production has reduced.
pH-testing The pH of the slurry should be tested regularly and monthly
whenever the need arises especially when gas
production has reduced.
No use of gas The valve at the neck should always be closed when
gas is not used.
Inspection of Check for leakages along the pipes and the Annually
gas pipes accessories. Teflon tape must be used in pipe fittings
to avoid leakage from pipe fittings.
Water traps Check and remove the accumulated water in the Weekly
and moisture water traps once every week.
control The water trap or water drain at the lowest part of
the piping line should be checked regularly for its
functionality. Water drain must be made at the
lowest level of the fittings.
Excess overflow of water in this device may increase
the moisture content in the gas rendering it
inflammable.
Replace the gas Biogas tends to corrode GI pipe fittings. During Every two years
valves and taps piping, these components should be avoided but in
Page 11 of 46
Procedure Description Interval
anytime they case they are used, they should be replaced regularly
start to leak in a span of two years.
De-sludging of This is the process of manual or mechanical removal Every 18 months
decomposed of the settled decomposed waste at the bottom of the
waste from the plant. During anaerobic decomposition, waste gases
digester plant. are produced and the remains settle down after some
time. This continuous process accumulates some
solids which affect the performance of the plant with
time. De-sludging therefore becomes necessary after
a period of 18 months depending on the type of
waste digested.
During de-sludging, an exhauster can be used
through the de-sludging down the pipe. Manual
removal of waste where no exhauster services can be
applied but with caution. All the gas produced must
first be released into the air or used up. The sealed
neck can then be removed slowly beginning with
wedges. The waste can be removed till everything is
emptied to the floor.
Cleaning of the Biogas contains other gases such as carbon dioxide If required
gadgets and sulphur dioxide as a result of decay. During
connected to combustion, these gases disintegrate producing other
biogas as fuel solid components such as Carbon and sulphur oxides
that are dissipated on the surfaces of the stoves,
lamps, generators and all the equipment used. This
causes blockages when they have accumulated to
a reasonable level.
It is advisable to clean off all these particles for
higher equipment efficiencies.

Low gas yield especially in the winter seasons, underfeeding of the plants, no commercial use of gas as
well as slurry, and no choice of other design, size and feeding materials are some of the technical
problems.
The following table highlights the most common problems in digester operation and corresponding
operating procedures:

Table 2: Problems and Procedures

Problem Reason Procedure
Biogas does not The first gas Remove the gas from the dome once or twice.
burn coming from the If the problem persists, check the water traps and empty
plant may not them well.
burn
Plenty of gas in The main valve Open the main gas valve.
the dome but may be closed
won’t come to Gas taps or gas Clean the gas tap and gas jet.
Page 11 of 46
Problem Reason Procedure
the stove jets may be
blocked
May be blocked Open main gas valve and water drain. Remove the water
in the pipeline or slurry through the water outlet.
Less gas Irregular feeding Feed the digester as recommended.
production Low outside Insulate the plant
temperature
Too much water Put less water in the toilet and add water as
in the digester recommended.
Toxic substances Use clean water only for cleaning the toilets.
entered the Minimize the use of disinfectants.
digester
Leakage from Check joints and fittings with the help of soap and water.
the pipeline If bubbles occur repair the leakage.
The flame is Impurities in the Clean the gas tap and stove weekly.
weak and red gas tap and/or
stove
Insufficient Close the valve to allow more gas collection.
amounts of gas Check for any leakages along the pipes and fittings with
inside the plant soapy water.
Gas burns with There may be Clean the hole and the ring.
a long flame a blockage in the
air-regulating
hole and ring
Slurry comes Inadequate Feed the plant adequately.
through the feeding
pipeline Gas using Close the valve for about 10 hrs.
frequently
Gas leakage Check the main gas valve and other fittings with soap
water and repair the leakage. If the problem is not solved
contact the concerned company.
Gas leakage Leakages around Gas leakages can be very dangerous and harmful to the
the neck and on environment. The sealed neck is kept underwater film in
the Lid the neck to detect any leakages if any.
Check for any leakages on the dome, if applicable and
around the neck. This can be done by use of soapy water
on top of the sealed lid.

Advantages
The viability of a bio-digester will depend on:
 The availability of waste to give a feedstock of zero cost;
 Whether the electricity generated (if applicable) is displacing existing demand;
 Whether gas generated is displacing existing demand (e.g. cooking);
Page 11 of 46
  Whether the value is derived from surplus heat and the bio-fertiliser produced;
 Scale and location of the digester.
Capital costs for gas transmission infrastructure can increase the project cost. Depending on the quality of
the output, the gas transmission capital costs can be offset by long-term energy savings.

Page 11 of 46