MODULE IN

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1

CE 3131

CIVIL AND GEODETIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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 CE 3131

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:
1. Determine and analyze the
different soil properties and apply
it to solving different soil
problems.
2. Determine and analyze the
classification of soils and rocks,
site investigation and subsurface
exploration of the physical and
index properties of soil.
3. Demonstrate proficiency in
analyzing the different laboratory
determination of soil properties,
GEOTECHNICAL compaction, seepage and
relevance of these topics as they
ENGINEERING 1 affect soil strength,
compressibility and stability.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ iii

MODULE 1: ORIGIN OF SOIL AND GRAIN SIZE........................................................................... 1

ENGAGE ................................................................................................................................................. 1
EXPLORE ................................................................................................................................................. 1

UNIT 1: HISTORY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING .............................................................................. 2

EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................. 2

UNIT 2: ROCK CYCLE ................................................................................................................................... 5

EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................. 5

UNIT 3: THE ORIGIN OF SOIL ....................................................................................................................... 6

EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................. 6

UNIT 4: SOIL PARTICLE SIZE ......................................................................................................................... 6

EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................. 6

UNIT 5: MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL ................................................................................................ 7

EXPLAIN .................................................................................................................................................. 7
ELABORATE .......................................................................................................................................... 18
EVALUATE ............................................................................................................................................. 19

REFERENCE........................................................................................................................................ 19

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 MODULE 1:
ORIGIN OF SOIL AND GRAIN SIZE

ENGAGE

Soil is a natural substance formed by different processes underwent by rocks. Due to

these changes, the physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape, and chemical
composition of grains

In your own discernment answer the following questions by writing your answers in the
space provided.

1. In your own opinion, as future civil engineers why do we need to study the
concept/s involving soil?

2. What is/are the importance of learning the concepts of soil in your chosen
profession?

This module includes an overview of the different historical era and personalities who
made significant studies and researches in the field of soil mechanics and geotechnical
engineering. It aims also to give you an overview of the Origin of Soil and Grain Size. This
module includes the Soil-Particle Size and the Mechanical Analysis of Soil.

EXPLORE

Read: Geotechnical Engineering – A Historical Perspective (pp. 1-13)

and Origin of Soil and Grain Size (pp. 15-62)
Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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 UNIT 1: HISTORY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

EXPLAIN

Geotechnical Engineering Prior to the 18th Century

Based on the emphasis and the nature of study in the area of geotechnical
engineering, the time span extending from 1700 to 1927 can be divided into four major
periods:

1. Preclassical Period of Soil Mechanics (1700–1776)

- This period concentrated on studies relating to natural slope and unit weights
of various types of soils, as well as the semiempirical earth pressure theories
 1717 - French royal engineer, Henri Gautier (1660–1737), studied the natural
slopes of soils when tipped in a heap for formulating the design procedures
of retaining walls.
o According to this study, the natural slope of clean dry sand and ordinary
earth were 31° and 45°, respectively.
o Also, the unit weight of clean dry sand and ordinary earth were
recommended to be 18.1 kN/m3 and 13.4 kN/m3 (85 lb/ft3), respectively.
 1729 - Bernard Forest de Belidor (1671–1761) published a textbook for
military and civil engineers in France. In the book, he proposed a theory for
lateral earth pressure on retaining walls that was a followup to Gautier’s
(1717) original study.
 1746 - The first laboratory model test results on a 76-mm-high retaining wall
built with sand backfill were reported a French engineer, Francois Gadroy
(1705–1759), who observed the existence of slip planes in the soil at failure.
 1769 – the French engineer Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–1794) studied
slope stability around and distinguished between intact ground and fills.

2. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856)

- During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical

engineering came from engineers and scientists in France.
 1776 – a French scientist Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806) used the
principles of calculus for maxima and minima to determine the true position
of the sliding surface in soil behind a retaining wall.
 1790 - the distinguished French civil engineer, Gaspard Clair Marie Riche de
Prony (1755–1839) included Coulomb’s theory in his leading textbook,
Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique (Vol. 1).
 1820 - special cases of Coulomb’s work were studied by French engineer
Jacques Frederic Francais (1775–1833) and by French applied mechanics
professor Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836). These special cases
related to inclined backfills and backfills supporting surcharge.

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  1840 - Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867), an army engineer and professor
of mechanics, extended Coulomb’s theory by providing a graphical
method for determining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure on vertical
and inclined retaining walls with arbitrarily broken polygonal ground
surfaces.
o Poncelet was also the first to use the symbol f for soil friction angle.
o He also provided the first ultimate bearing-capacity theory for shallow
foundations.
 1846 - Alexandre Collin (1808–1890), an engineer, provided the details for
deep slips in clay slopes, cutting, and embankments. Collin theorized that
in all cases the failure takes place when the mobilized cohesion exceeds
the existing cohesion of the soil.
 1857 - the first publication by William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872),
a professor of civil engineering at the University of Glasgow. This study
provided a notable theory on earth pressure and equilibrium of earth
masses. Rankine’s theory is a simplification of Coulomb’s theory.

3. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase II (1856–1910)

- Several experimental results from laboratory tests on sand appeared in the

literature in this phase.
 1856 - French engineer Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–1858) published
a study on the permeability of sand filters. Based on those tests, Darcy
defined the term coefficient of permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) of
soil, a very useful parameter in geotechnical engineering to this day.
 Sir George Howard Darwin (1845–1912), a professor of astronomy,
conducted laboratory tests to determine the overturning moment on a
hinged wall retaining sand in loose and dense states of compaction.
 1885 - Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842–1929) published the development
of the theory of stress distribution under loaded bearing areas in a
homogeneous, semi-infinite, elastic, and isotropic medium.
 1887 - Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) demonstrated the phenomenon of
dilatancy in sand.
 Other notable studies during this period are those by John Clibborn (1847–
1938) and John Stuart Beresford (1845–1925) relating to the flow of water
through sand bed and uplift pressure.

4. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

- In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which

the fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established.
 Around 1908, Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846–1916), a Swedish chemist and
soil scientist, defined clay-size fractions as the percentage by weight of
particles smaller than 2 microns in size.
 1911, he explained the consistency of cohesive soils by defining liquid,
plastic, and shrinkage limits. He also defined the plasticity index as the
difference between liquid limit and plastic limit.

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  1909, the 17-m-high earth dam at Charmes, France, failed. It was built
between 1902 and 1906. A French engineer, Jean Fontard (1884–1962),
carried out investigations to determine the cause of failure. In that context,
he conducted undrained double-shear tests on clay specimens (0.77 m2 in
area and 200 mm thick) under constant vertical stress to determine their
shear strength parameters (see Frontard, 1914).
 Arthur Langley Bell (1874–1956), a civil engineer from England, worked on
the design and construction of the outer seawall at Rosyth Dockyard. Based
on his work, he developed relationships for lateral pressure and resistance
in clay as well as bearing capacity of shallow foundations in clay (see Bell,
1915). He also used shear-box tests to measure the undrained shear
strength of undisturbed clay specimens.
 Wolmar Fellenius (1876–1957), an engineer from Sweden, developed the
stability analysis of saturated clay slopes with the assumption that the
critical surface of sliding is the arc of a circle.
 Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) of Austria developed the theory of consolidation
for clays as we know today. The theory was developed when Terzaghi was
teaching at the American Robert College in Istanbul, Turkey.

Geotechnical Engineering after 1927

-The publication of Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage by Karl

Terzaghi in 1925 gave birth to a new era in the development of soil mechanics. Karl Terzaghi
is known as the father of modern soil mechanics.
 Publication of the book Theoretical Soil Mechanics by Karl Terzaghi in 1943 (Wiley, New
York)
 Publication of the book Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice by Karl Terzaghi and
Ralph Peck in 1948 (Wiley, New York)
 Publication of the book Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics by Donald W. Taylor in 1948
(Wiley, New York)
 Start of the publication of Geotechnique, the international journal of soil mechanics
in 1948 in England

Two other important milestones between 1948 and 1960 are

 Publication of A.W. Skempton’s paper on A and B pore pressure parameters, which
made effective stress calculations more practical for various engineering works
 Publication of the book entitled The Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Text
by A. W. Bishop and B. J. Henkel (Arnold, London) in 1957.

1960, Bishop, Alpan, Blight, and Donald provided early guidelines and experimental
results for the factors controlling the strength of partially saturated cohesive soils.

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 UNIT 2: ROCK CYCLE

EXPLAIN

Three Basic Types of Rocks:

Figure 1.1. Rock Cycle

1. Igneous Rocks
- are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within the
earth’s mantle. After ejection by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption, some
of the molten magma cools on the surface of the earth. (e.g. granite)

2. Sedimentary Rock
- can be formed by chemical processes. (e.g. limestone)

3. Metamorphic Rock
- are formed by process of metamorphism. It is the process of changing the
composition and texture of rocks (without melting) by heat and pressure. (e.g.
marble)

Weathering
- it is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces

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 UNIT 3: THE ORIGIN OF SOIL

EXPLAIN

Soil - defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles.

Soil Mechanics - the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties
of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.

Soils Engineering - the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

Geotechnical Engineering - the subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves natural

materials found close to the surface of the earth.

Types of Soils According to mode of Transportation and Deposition:

1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as
during landslides

UNIT 4: SOIL PARTICLE SIZE

EXPLAIN

Soil Classification According to Particle-Size:

1. Gravels - are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz, feldspar, and other
minerals.
2. Sand - are made of mostly quartz and feldspar.
3. Silts - are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine quartz grains and
some flake-shaped particles that are fragments of micaceous minerals.
4. Clays - are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic particles of mica,
clay minerals, and other minerals.

Table 1.1 and Figure 1.2 shows the particle-size classifications developed by different
organizations based on the nature of use.

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 Table 1.1. Particle-Size Classifications

Figure 1.2. Soil-separate-size limits by various systems

UNIT 5: MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL

EXPLAIN

Mechanical Analysis
- Determination of the size range of the soil particles
- expressed as percentage (%) with respect to the total mass (weight)

Two methods generally are used to find the particle-size distribution of soil:
1. Sieve analysis - for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter
2. Hydrometer analysis - for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter

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 Notes:
 Sieve analysis is used to identify percentage of gravel and sand
 Hydrometer analysis is used to identify size ranges for fines (sand and silts) – retained in
pan in sieve analysis
 Sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis are connected but separate tests.

Sieve Analysis:
- done by shaking (either manual or using mechanical shaker) a mass of soil inside the
stack of sieves

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3. (a) Sieve analysis using mechanical shaker; (b) Sieve arrangement

Note:
 Sieves are arranged according to the mesh openings
- progressively smaller openings
- It serves as filter of sizes

Table 1.2 shows U.S. standard sieve numbers and the sizes of openings.

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 Table 1.2. U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes

Procedure:
- make sure that the sieves must be arranged properly
- done after the shaking process and careful dismantling of sieves

1. Determine the mass retained in each sieve including the pan

mass retained = (mass of sieve with soil) − (mass of clean sieve) (1.1)

2. Determine the total mass if not available

total mass = Σ(mass retained) (1.2)

3. Solve the percent retained in each sieve

mass retainedn
%Retainedn = × 100% (1.3)
total mass

4. Determine the accumulated percent retained

Accumulated % Ret n = (Accumulated % Ret)n−1 + (%Retained)n (1.4)

5. Solve for the percent passing (%P) or percent finer than (%F)

% P or % F = 100% − (Accumulated % Ret) (1.5)

6. Accomplish the particle – size distribution curve (e.g. Figure 1.4)

- Plot the points (Particle size vs. %P)
- For graph:
o Abscissa: (Log-scale) diameter size
o Ordinate: (arithmetic-scale) %Passing

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 Figure 1.4. Particle-size distribution curve

Sample Problem:

2.3 The following are the results of a sieve analysis:

]
63

Determine the percent finer than each sieve.

Solution: Note:
 Better to present solution in table form

Mass of soil % Retained Accumulated % Passing

U.S. sieve no.
retained, g (Eq. 1.3) % Ret. (Eq. 1.4) (Eq. 1.5)
4 28 4.538 4.538 95.462
10 42 6.807 11.345 88.655
20 48 7.78 19.125 80.875
40 128 20.746 39.871 60.129
60 221 35.818 75.689 24.311
100 86 13.938 89.627 10.373
200 40 6.483 96.11 3.89
Pan 24 3.89 100 0
Total mass (Eq. 1.2) = 617

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 Hydrometer Analysis:
- is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in
water. When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the
particles settle at different velocities, depending on their
shape, size, weight, and the viscosity of the water.

L (cm. )
D (mm) = K√ (1.6)
t (min. )

where:
D = particle size, mm.
t = time of sedimentation, min.
K = function of Gs (Specific gravity of soil solids)
and T (temperature of the solution, oC) using
Table 1.3
L = bulb depth, cm. as shown in Figure 1.5
Figure 1.5. Definition of L in
hydrometer test
Table 1.3. Values of K

Sample Problem:

2.11 A hydrometer test has the following result: Gs = 2.7, temperature of water = 24°C, and
]
65 L = 9.2 cm at 60 minutes after the start of sedimentation (see Figure 1.5). What is the
diameter D of the smallest-size particles that have settled beyond the zone of
measurement at that time (that is, t = 60 min)?

Given:
Gs = 2.7
T = 24°C

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 L = 9.2 cm
t = 60 minutes

Required:
diameter D of the particle at t = 60 min.

Solution:
Using Table 1.3:
Gs = 2.7
T = 24°C
Therefore, K = 0.01282

Using Eq. 1.6:

L (cm. ) 9.2 cm
D (mm) = K√ = 0.01282√ ≈ 0.005 mm.
t (min. ) 60 minutes

Particle Size Distribution Curve:

Figure 1.6. Different types of particle-size distribution curves

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 Particle - Size Distribution Curve Parameters:
1. Effective size, D10: This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient, Cu: This parameter is defined as

D60
Cu = (1.7)
D10

3. Coefficient of gradation (Coefficient of Curvature), Cc: This parameter is defined as

D230
Cc = (1.8)
D60 × D10

4. Sorting coefficient, So: This parameter is another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed as

D75
So = √ (1.9)
D25

The sorting coefficient is not frequently used as a parameter by geotechnical

engineers.

where: D25, D30, D60, and D75 = diameter corresponding to 25%, 30%, 60%, and 75%
finer, respectively

All the values of D10, D30, D60, etc. are taken from the particle distribution curve as shown:

Figure 1.7. Definition of D75, D60, D30, D25, and D10

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 Sample Problems:

2.4 The following are the results of a sieve analysis:

]
63

a. Determine the percent finer than each sieve and plot a grain-size distribution
curve.
b. Determine D10, D30, and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve.
c. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu.
d. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc.

Solution:
a. Determine the percent finer than each sieve and plot a grain-size distribution curve.

Note:
 Better to present solution in table form

Sieve Opening,
Mass of soil % Retained Accumulated % Passing
U.S. sieve no. mm
retained, g (Eq. 1.3) % Ret. (Eq. 1.4) (Eq. 1.5)
(Table 1.2)
4 4.75 0 0 0 100
6 3.35 30 6 6 94
10 2 48.7 9.74 15.74 84.26
20 0.85 127.3 25.46 41.2 58.8
40 0.425 96.8 19.36 60.56 39.44
60 0.25 76.6 15.32 75.88 24.12
100 0.15 55.2 11.04 86.92 13.08
200 0.075 43.4 8.68 95.6 4.4
Pan - 22 4.4 100 0
Total mass (Eq. 1.2) = 500

 Plot the points (Particle Size vs. %P)

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 100

90

80

70
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm.)

D60 D30 D10

Figure 1.8

b. Determine D10, D30, and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve.
D10 ≈ 0.13 mm.
D30 ≈ 0.31 mm.
D60 ≈ 0.90 mm.

c. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu.

Using Eq. 1.7:
D60 0.90 mm.
Cu = = = 6.92
D10 0.13 mm.

d. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc.

using Eq. 1.8:
D230 (0.31 mm. )2
Cc = = = 0.82
D60 × D10 0.90 mm.× 0.13 mm.

Note:
 Values of Cu and Cc will be used for soil classifications

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 2.7 The following are the results of a sieve and hydrometer analysis:
]
64

a. Draw the grain-size distribution curve.

b. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the MIT
system.
c. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the USDA
system.
d. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the
AASHTO system.

Solution:
a. Draw the grain-size distribution curve.
- Assign size openings for the sieves

Particle-size
Percent
Analysis Grain Size, finer
Sieve no. mm than
(Table 1.2)
40 0.425 100
80 0.18 96
Sieve
170 0.09 85
200 0.075 80
0.04 59
0.02 39
Hydrometer 0.01 26
0.005 15
0.0015 8

 Plot the points (Particle Size vs. %P)

Notes:
 Opening greater than 0.425 mm. (for this problem) will consider 100% passing
 For particle size/diameter not available in table, use the particle size distribution curve to
determine the corresponding percent passing/percent finer than

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 100

90

80

≈ 72% 70
≈ 66%
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

≈ 9.5%10
0
0.10.06
0.05 mm.
1 mm. 0.01
0.002 mm. 0.001
Particle Size (mm.)
Figure 1.9

b. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the MIT
system. (limits from Table 1.1, get the difference of percent passing)
(≈∞)> (greater 100%
Gravel (G) than 0.425 0% G
mm. with
2 mm 100%
100% P)
Sand (S) 28% S
0.06 mm (use the 72%
particle-size
Silt (M) 62.5% M
distribution
0.002 mm curve) 9.5%
Clay (C) 9.5% C
0 0

c. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the USDA
system. (limits from Table 1.1, get the difference of percent passing)
(≈∞)> (greater 100%
Gravel (G) than 0.425 0% G
2 mm mm. with 100%
100% P)
Sand (S) 34% S
0.05 mm (use the 66%
particle-size
Silt (M) 56.5% M
distribution
0.002 mm curve) 9.5%
Clay (C) 9.5% C
0 0

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 d. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the
AASHTO system. (limits from Table 1.1, get the difference of percent passing)
76.2 mm (greater 100%
Gravel (G) than 0.425 0% G
2 mm mm. with 100%
100% P)
Sand (S) 20% S
(available in
0.075 mm 80%
the table)
Silt (M) 70.5% M
(use the
particle-size
0.002 mm 9.5%
distribution
Clay (C) curve) 9.5% C
0 0

Additional: Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to
the USCS system. (limits from Table 1.1, get the difference of percent passing)
76.2 mm (greater 100%
Gravel than 0.425 0% G
4.75 mm mm. with 100%
Sand 100% P) 20% S
(available in
0.075 mm the table) 80%
Fines 80% Fines
0 0

Note:
 The sum or total of soil classification according to size (Gravel, Sand, Silt and Clay) must
be 100%

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problems:

2.6 The following are the results of a sieve analysis:

]
64

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 a. Determine the percent finer than each sieve and plot a grain-size distribution
curve.
b. Determine D10, D30, and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve.
c. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu.
d. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc.

2.8 The following are the results of a sieve and hydrometer analysis:
]
64

a. Draw the grain-size distribution curve.

b. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the MIT
system.
c. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the USDA
system.
d. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay according to the
AASHTO system.

2.12 A hydrometer test has the following result: Gs = 2.75, temperature of water = 23°C,
]
65 and L = 12.8 cm at 100 minutes after the start of sedimentation (see Figure 1.5). What
is the diameter D of the smallest-size particles that have settled beyond the zone of
measurement at that time (that is, t = 100 min)?

EVALUATE

As future civil engineers, why do we need to study the size components of soil?
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REFERENCE

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.