Week 4 Notes: Geometry and Set Theory
PART A: GEOMETRY – STRAIGHT LINES
1. Equation of a Straight Line
The general equation of a straight line is:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
where:
• 𝑚= gradient (slope)
• 𝑐= y-intercept
2. Gradient of a Line
Given two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1)and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ):
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
3. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
• Parallel lines: have equal gradients
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
• Perpendicular lines: product of gradients is −1
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
Example 1
Find the equation of the line passing through (2, 3)and parallel to 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 1.
Solution:
Gradient 𝑚 = 4
Using point–slope form:
𝑦 − 3 = 4(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 5
Example 2
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3passing through (4, 1).
Solution:
Gradient of given line = 2
1
Perpendicular gradient = − 2
1
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑥 − 4)
2
1
𝑦 =− 𝑥+3
2
Exercise
The distance (in km) between two towns along a straight road is 10 km. A river crosses the road
such that a bridge can only be built perpendicular to the road. If the river is at point 𝑥 = 6km
along the road, find:
i) The equation of the line representing the road. Assume it passes through the origin.
(5 Marks)
ii) The equation of the perpendicular line through the river. (5 Marks)
PART B: TRIGONOMETRY
4. Trigonometric Functions
For an angle 𝜃:
Opposite Adjacent Opposite
sin 𝜃 = , cos 𝜃 = , tan 𝜃 =
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Adjacent
5. Degree and Radian Measure
180∘ = 𝜋 radians
Conversion:
𝜋
Radians = × Degrees
180
Example:
Convert 60∘ to radians:
𝜋
60∘ =
3
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
• 𝑦 = sin 𝑥and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥: periodic with period 2𝜋
• 𝑦 = tan 𝑥: period 𝜋, vertical asymptotes
• Range: −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1
6. Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin−1 𝑥, cos−1 𝑥, tan−1 𝑥
Domains:
• sin−1 x: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
• cos−1 x: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
• tan−1 x: −∞ < x < ∞
Example:
1 𝜋
sin−1 ( ) = 30∘ =
2 6
7. Sine and Cosine Formulae
Sine Rule
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
Cosine Rule
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏cos 𝐶
Example
1. Find side 𝑐if 𝑎 = 5, 𝑏 = 7, and angle 𝐶 = 60∘ .
𝑐 2 = 52 + 72 − 2(5)(7)cos 60∘
𝑐 2 = 39 ⇒ 𝑐 = √39
2. Find side 𝑎if 𝑏 = 6, 𝑐 = 8, 𝐴 = 60∘ :
𝑎2 = 62 + 82 − 2(6)(8)cos 60∘
𝑎2 = 36 + 64 − 48 = 52
𝑎 = √52
8. Trigonometric Identities
Addition Formulae
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴sin 𝐵
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴sin 𝐵
Multiple-Angle Formulae
sin 2𝐴 = 2sin 𝐴cos 𝐴
cos 2𝐴 = cos2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
cos2A=2cos2A−1
9. 𝑹𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 − 𝒂)Form
An expression:
𝑎cos 𝑥 + 𝑏sin 𝑥
can be written as:
𝑅cos(𝑥 − 𝛼)
Where:
𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Example
Write 3cos 𝑥 + 4sin 𝑥in the form 𝑅cos(𝑥 − 𝛼).
𝑅 = √32 + 42 = 5
4
3 = 5cos 𝛼, 4 = 5sin 𝛼 ⇒ 𝛼 = tan−1 ( )
3
3cos 𝑥 + 4sin 𝑥 = 5cos(𝑥 − 𝛼)
10. Area of a Triangle
1
Area = 𝑎𝑏sin 𝐶
2
PART C: SET THEORY
11. Definitions
• Set: a collection of distinct objects
• Universal set: set containing all elements under consideration
• Empty set: set with no elements
12. Set Operations
• Union: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
• Intersection: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
• Complement: 𝐴′
Example
If:
𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, 𝐴 = {1,2,3}
Then:
𝐴′ = {4,5,6}
13. Venn Diagrams
Used to represent relationships between sets visually.
Example (Application)
1. In a class of 50 students:
• 30 study Mathematics
• 20 study Physics
• 10 study both
Students studying at least one:
30 + 20 − 10 = 40
Students studying neither:
50 − 40 = 10
2. Example:
In a group of 50 students:
• 28 study Mathematics
• 20 study Physics
• 10 study both
Mathematics only:
28 − 10 = 18
Physics only:
20 − 10 = 10
Neither:
50 − (18 + 10 + 10) = 12
Example
a) In a survey of 100 households:
60 own a TV
45 own a radio
25 own both TV and radio
i) Represent this information using a Venn diagram. (4 marks)
ii) How many households own neither? (6 Marks)
Solution
) Set Theory and Venn Diagrams (10 marks)
Given:
• Total households = 100
• TV owners = 60
• Radio owners = 45
• Own both = 25
(i) Venn diagram representation (4 marks)
Calculate individual regions:
• TV only:
60 − 25 = 35
• Radio only:
45 − 25 = 20
• Both TV and Radio:
25
These values are placed correctly in a two-set Venn diagram.
(ii) Number of households that own neither (6 marks)
Total owning at least one:
35 + 25 + 20 = 80
Households owning neither:
100 − 80 = 20