MECHANICAL AND

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
IN BUILDINGS

Sixth Edition

Richard R. Janis
M.S., M. Arch., P.E., Registered Architect, LEED AP
Senior Lecturer
School of Engineering and School of Architecture
Washington University

William K. Y. Tao
M.S., [Link]., P.E.
Affiliate Professor
School of Engineering and School of Architecture
Washington University

330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Janis, Richard R.
Mechanical and electrical systems in buildings /Richard R. Janis, M.S., M. Arch., P.E.,
Registered Architect, LEED AP, Senior Lecturer, School of Engineering and School of
Architecture, Washington University, William K.Y. Tao, M.S., [Link]., P.E., Affiliate
Professor, School of Engineering and School of Architecture, Washington
University.—6 [edition].
pages cm
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-470118-9 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-470118-6 (alk. paper)
1. Buildings—Mechanical equipment. 2. Buildings—Electric equipment.
I. Tao, William K. Y. II. Title.
TH6010.T36 2014
696—dc23
2013011746

1 17

ISBN 10: 0-13-470118-6

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-470118-9
PREFACE

T his book on mechanical and electrical systems covers

five major disciplines: HVAC, plumbing and fire pro-
tection, electrical power and telecommunications, illumina-
ORGANIZATION OF THE
SIXTH EDITION
tion, and noise and vibration control. In prior editions, Chapters 1 and 2 grew and became unwieldy
Coauthors Richard R. Janis and William K.Y. Tao have with the addition of topics. In this sixth edition, even more
both taught university courses on mechanical and electrical materials are added to account for advancements in energy
systems for more than 30 years while working as consulting and sustainable design. Accordingly, we have reorganized and
engineers. Their various courses have emphasized the roles expanded these new and existing materials into four chapters
of participants in the building process as well as the theories instead of two. The book is now organized as follows:
and technologies of system design. In 1989, they finished Chapter 1, Introduction to Mechanical and Electri-
the first edition of this text in response to the need for a text cal Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options,
that was up to date with current practice, emphasizing the includes new life-cycle cost examples which consider the
Why? and the How? as well as the What? off-site cost of pollution and the economic effects of indoor
The topics covered in this book are in a state of con- environmental quality.
tinuous advancement, triggering the need for substantial up- Chapter 2, HVAC Fundamentals, covers the engineering
dating every few years. This sixth edition incorporates new basics required to understand systems.
developments in all the major disciplines, with updates on Chapter 3, HVAC Load Estimating, includes an updated
electrical, lighting, telecom, plumbing, and HVAC. detailed example of heating and cooling load calculations us-
ing a building example consistent with current energy codes.
Chapter 4, HVAC Load Management, contains the
NEW TO THIS EDITION: analysis of various architectural, ventilation, lighting, and
■■ Life-cycle cost analyses including societal cost of pol- appliance options on a hypothetical 30,000 ft2 building. Anal-
lution and economic benefits of indoor environmental ysis includes the effect on load, initial building cost, energy
quality (IEQ) cost, and life-cycle cost for alternative designs involving the
following factors:
■■ An entire chapter exploring energy impact and economics
of various generic architectural and systems options ■■ Building geometry and form
■■ VRF heat pump and heat recovery operations using three ■■ Wall orientation
pipe technology ■■ Altering glass orientation
■■ Operation of condensing boilers and furnaces and direct ■■ Window-to-wall area ratio
fired heating
■■ Control solar loads through windows
■■ Energy and comfort advantages of high-volume,
■■ Thermal properties of walls and roof
low-speed (HVLS) fans
■■ Infiltration load control potential
■■ EPA WaterSense, the latest development in water
conserving fixtures ■■ Ventilation criteria and controls
■■ Economics of solar photovoltaic systems ■■ Task lighting
The U.S. building industry is embracing sustainable ■■ Daylighting
design principles, which were part of the authors’ practice ■■ Appliances load control
and course offerings long before the concept was accepted.
Chapters 5 through 9 cover HVAC systems and equip-
Sustainable design means that engineers, architects, owners,
ment. These chapters are updated to include new technolo-
contractors, and facility managers must interact in a team
gies to save energy and in some instances reduce the cost of
effort to provide high-quality, productive environments
systems. New, enhanced, and expanded topics include con-
for people while considering the impact of their decisions
densing boilers and furnaces, direct fired heating, ground
on the environment. This book is a text and reference for
source heat pumps, VRF heat pumps and heat recovery, and
students and professionals interested in an interactive,
high-volume, low-speed fans.
multidisciplinary approach to the building process.

iii
iv PREFACE

Chapter 10 covers plumbing. Updates include condens- Chapter 15: Communications, Life Safety,
ing water heaters, instantaneous water heaters, and the EPA and Security Systems
WaterSense program. Steve Brohammer, RCDD, and Janis
Chapter 11 covers fire protection with general updates Christopher, RCDD
for improved clarity.
William Tao & Associates, Inc.
Chapters 12 through 15 cover electrical systems with gen-
St. Louis, MO
eral updates including current economics of solar PV systems.
Chapters 16 through 19 cover lighting, including gen- Chapter 17: Lighting Equipment and Systems
eral updates, strategies for high performance, and enhanced Davis Krailo, LC
coverage of newly dominant LED light sources. Technical Manager—Engineering
Chapter 20 on noise and vibration takes on a higher lev- Sylvania
el of importance as sound is increasingly recognized for its Danvers, MA
effect on indoor environmental comfort. Steve Andert, P.E.
Chapter 21 on architectural accommodation covers sys- William Tao & Associates, Inc.
tem coordination, space planning options, and has many im- St. Louis, MO
ages to convey the visual impact of design. Chapter 20: Noise and Vibrations in Mechanical
and Electrical Systems
DOWNLOAD INSTRUCTOR J. T. Weissenburger, ScD, P.E.
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Within 48 hours of registering, you will receive a confirming valuable design data:
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received your code, locate your text in the online catalog and ASHRAE American Society for Heating Refrigeration
click on the Instructor Resources button on the left side of and Air Conditioning Engineers
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please contact Customer Service at [Link] Consultants
.com/getsupport NEC National Electrical Code
The authors are indebted to reviewers, students, NFPA National Fire Protection Association
co-professionals, technical associations, and leading product TIA/EIA Telecommunication Industry Association
manufacturers for their cooperation in providing data, illus- NSPC National Standard Plumbing Code/
trations, and insights. National Association of Plumbing-
Heating-Cooling Contractors
Richard R. Janis
William Tao Reviewers
We wish to thank the following reviewers for their helpful
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS comments and suggestions:
Contributing Authors Irving Nazario, North Carolina State University
Mohd Fairuz Shiratuddin, The University of Southern
We wish to acknowledge several individuals who contrib-
Mississippi
uted to specialty chapters:
Shariar Makarechi, Southern Polytechnic University
CONTENTS

Preface iii 5.4 Commonly Used Systems for Zone Control 79

Acknowledgments iv 5.5 Dedicated Outside Air Systems 102
Questions 103
1 Introduction to Mechanical and
Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, 6 Cooling Production Equipment
and Evaluating Options 1 and Systems 104
1.1 Sustainable Design 1 6.1 Refrigeration Cycles 104
1.2 Indoor Environmental Quality 5 6.2 Cooling Production Equipment 110
1.3 Commissioning 9 6.3 Direct Expansion (DX) Systems 110
1.4 Evaluating Design Options 11 6.4 Chilled-Water Systems 114
Questions 17 6.5 Heat Rejection from Cooling Systems to the
Environment 121
2 HVAC Fundamentals 19 6.6 Chilled-Water Plant Design 123
2.1 Basics of Energy and Power 19 Questions 135
2.2 Fuels 21
2.3 Properties of Air–Water Mixtures 23 7 Heating Production Equipment
2.4 Fluid Flow and Pressure in Mechanical and Systems 136
Systems 27
7.1 Types of Heating Systems 136
2.5 Energy Transport in HVAC Systems 27
7.2 Heating Energy Sources 136
2.6 Environmental Comfort 30
7.3 Combustion Efficiency 137
Questions 31
7.4 Furnaces and Air Heaters 138
3 HVAC Load Estimating 33 7.5 Boilers 138
7.6 Selection of Medium and Equipment 141
3.1 Nature of HVAC Loads 33
7.7 Auxiliary Systems 147
3.2 Load Criteria 33
7.8 Operating and Safety Controls 153
3.3 Calculating Heating Loads 34
7.9 Heating Plant Design 154
3.4 Calculating Cooling Loads 42
7.10 District Heating 154
Questions 49
7.11 Cogeneration 156
4 HVAC Load Management 51 7.12 Fuel Cells 157
7.13 Solar Heating 157
4.1 Load Management Strategies and Criteria for
Evaluation 51 Questions 159
4.2 Evaluation of Load Management
Strategies 54 8 Air-Handling Equipment
4.3 Summary 71 and Systems 160
Questions 72 8.1 Air-Handling Equipment 160
8.2 Heat Transfer 160
5 HVAC Delivery Systems 74
8.3 Air Cleaning 163
5.1 Control of Heating and Cooling 74
8.4 Air Mixing 167
5.2 Zoning 74
8.5 Fans 168
5.3 Controls and Automation 75
8.6 Duct Systems 175

v
vi CONTENTS

8.7 Air Devices 179 12.6 Power and Power Factor 292
8.8 General Guidelines for Duct System 12.7 Voltage and Voltage Drop 295
Design 184 12.8 Summary of Properties 295
8.9 Underfloor Air Systems (UFAD) 184 Questions 296
8.10 Energy Recovery from Exhaust 189
8.11 Natural Ventilation 190 13 Power Supply and Distribution 297
Questions 191 13.1 Power Supply Sources 297
13.2 Power Distribution Systems 297
9 Piping Equipment and Systems 193 13.3 System and Equipment Voltage Ratings 297
9.1 Piping Systems and Components 193 13.4 Grounding 300
9.2 Pumps 195 13.5 Short-Circuit and Interrupting Capacity 302
9.3 Heat Exchangers 202 13.6 Emergency Power Systems 303
9.4 Piping 203 13.7 Solar Photovoltaic Systems 307
Questions 217 13.8 Power Equipment 309
13.9 Conductors 313
10 Plumbing Equipment and Systems 218
13.10 Wiring Methods 314
10.1 Water Supply and Treatment 218 13.11 Installation of Wires in Raceways 317
10.2 Domestic Water Distribution Systems 220 13.12 Wiring Devices 320
10.3 Plumbing Fixtures and Components 234 13.13 Protective Devices 322
10.4 Planning Plumbing Facilities 241 Questions 325
10.5 Sanitary Drainage Systems 244
10.6 Sewage Treatment and Disposal 251 14 Electrical Design and Wiring 327
10.7 Storm Drainage System 255 14.1 Electrical Design Procedure 327
10.8 Plumbing Services for Other Building 14.2 Analysis of Building Needs 327
Equipment 259
14.3 Determination of Electrical Loads 328
Questions 259
14.4 System Selection and Typical Equipment
Ratings 329
11 Fire Protection Equipment
14.5 Coordination with Other Design
and Systems 260 Decisions 331
11.1 Classification of Fire and Construction 14.6 Preparation of Electrical Plans and
Hazards 261 Specifications 332
11.2 Planning for Fire Protection 262 14.7 National Electrical Code 333
11.3 Fire Safety Design 262 14.8 Branch Circuits 336
11.4 Fire Detection and Signaling Devices 264 14.9 Tables and Schedules 338
11.5 Fire Alarm Systems 266 14.10 Power Wiring Design Problem 339
11.6 Fire Suppression Systems 266 14.11 Wiring of Low-Voltage Systems 346
11.7 Automatic Sprinkler Systems 271 Questions 348
11.8 Smoke Controls 278
Questions 282 15 Communications, Life Safety,
and Security Systems 350
12 Introduction to Electricity 284 15.1 Common Characteristics
12.1 Basic Properties of Electricity 284 of Telecommunication Systems 350
12.2 Alternating Current (AC) 289 15.2 Classification of Telecommunication
Systems 350
12.3 Advantages of AC over DC Systems 291
15.3 Components and Wiring 350
12.4 AC-to-DC Conversion 291
15.4 Telecommunication Systems 354
12.5 Single-Phase Versus Three-Phase
Alternator 291 15.5 Data Distribution Systems 357
 Contents vii

15.6 Security Systems 359 20 Noise and Vibrations in Mechanical

15.7 Telephone Systems 360 and Electrical Systems 437
15.8 Fire Alarm Systems 362 20.1 Retrospection 437
15.9 Sound System 365 20.2 Noise Control: An Overview 437
15.10 Time and Program Systems 366 20.3 Building Spaces Where Acoustical
15.11 Videoconferencing 367 Concerns May Arise 437
15.12 Miscellaneous and Specialty Systems 369 20.4 Basic Concepts of Sound 439
Questions 369 20.5 Adding Decibel Quantities 440
20.6 Sound Pressure, Sound Power, and Sound
16 Light and Lighting 371 Intensity Level 442
16.1 Light and the Energy Spectrum 371 20.7 Useful Design Criteria 444
16.2 Physics of Light 371 20.8 Acoustical Design Considerations in HVAC
16.3 Vision and the Visible Spectrum 376 Systems 446
16.4 Color 377 20.9 Mechanical Equipment Rooms 447
16.5 Means of Controlling Light 379 20.10 Rooftop Units (RTUs) 448
Questions 381 20.11 Noise in Air Supply Systems 449
20.12 Sound in Ducts 450
17 Lighting Equipment and Systems 382 20.13 Duct Silencers 452
17.1 Electrical Light Sources 382 20.14 Plenum Chambers 454
17.2 Factors to Consider in Selecting Light Sources 20.15 Sound Power Division in Duct Branches 454
and Equipment 382 20.16 Duct End Reflection Loss 454
17.3 Incandescent Light Sources 386 20.17 Return Air Systems 455
17.4 Fluorescent Light Sources 388 20.18 Room Sound Correction 455
17.5 High-Intensity-Discharge Light Sources 392 20.19 Transmission of Sound Through Walls
17.6 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 394 and Ceilings 455
17.7 General Comparison of Light Sources 397 20.20 Isolation of Mechanical Vibration 458
17.8 Luminaires 397 20.21 Vibration Isolators 462
17.9 Outdoor Luminaires 400 20.22 Seismic Vibration Control and Restraint 463
Questions 401 20.23 The Richter Scale 464
20.24 Guidelines for Seismic Design 465
18 Calculating Illumination Levels 403
Questions 467
18.1 Illumination Criteria 403
18.2 Basis for Illumination Calculations 403 21 Architectural Accommodation
18.3 The Zonal Cavity Method 404 and Coordination of Mechanical and
18.4Application of the Zonal Cavity Method 409 Electrical Systems 469
18.5 Point Method 412 21.1 Systems to Be Integrated 469
18.6 Computer Calculations and Computer-Aided 21.2 Space Allowances for Mechanical
Design 414 and Electrical Systems 469
Questions 416 21.3 Utility Service Connections 469
21.4 HVAC Decisions and Coordination 470
19 Lighting Design 418 21.5 Selecting the Energy Source for Heating 470
19.1 Design Considerations 418 21.6 Cooling Equipment and Systems
19.2 Lighting Design Development 422 Coordination 476
19.3 Lighting Design Documentation 427 21.7 HVAC Air Handling and Delivery 480
19.4 Daylight 429 21.8 Plumbing Coordination 485
19.5 Exterior Lighting Design 434 21.9 Fire Suppression 489
Questions 435 21.10 Electrical Decisions and Coordination 489
viii CONTENTS

21.11 Generators 498 Appendix A

21.12 Ceilings 498 Glossary of Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations 504
21.13 Equipment Access Accommodations 501 Appendix B
21.14 Vertical Chases 501 Glossary of Technical Organizations 515
21.15 Roof Elements 502 Appendix C
Questions 502 Units and Conversion of Quantities 516
Index 521
 CHAPTER
ONE

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL
AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS,
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN, AND
EVALUATING OPTIONS

This book is about mechanical and electrical (M/E) systems in buildings. These systems include:
■■ Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) ■■ Fire protection, including fire alarm and suppression
■■ Plumbing, consisting of water supply, fixtures, sanitary systems
drainage, sewage treatment and disposal, and storm ■■ Electrical, consisting of power and communications
drainage ■■ Lighting

O ver the last 125 years, these systems have been de-
veloped and continually improved to make buildings
habitable, functional, productive, and safe. In addition, they
Sustainable building design was a simultaneous and
complementary development, embracing not only energy
but a whole host of environmental, health, and productiv-
have allowed flexibility to expand the limits of architectural ity issues related to buildings. Most notably, the U.S. Green
design. Before modern heating, air-conditioning, and illu- Building Council (USGBC) launched the LEEDTM rating
mination systems, building dimensions were limited due to system in 2000 and has over subsequent versions defined
the need to access windows for light and natural ventilation and developed sustainability in the building industry. The
(see Fig. 1.1). Floors were typically 60 ft or less in depth, rating system promotes an integrated design approach that
or included light wells. Windows were operable and needed involves the cooperation of architects, engineering, owners,
to be large and tall enough to allow deep light penetration. building users, and contractors to produce buildings, which
Ceiling heights were high to promote stratification of sum- conserve resources, reduce environmental impact, and pro-
mer heat and to allow the use of operable transom windows duce a healthy productive place to work. The Nidus Center,
over doors for ventilation of interior spaces (see Fig. 1.2). a research laboratory building shown in Fig. 1.3, was part of
Air-conditioning and good artificial lighting gave ar- the LEEDTM pilot program.
chitects the flexibility to design larger floors, and good This chapter defines sustainability qualities in the con-
elevators and life safety systems made high-rise construc- text of building and building systems design. It also pro-
tion possible. These developments occurred when energy vides tools for evaluating solutions based on qualitative and
to operate buildings was inexpensive by today’s standards, quantitative criteria. Life-cycle cost analysis is presented
and there was very little concern about fossil fuel depletion, using a discounted cash flow methodology. The reader is
dependence on foreign oil, or environmental impact of en- encouraged to consider not only “hard costs” but also en-
ergy use. As a result, buildings and building systems were vironmental costs and the economics of productivity in the
designed with little regard for energy efficiency or response decision process.
to the surrounding environment. With the influence of sus-
tainable design principles, buildings are returning to some
of the features which were neglected in recent years, such as 1.1 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
daylighting and natural ventilation.
In the early 1970s, the political and economic context
1.1.1 Overview of Sustainability
of building design changed with the oil embargo, increased Sustainability is a concept that applies not only to buildings
energy costs, and the realization that we needed to take care but also to industry, agriculture, transportation, and all other
of the environment. Most notably, the American Society aspects of societal activity. “Sustainable” can be defined
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers simply as having an overall beneficial effect on produc-
(ASHRAE) formulated an energy standard for buildings in co- tivity, health, resources, economics, and the environment.
operation with the Illuminating Engineers Society (IES). Over Sustainable design acknowledges responsibility for future as
subsequent years, the standard was updated and made more well as current outcomes. Sustainable design decisions are
stringent. The full name of the document is ANSI/ASHRAE/ made for their impact not only at the building level but also
IES Standard 90.1, an it is the basis for energy codes. at the community and global level. Utility, comfort, energy

1
2 CHAPTER ONE

FIGURE 1.1. Common building geometry prior to development of modern M/E systems. With the renewed emphasis
on daylight and natural ventilation, these geometries are enjoying a revival.

FIGURE 1.2. Prior to air-conditioning, buildings were equipped with features to

take advantage of natural ventilation, such as operable sash, louvered shutters (a),
and transom lights (b).
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 3

FIGURE 1.2. (Continued)

conservation, environmental impact, and appropriate use of 1.1.3 Environmental Impact of Buildings
technology are basic criteria for mechanical/electrical sys-
tems in a sustainable design process.
and Building Systems
A building’s impact goes beyond the site boundary. Sustainable
1.1.2 Design Interactions design must consider how well buildings work to minimize neg-
ative environmental impact or even benefit the environment.
Achieving sustainable building solutions requires that many Buildings contribute to disruption of storm-water flow,
parties work closely together with an understanding of the ground erosion, fouling of natural water, light pollution, the
interactions among building systems and processes. For growth of landfills from disposal of building materials as
example, energy usage is affected by architectural form; construction waste, and, ultimately, demolition. These im-
building materials; lighting; appliances; heating, ventilating, pacts can be mitigated by good design, and there is potential
and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems; and even by access for well-planned buildings to have zero impact on the envi-
to public transportation. There are many participants in the ronment or even improve the environment.
design process who take responsibility for these issues (e.g., Buildings account for about 30 percent of overall en-
architect, lighting designer, owner, consulting engineers, ergy usage in the United States and over 60 percent of elec-
contractors, and suppliers). Too often, each participant trical usage. This represents not only a depletion of energy
makes decisions independent of the others, and opportuni- resources but also affects the environment by emissions
ties are lost by not understanding the interactions between through combustion of fossil fuels, both on the building site
design factors. and remotely at power-generating stations. Pollution from
Decisions made by each member of the team will affect energy consumption is quantified in Table 1.1.
systems in which others are also affected. For instance, an
architect might design larger windows, which could increase
the size of heating and air-conditioning equipment. Or, the
1.1.4 Water Conservation
lighting designer might design more light fixtures, which Conserving water is a goal of sustainable design. As with
would increase the size of air-conditioning equipment. most elements of sustainable design, there are economic ben-
Interactions also affect health and productivity of build- efits. Many locations have inexpensive water rates, which
ing occupants. Daylight and outdoor views, for example, alone would not justify significant cost for conservation
enhance occupants’ sense of well-being in buildings, and technology. However, water usage results in sanitary sewer
the effect on performance in the workplace is obvious, discharge. Sewer charges are generally based on water usage,
though difficult to quantify. Likewise, effective HVAC sys- and are equal or greater in many cases than the water charges.
tems contribute to good indoor air quality to the benefit of Saving water in buildings will also have a community benefit
occupants’ health. in reducing the need and cost of constructing, improving, and
4 CHAPTER ONE

FIGURE 1.3. Nidus Center for Scientific Enterprise, which is among the first
LEEDTM certified buildings, uses principles of sustainable design to conserve
resources, reduce environmental impact, and produce a healthy productive place
to work. LEEDTM (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) is a “green”
building rating system administered by the U.S. Green Building Council.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

maintaining water and sewer infrastructure. EPact (Energy water closets to use maximum 1.0 and 1.5 gallons per flush,
Policy Act of 1992) became effective in 1996 to mandate that respectively. To be EPA WaterSense Listed, these values
manufacturers produce conventional fixtures that flow less must be reduced to 0.5 and 1.28 gallons per flush, respec-
water. These mandates still apply and have been supplemented tively. Sensor controls have also become commonplace in
by Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) WaterSense building design. Currently, designers are using alternative
program, which publishes voluntary standards going be- products on a limited basis, which use even less water, such
yond the mandate. For instance, EPact requires urinals and as waterless urinals, rainwater collection, and composting

TABLE 1.1 Air Pollutants Produced from Energy Conversion

Air Pollutants Produced, g (lb)

Energy Converted or Consumed CO2 SO2 NOx

a
1 gallon of fuel oil by combustion 10,500 (23.1) 45.0 (0.10) 18.3 (0.04)
b
1 gallon of gasoline by automobiles 8,500 (18.8) 37.0 (0.08) 15.0 (0.03)
1 pound of coal by combustionc 1,090 (2.4) 9.0 (0.02) 4.4 (0.01)
d
1 therm of natural gas by combustion 6,350 (14.0) Nil (–) 24.0 (0.05)
1 kWh of electric energy generated by oile 860 (1.9) 3.7 (0.008) 1.5 (0.003)
1 kWh of electric energy generated by gase 635 (1.4) Nil (–) 2.4 (0.005)
e
1 kWh of electric energy generated by coal 1,090 (2.4) 9.0 (0.02) 4.4 (0.01)
a
Calculated by using fuel oil containing 85% carbon and 12% hydrogen, and 7.4 lb>gal.
b
Calculated by using gasoline mixture of C8H18 and (CnH2n + 2) having 84% carbon and 15% hydrogen, and 6.1 lb>gal.
c
Calculated by using bituminous coal containing 65% carbon and 3.8% sulfur.
d
Calculated by using a mixture of methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) and 100,000 Btu/therm.
e
Data from Green Light Program, Environmental Protection Agency.
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 5

toilets. These measures will require acceptance by owners 1970s could not be justified economically, but were a valu-
and code officials before widespread usage. LEED has also able technology demonstration to develop systems which
had a conserving impact, granting points to encourage water might someday be commercially viable (see Fig. 1.4). Some
savings. Water conservation using fixtures certified by EPA energy technologies are fully mature such as the heat recov-
Water Sense program is covered in Chapter 10. ery wheel shown in Fig. 1.5. The use of proven technolo-
gies that require increased investment should be analyzed by
economic methods such as discounted cash flow analysis as
1.1.5 Energy Conservation described in this chapter.
Sustainable design approaches for energy conservation Energy codes have been enacted based on provisions of
include: ASHRAE Standard 90.1, “Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings,” which is an indus-
■■ Architectural design to limit HVAC loads by methods try consensus standard for energy performance of architec-
recommended in Chapter 4 tural construction, lighting, water heating, and mechanical
■■ Effective HVAC delivery systems as described in Chapter 5 and electrical equipment. First issued as Standard 90 in
■■ Efficient heating and cooling production and delivery as 1975, it has evolved to its current version, Std. 90.1-2010,
discussed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8 through periodic revisions. LEED’s latest version, Version 3,
■■ Efficient light sources and controls as described in requires that buildings achieve 10 percent or greater en-
Chapters 17 and 19 ergy savings beyond the minimum compliance with the
ASHRAE Standard. Points are awarded to encourage
■■ Using renewable energy sources such as solar thermal higher savings.
as described in Chapter 7 and solar photovoltaic as
described in Chapter 13
1.2 INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL
In addition, building owners should be encouraged to use ef-
ficient equipment and appliances such as those with Energy
QUALITY
Star ratings. 1.2.1 Components of IEQ
Designers should be cautioned, however, that energy con-
servation should not be at the expense of comfort or building In addition to environmental benefits and resource con-
productivity. Proper ventilation levels, quality lighting, and servation, sustainable design enhances health, well-being,
thermal comfort are essential for building occupants to oper- and productivity of building occupants. These benefits are
ate effectively. Buildings and systems that save energy and achieved by several goals of sustainable design:
produce a great environment are truly “high performance.” ■■ Healthful indoor air quality
There are many energy technologies vying for use in ■■ Thermal comfort and individual control
buildings, and choices among options should be made on
value at promoting technology as well as life-cycle economics. ■■ Good lighting
Solar collectors installed during the “Energy Crisis” of the ■■ Connection with the outdoors

FIGURE 1.4. Solar collectors installed after the 1970s oil embargo were an
opportunity to explore new technologies, but could not be justified on the
basis of economics or life-cycle cost.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)
6 CHAPTER ONE

FIGURE 1.5. Heat recovery wheel allows higher ventilation rates without
sacrificing economy of operation, exemplifying sustainable design within
economic realities.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

Combined, these factors contribute to “indoor environmen- finish materials, cleaning products, furniture, and fumes
tal quality” (IEQ), a term used in the LEEDTM rating system, from equipment. In addition, biopollutants such as mold can
described earlier. result if humidity is not properly controlled or if there are
moisture problems in building assemblies and systems.
Interior chemical pollution and odors can be diluted
1.2.2 Indoor Air Quality to acceptable levels with ventilation by liberal quanti-
Indoor air pollution is preventable by good architectural ties of relatively purer outdoor air. Selecting furnish-
detailing, as shown in Fig. 1.6, effective mechanical sys- ings, interior finish materials, and cleaning products to be
tems, and proper maintenance. Indoor air pollution in typi- nonpolluting will allow lower ventilation rates and save
cal buildings, such as offices, comes from chemicals in energy. Using local exhaust over offensive equipment is

FIGURE 1.6. Air intakes for Monsanto Research Center in St. Louis are placed
high to avoid street-level air pollution as a measure to improve indoor air quality.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 7

also effective at preventing chemicals from entering the 1.2.4 Individual Control
larger occupied space.
Building occupants themselves are also sources of HVAC systems can be designed that offer opportunities for in-
pollution. They consume oxygen and emit carbon dioxide dividuals to control their local thermal environment. This simple
and body odors. ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016, entitled notion is generally ignored in typical institutional buildings de-
“Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,” specifies signed with the goal of providing uniform temperature control.
the amount of outside air needed to cover various levels of Allowing greater personal control of indoor environ-
occupancy. The amount of outside air required in buildings ments, and allowing temperatures to fluctuate with outdoor
is based on the nature of building usage, floor area, and den- conditions, could improve perceived comfort and reduce en-
sity of occupancy. ergy consumption. Individuals will tolerate a wider range of
Condensation in roofs or walls can be a problem. thermal conditions if they have control over their environment,
Venting, insulation, and vapor barriers can avoid conden- such as operable windows or the ability to adjust airflow. The
sation if properly applied, and HVAC design for proper effect of individual control on productivity has been docu-
dehumidification is essential. Interior surfaces of HVAC mented. Providing ; 5°F of individual temperature control has
systems can harbor dust, odors, bacteria, and mold. Filters been claimed to increase work performance by 3–7 percent.
are porous and microorganisms can breed if they are not Individual control is not practical with many HVAC
changed frequently. Acoustical duct liner is also porous and systems. There are, however, several practical options for
should be avoided or treated with biocide. Condensate pans giving control to individuals. A few furniture manufactur-
in air-conditioning systems are continually moist during hot ers can integrate local control features into their worksta-
weather and should drain properly. tions, which allows the occupant to adjust the quantity and
Indoor air quality has been correlated with employee direction of airflow (see Fig. 1.7). Ironically, table fans used
productivity. Increasing ventilation rates are reported to before the advent of air-conditioning are similar in concept.
render 23–76 percent reductions in the incidence of acute Other options are to deliver air through floor registers,
respiratory illnesses. Measured data are also available on which allows occupants to adjust the airflow from nearby
the relationship between “sick building syndrome (SBS)” outlets. Operable windows controlled by occupants are ap-
symptoms and worker performance. Workers who reported propriate in some climates and/or some seasons. One analy-
any SBS symptoms took 7 percent longer to respond in a sis revealed that occupants of buildings using central HVAC
computerized neurobehavioral test. In another test, workers systems were much more sensitive to temperature variation
with symptoms had a 30 percent higher error rate. than occupants of buildings that have operable windows.
One study was performed to determine the effects of Having control results in higher perceived comfort. People
ventilation rate on absenteeism. Buildings were classified might even be invigorated by the variability of temperature
as moderate ventilation (25 CFM/occ) or high ventila- in naturally ventilated buildings (see Fig. 1.8).
tion (50 CFM/occ). Absence rate was 35 percent lower in Integrating operable windows with conventional HVAC
high-ventilation buildings. Even the moderate ventilation control systems is a challenge. Typical systems, for instance,
rate cited in the study is higher than rates prescribed by might place multiple rooms on the same thermostat. If the
ASHRAE Standard 62.1, indicating potential for improve- occupant with the thermostat opens the window, control
ment in current design practices. will be lost for the other spaces. Other potential problems
include possible freezing from cold air through windows left
open. Security and infiltration of pollen and dust are other
1.2.3 Thermal Comfort problems which need to be considered. Despite these issues,
In ASHRAE Standard 55, entitled “Thermal Environmental operable windows are highly desired by building occupants
Comfort Conditions for Human Occupancy,” comfort in- and well worth the effort to work out problems.
volves factors including temperature, air velocity, and hu-
midity. In general, the standard asserts that these quantities
must be maintained within reasonable levels and not allowed
1.2.5 Superior Lighting Systems
to change rapidly. Lighting affects occupant performance and quality of space
Basically, the standard identifies conditions of tempera- as well as energy consumption. Uniform illumination by re-
ture and humidity that 80 percent of research subjects will cessed fluorescent fixtures is the most common lighting so-
find acceptable. The obvious corollary is that 20 percent may lution for work spaces, and often results in glare, shadows,
not find conditions acceptable. This implies that there will be and reflections in computer screens. Indirect (all light up to-
a greater likelihood of satisfying everyone if individual tem- ward ceiling) or semi-indirect (a portion up, a portion down)
perature controls are provided. Space heaters and thermostat lighting is an alternative, which produces better visibility of
tampering demonstrate the desire for individual control. tasks at lower levels of illumination. Indirect lighting is theo-
Air temperature has been documented to affect worker retically less efficient than direct lighting due to consider-
performance. Small differences in temperature have been able light being absorbed at the ceiling surfaces. However,
reported to have 2–20 percent performance impact in tasks indirect light is more uniform, eliminates glare, results in less
such as typewriting, learning performance, reading speed, shadows, and can be designed at lower light levels to pro-
multiplication speed, and word memory. duce a better environment at lower energy cost (see Fig. 1.9).
8 CHAPTER ONE

FIGURE 1.7. Personal cooling outlet (left)

gives individual personnel control of climate
at workstation.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

FIGURE 1.8. Variations in environment are

well tolerated when people have a choice;
these shoppers prefer an open-air market to
the modern climate-controlled grocery store.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

Daylight Sustainable lighting strategies generally in- or a source of natural light is desirable (see Fig. 1.10).
clude daylighting. The challenge in using daylight is to The best publicized study on the effects of daylight and
control the glare, avoid thermal discomfort, and minimize view was performed by the Pacific Gas and Electric
HVAC loads. Energy interactions must be considered care- Company. The following is quoted from their executive
fully. While one would expect higher air-conditioning loads summary:
due to extra window or skylight area, the extra load may be Controlling for all other influences, we found that students
more than offset by reducing the heat gain from artificial with the most day lighting in their classrooms progressed 20%
lighting which can be deactivated. faster on math tests and 26% on reading tests in one year than
No one would question that an attractive, visually in- those with the least. Similarly, students in classrooms with the
teresting environment contributes to occupant satisfaction largest window areas were found to progress 15% faster in
and higher levels of productivity. Having an outdoor view math and 23% faster in reading than those with the least.
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 9

FIGURE 1.9. Semi-indirect lighting in this

research laboratory is not only comfortable
for occupants but also illuminates building
services in the exposed ceiling, resulting in
better maintenance and safety.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

FIGURE 1.10. Light well in this classroom

building allows daylight to the interior and
gives occupants a sense of outdoor weather
and time of day.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

And students that had a well-designed skylight in by using large windows, large skylights, or large ventilation
their room, one that diffused the daylight throughout the openings. Effective placement is more critical in achieving
room and which allowed teachers to control the amount of success as shown in Fig. 1.11.
daylight entering the room, also improved 19–20% faster
than those students without a skylight. We also found an-
other window-related effect, in that students in classrooms
1.3 COMMISSIONING
where windows could be opened were found to progress
7–8% faster than those in rooms with fixed windows. This 1.3.1 Scope of Commissioning
occurred regardless of whether the classroom also had air
conditioning. These effects were all observed with 99% sta- Commissioning is an essential feature of sustainable design.
tistical certainty. It is a prerequisite for LEEDTM certification and highly
recommended for any new building. Commissioning can
generally be defined as the process of proving that systems
1.2.6 Connection with Outdoors will operate as intended and implementing adjustments nec-
essary to achieve that goal. Typically, the commissioning
Daylight, views outside, natural ventilation, and tempera- process would include the following steps:
ture variation are ways to give building occupants a sense
of connection with the outdoors. Occupants feel better and 1. Review system criteria, including design temperatures.
perform better when they have a sense of time of day and 2. Review and assure that design (load calculations, equip-
outside weather. These connections need not be exaggerated ment selections) is able to achieve criteria.
10 CHAPTER ONE

FIGURE 1.11. A simple window at the

end of this laboratory corridor provides
daylight and view. Lights are rarely
turned on during the day in this space.
(Courtesy of William Tao & Associates)

3. Review plans and specifications for consistency with 1.3.3 Range of Applications
design.
The scope of commissioning will depend on how simple or
4. Observe construction to assure that equipment and sys- complicated the systems are and on the relative importance of
tems are installed per plans and specifications. proper system operation. A shortened commissioning process
5. Verify that contractor has performed prefunctional might be quite satisfactory for a small commercial building
checkout of systems and equipment (e.g., proper wiring with simple heating and cooling equipment. If system perfor-
connections, clean filters). mance is critical, the commissioning process will be extensive.
6. Measure system component performance, review test Examples of buildings requiring emphasis on commissioning
results. include museums, data centers, and correctional facilities.
7. Verify control sequences (e.g., thermostat call for cool- Museums require that systems operate reliably to pro-
ing starts compressor). duce a precision environment with respect to temperature
and humidity. Tight control is needed to prevent damage
8. Document that these procedures have been performed to valuable artifacts. In most climates, systems have extra
along with their outcome. components and controls for humidification and dehumidi-
9. Make sure that appropriate owner’s staff are trained in fication. Systems must be demonstrated to operate properly
operation of the systems. before valuable artifacts are moved into the building and
10. Verify that operating manuals are turned over to the owner. placed at risk if systems do not operate properly.
11. Follow up during the first year of operation to check Many enterprises rely on continuous operation of data
seasonal performance and address any owner concerns. centers for business-critical and safety-critical functions,
such as market transactions, air traffic control, and reserva-
Most of the commissioning scope can be performed by the tions. Systems are designed with redundancy in the event of
design and construction team; however, the tasks involving failure and must transfer load to backup equipment without
review of design are generally done by a third-party com- interruption of service. Commissioning is essential to test
missioning agent. failure modes as well as normal operations.
Correctional facilities may have simple HVAC sys-
tems, but they are located in facilities that have limited
1.3.2 Benefits of Commissioning
access for correcting systems problems once the facility is
Making sure that systems operate properly will produce bet- put in service. For this reason, a rigorous commissioning
ter comfort and save energy. In addition, commissioning process is necessary to make sure the systems are complete
reduces the need for warranty work and callbacks to adjust and to minimize callbacks. Other systems such as secu-
systems during the first year. The commissioning report and rity and alarm require extensive commissioning due to the
associated documentation also provide a baseline of perfor- critical nature of their performance and their complexity in
mance for tracking the condition of systems and equipment comparison with similar systems for other buildings.
over the life of the building. Commissioning also aids in or- Buildings with less critical functions can generally
ganizing maintenance materials (manuals and training) for suffice with the typical start-up and checkout procedures
ongoing use by the building’s operations staff. used by conscientious contractors based on manufacturers’
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 11

recommendations for particular pieces of equipment. For building might be designed with nondurable, low-cost ma-
many simple buildings, ongoing maintenance is outsourced, terials, meet budget, and be economically feasible; whereas
and there is no need for the owner to receive training or op- a corporate headquarters office building might command a
erating and maintenance documentation. higher level of quality. Building life expectations are also
important. For instance, a building for a 5-year research
program need not be equipped with 20-year life systems,
1.3.4 Checklists and Forms
whereas a long-term, institutional building might be de-
Forms are used in commissioning to assist field personnel signed for 50+-year systems.
through the checkout procedure and to record and sign off on
results. In most instances, the equipment manufacturers’ start-
up procedures and forms will be satisfactory with minor modi-
1.4.2 Qualitative Versus Quantitative
fications for use in commissioning of individual equipment Analysis
items. Commissioning at the system level (as opposed to indi- The goal of sustainable design is that buildings be healthy,
vidual equipment checkout) requires procedures and checklists pleasant, and productive and that they minimize negative
customized for the particular system. Control sequences in the impacts on the local and global environment. Achieving
specifications or from the control subcontractor’s shop drawing this goal with the best solution requires that many factors
submittals are generally the basis for producing system com- be considered in the process. Some factors can be quantified
missioning procedures and forms. Websites of various commis- economically and some can only be judged qualitatively
sioning organizations and equipment vendors are good sources based on relative importance.
of standard forms that can be customized for particular projects.

1.4.3 Decision Matrix Method

1.4 EVALUATING DESIGN The decision matrix is a method for evaluating crite-
OPTIONS ria difficult to quantify. The decision matrix can be used
to supplement life-cycle cost analyses and weigh options
1.4.1 Subjective Viewpoints qualitatively. Decision matrix forces the decision makers to
System quality cannot be assessed without defining criteria. assess what is important to them for defining a successful
Criteria will vary depending on viewpoint. For instance, a outcome.
contractor might assess a design solely on the basis of ease A sample decision matrix analysis is shown in Table 1.2.
of construction, whereas a CFO might consider cost most im- The analysis includes ranking on factors and on qualitative
portant, and the director of a physical plant might look more factors for which precise economic quantification is difficult,
closely at maintenance issues. The purpose of the building especially in the early phases of design, when making deci-
must also be considered. A developer-built speculative office sions is most important. The key feature of the matrix method

TABLE 1.2 Decision Matrix Method

A. How a Corporate Owner Might Think About His Options for HVAC of an Office Building
VAV/Reheat VAC/Convectors VAV/Dual Duct Multizone VAV/FTU Fancoils
Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted
Criteria Weight

Comfort 8 5 30 8 42 5 30 5 30 8 48 7 42
Flexibility 6 10 60 7 42 8 48 1 4 8 48 7 42
Initial cost 3 10 30 8 24 6 18 4 12 7 21 6 18
Energy 6 7 42 8 48 7 42 7 42 9 54 9 54
consumption
Ease of 6 7 42 8 48 9 54 10 60 6 36 5 30
maintenance
Longevity 6 9 54 7 42 9 54 9 54 6 36 5 30
Acoustics 5 8 40 8 40 8 40 8 40 5 25 5 25
Total score 299 308 296 252 284 255
% score 97% 100% 96% 82% 92% 85%
(normalized)
Grade A A+ B F B C
(Continued)
12 CHAPTER ONE

TABLE 1.2 Continued

B. How a Developer Might Think About His Options for HVAC of an Office Building
VAV/Reheat VAC/Convectors VAV/Dual Duct Multizone VAV/FTU Fancoils
Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted Score Weighted
Criteria Weight

Comfort 3 5 15 8 21 5 15 5 15 8 24 7 21
Flexibility 3 9 30 7 21 8 24 1 4 8 24 7 21
Initial cost 10 9 100 8 80 6 60 4 40 7 70 6 60
Energy 2 7 14 8 16 7 14 7 14 9 18 9 18
consumption
Ease of 2 7 14 8 16 9 18 10 20 6 12 5 10
maintenance
Longevity 2 9 18 7 14 9 18 9 18 6 12 5 10
Acoustics 5 8 40 8 40 8 40 8 40 5 25 5 25
Total score 213 211 189 151 185 165
% score 100% 97% 87% 69% 85% 76%
(normalized)
Grade A+ A- B D B C

is inclusion of weighting factors which allow quantitative in- idea and recurring savings in energy. The cost of maintenance
clusion of real, albeit qualitative, criteria in a comprehensive and financing are sometimes neglected, and the interactions
comparison among alternatives. with other building systems are generally ignored. Life-cycle
This process involves the following steps: cost analysis includes maintenance and financing cost, but
usually leaves out many important parameters. Virtually
■■ Define important criteria.
never do these analyses include environmental or the impact
■■ Score options 1–10 on these criteria. on occupant productivity. These are considered “soft costs,”
■■ Assign weight according to perceived importance of which are sometimes beyond the realm of defensible quan-
each criterion. tification. Nonetheless, soft costs can be the most important
■■ Multiply weight * score for weighted score. factors in deciding among options for design.
■■ Add weighted scores for total score. 1. Payback analysis. Despite its limitations, payback
■■ Normalize scores as percent of score of highest ranking analysis is often used to evaluate and compare options.
option. Given options with different initial cost and different
operating costs, the simple payback period can be cal-
■■ Grade “on a curve.”
culated to determine which of the options will recoup
Note that different constituencies may have various initial cost most quickly. Simple payback period is cal-
opinions on weighting of criteria, exemplified here by an culated by the following equation:
owner (A) and a developer (B).
Payback Period = Extra Cost>Savings
where
1.4.4 Economic Evaluation Payback Period = the time required for savings be-
The basis for making good business decisions is economics, tween two options to equal the difference in cost
and two methods are commonly used to evaluate options. Extra Cost = the difference in initial cost between the
They are simple payback period and life-cycle cost analysis. two options
Payback analysis is a simple tool often used to screen options. Savings = the annual difference in operating cost, gen-
It generally considers only the initial cost of implementing the erally including utilities and maintenance

Example 1.1 What is the payback period for a hypothetical energy-saving device in a manufacturing plant? It costs
$20,000 to install, lasts 5 years, and saves $7500 per year in utilities, consisting of 15,000 therms* of
gas at $0.50 per therm. The device will require $500 per year for maintenance and repairs. These costs are
assumed for first year of operation.
* A therm is 100,000 Btu of heating; this unit is used by utilities for billing gas usage.
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 13

Solution: Divide $20,000 by net annual savings, which are $7500 utilities, less $500 maintenance, or $7000.

Payback Period = $20,000 > ($7500 - $500) = 2.9 years

Example 1.2 What is the payback period for installing an improved version of the hypothetical energy-saving device? It is
constructed of more durable materials, which will last 10 years and costs $30,000 to install. Savings are
identical at $7500 per year in utilities, consisting of 15,000 therms of gas at $0.50 per therm and requires
$500 per year for maintenance and repairs. These costs are assumed for first year of operation.

Solution: Divide $30,000 by net annual savings, which are $7500 utilities, less $500 maintenance, or $7000.

Payback Period = $30,000 > ($7500 - $500) = 4.3 years

Results of payback analysis can be deceiving. A analysis can be more effective if owners, engineers, and
low-investment, quick-payback option (Example 1.1) architects are willing and convinced to include cash
might appear superior to a higher investment with higher flows attributable to effects on productivity in the work-
savings and a longer payback (Example 1.2). Over the place. Good indoor environmental quality results in
economic life of the option, the higher investment could real economic benefit from productivity. These benefits
produce superior results despite a longer payback period. should be included in life-cycle cost analysis.
2. Life-cycle cost analysis. Life-cycle cost analysis is per- During the first year and subsequent years of the life
formed by listing the cash flows associated with an op- cycle, there will be expenses for utilities, maintenance,
tion over a given period defined as the life cycle. Initial and repairs. These costs will likely escalate over time.
cost can be accounted for as a single outlay at year zero. All future cash flows must be brought back to
Cost could also be treated as payments to amortize a current value using a discount rate. The discount rate
loan or as yearly depreciation of the asset for account- represents the cost of money or foregone return on in-
ing and tax purposes. The single outlay method is used vestment. Using the “foregone return” logic, a dollar in-
for simplicity to illustrate the process. vested today at, say, 6 percent investment return will be
Economics of alternative decisions are best dem- worth more in the future. Its value will be escalated by
onstrated by life-cycle cost analysis. Life-cycle cost 6 percent per year. Conversely, a dollar in the future is
analysis is an appropriate tool to compare options on worth less today, its value being “de-escalated” or dis-
the basis of economics, but is often performed solely on counted by 6 percent per year. Discount rate can be also
the basis of those criteria that are easiest to document. considered the expected investment return.
Cost of construction, financing, maintenance, and utili- The following examples illustrate life-cycle cost
ties can be estimated and have a reportable impact on for the same energy-saving device described in the pre-
balance sheets and income statements. Life-cycle cost vious section on payback.

Example 1.3 What is the life-cycle cost for the energy-saving device described in Example 1.1. Recall that the hypotheti-
cal energy-saving device is being considered for a manufacturing plant. It costs $20,000 to install, will
last 5 years, and will save $7500 in utilities during the first year of operation, consisting of 15,000 therms
of gas at $0.50 per therm. The device will require $500 per year for maintenance and repairs during the
first year. Assume that energy cost will escalate at 3% per year and that maintenance/repair cost will also
escalate at 3% per year. Assume also that the owner expects a 15% rate of return for investment.

Solution:
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: $20,000 Energy-Saving Device, 5-Year Life, 3.6-Year Simple Payback

Life cycle of investment (years) 5

Installation cost 20,000
First-year energy saving (utility rates first year) 7500
Annual maintenance/repair cost (first-year value) 500
Energy escalation rate 3%
Repair and maintenance escalation rate 3%
Discount rate (expected investment return) 15%
14 CHAPTER ONE

Cash Flows in Year of Occurrence

Energy Repair and Total Annual Present Value

Year Install Cost Saving Maintenance Cash Flow Total Annual

0 (20,000) - - (20,000) (20,000)

1 - 7,500 (500) 7,000 6,087
2 - 7,725 (515) 7,210 5,452
3 - 7,957 (530) 7,426 4,883
4 - 8,195 (546) 7,649 4,373
5 - 8,441 (563) 7,879 3,917
Net Present Value of Life-Cycle Cash Flows ($) 4,712

Example 1.4 What is the life-cycle cost of the more durable device described in Example 1.2 that costs $30,000 to in-
stall. It will last 10 years and will save $7500 in utilities during the first year of operation, consisting again
of 15,000 therms of gas at $0.50 per therm. The device will require $500 per year for maintenance and
repairs during the first year. Assume that energy cost will escalate at 3% per year and that maintenance/
repair cost will also escalate at 3% per year. Assume also that the owner expects a 15% rate of return for
investment.

Solution: Note that the $20,000 option in Examples 1.1 and 1.3 has a shorter payback than the $30,000 option in
Examples 1.2 and 1.4; however, the life-cycle savings of the $30,000 option are superior.
Installing the hypothetical $30,000 energy-saving device will have a net present value of $8,955,
which is considerably higher than the $4,712 for the $20,000 option.

Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: $30,000 Energy-Saving Device, 10-Year Life, 5.5-Year Simple Payback

Life cycle of investment (years) 10

Installation cost 30,000
First-year energy saving (utility rates first year) 7,500
Annual maintenance/repair cost (first year) 500
Energy escalation rate 3%
Repair and maintenance escalation rate 3%
Discount rate (expected investment return) 15%

Cash Flows in Year of Occurrence

Energy Repair and Total Annual Present Value

Year Install Cost Saving Maintenance Cash Flow Total Annual

0 (30,000) - - (30,000) (30,000)

1 - 7,500 (500) 7,000 6,087
2 - 7,725 (515) 7,210 5,452
3 - 7,957 (530) 7,426 4,883
4 - 8,195 (546) 7,649 4,373
5 - 8,441 (563) 7,879 3,917
6 - 8,695 (580) 8,115 3,508
7 - 8,955 (597) 8,358 3,142
8 - 9,224 (615) 8,609 2,814
9 - 9,501 (633) 8,867 2,521
10 - 9,786 (652) 9,133 2,258
Net Present Value of Life-Cycle Cash Flows ($) 8,955
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 15

1.4.5 Considering Environmental These costs are not directly assessed to the building owner
Emissions in Life-Cycle Analysis who uses the energy, but are sometimes considered in life-
cycle cost analysis by institutions which desire to take
Environmental factors such as “carbon footprint” can a more comprehensive view of their energy operational
be considered in life-cycle cost analysis. Table 1.1 lists responsibilities.
pollutants attributable to building energy usage. Various Example 1.5 shows a life-cycle cost analysis of the
agencies have assigned social costs to the emission of $30,000 investment from Example 1.4 including a value
CO2, ranging from $15 per ton to upwards of $50 per ton. assigned to CO2 emissions reduction.

Example 1.5 The firm’s CEO knows that his board of directors is socially conscious and would appreciate inclusion of the
environmental impact of the option. From Table 1.1, we find that 14 lbs. of CO2 emission will be eliminated
for every therm saved. The board subscribes to a governmental agency’s opinion that the social cost of CO2
emission is $25/ton, resulting in a “carbon saving” of (15,000 therms * 14 lbs) N (2000 lbs. > ton) = 105
tons per year; 105 tons * $25 > ton = $2625.
What is the life-cycle cost of the alternative energy-saving device from Example 1.4 if a value is
assigned to reduction of CO2 emissions?
Carbon cost is assumed to escalate at 3% per year in the analysis presented below:

Solution: Note that the net present value of cash flow is almost three times the value when only energy savings are
considered. Considering emissions cost can have a significant effect on the decision process who consider
their effect on the environment.

Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: $30,000 Energy-Saving Device, 10-Year Life, Including

Productivity and Environmental Values

Life cycle of investment (years) 10

Installation cost 30,000
First-year energy saving (utility rates first year) 7,500
Annual maintenance and repair 500
Cost assigned to CO2 emissions reduction (gain) 2,625
Energy escalation rate 3%
Repair and maintenance escalation rate 3%
CO2 emissions cost escalation rate 3%
Discount rate 15%

Cash Flows in Year of Occurrence

Energy Repair and Value of CO2 Total Annual Present Value

Year Install Cost Saving Maintenance Reduction Cash Flow Total Annual

0 (30,000) - - - (30,000) (30,000)

1 - 7,500 (500) 2,625 9,625 8,370
2 - 7,875 (515) 2,704 10,064 7,610
3 - 8,269 (530) 2,785 10,523 6,919
4 - 8,682 (546) 2,868 11,004 6,292
5 - 9,116 (563) 2,954 11,508 5,722
6 - 9,572 (580) 3,043 12,036 5,203
7 - 10,051 (597) 3,134 12,588 4,732
8 - 10,553 (615) 3,228 13,167 4,304
9 - 11,081 (633) 3,325 13,773 3,915
10 - 11,635 (652) 3,425 14,408 3,561
Net Present Value of Life-Cycle Cash Flows ($) 26,628
16 CHAPTER ONE

1.4.6 Energy Usage in Perspective with in terms of $/ft2 per year for comparison with other operat-
Other Operating Expenses ing costs, including energy:

This section examines the components of building operat-

Analysis of Personnel Cost in $/ft2 per Year
ing cost and the relative importance of energy in compari-
Occupancy density 200 ft2 >employee
son with other costs associated with building operations,
Salary (example) $50,000>yr
especially labor costs for personnel working in commercial
Fringes @ 30% $15,000>yr
buildings. An office building is used for example. Office
buildings in temperate climates use energy for HVAC, water Personnel annual cost $65,000>yr
heating, lighting, office appliances, and vertical transporta- Personnel annual cost per ft2 $325 ft2 >yr
tion. The table here shows how a typical low-rise building
might use energy for these functions.
1.4.8 Economics of Productivity
Energy Use Percent and Energy
HVAC 53
Relative to energy cost at $2.00/ft2 per year, employee cost
Hot water 1
Lighting 28
is a very large number! Energy conservation is a key issue
Appliances 18
in sustainable design, but considering the purpose of build-
ings, saving energy at the expense of occupant well-being
Generally, a Midwest office building will experience energy and performance is not advisable. Here are a few arithmetic
bills of $1.50 to $2.50 per year for gas and electric. scenarios to make the point.
To place the cost of energy in perspective, here is an Suppose that a facility manager changes thermostat
example of operating costs for a typical office building in a set points and reduces lighting levels to effect a 20 percent
temperate climate: reduction in utility bills. Savings would be about $0.40/ft2
per year. Suppose further that these reductions in building
Facility Expenses, Typical Office Building service quality reduced employee productivity by 1 percent.
Expense Component Expense (%) $ per Year The loss in productivity would be 1 percent of $325/ft2 per
Investment return 59 8.35
year, or $3.25. The energy savings of 20 percent, or $0.40/ft2
Repairs and maintenance 5 0.73
per year, sound impressive and would likely win praise from
Preventative maintenance 4 0.60
Janitorial 7 1.01
the CFO, but such a program is not a good idea if there are
Site maintenance 0 0.06 harmful side effects on productivity.
Gas 1 0.19 Conversely, suppose that a facility manager installs bet-
Electric 13 1.84 ter temperature controls and increases lighting levels at the
Water 1 0.09 expense of a 20 percent increase in utility bills. Extra cost
Sewer 0 0.05 would be about $0.40/ft2 per year. Suppose further that these
Environmental 1 0.13 improvements in building service quality increased em-
Life safety 1 0.11
ployee productivity by 1 percent. The gain in productivity
Security 5 0.73
would be 1 percent of $325/ft2 per year, or $3.25. Obviously,
Space planning 2 0.29
Total facilities expense 100 14.18 the extra cost for energy, though considerable, would be a
great investment considering the beneficial side effects on
Energy (highlighted in the table) is about $2.00 > ft2 per productivity.
year, representing less than 15 percent of the overall cost These examples are not intended to detract from the im-
of owning and operating a facility, exclusive of personnel portance of energy conservation, but rather to point out that
costs. This value might be higher or lower depending on cli- energy should be used or conserved with an eye toward over-
mate and utility rates, but the general relationship will be all building performance. A high performance building uses
fairly consistent with these values. energy effectively and enables high performance personnel.

1.4.7 Energy Cost Compared with 1.4.9 Considering Personnel Productivity

Personnel Cost in Life-Cycle Analysis
A typical office building will likely have an occupancy den- Example 1.6 shows a life-cycle cost analysis of the $30,000
sity of 200 gross square feet per workstation, including cir- energy investment from Example 1.4, including an assess-
culation, toilets, and lobby. Personnel cost can be expressed ment for productivity changes on the plant floor.

Example 1.6 At the last minute the plant foreman was told about the installation of the energy-saving equipment de-
scribed in the preceding example problems. He was pleased with the potential energy savings and enthusi-
astic about the reduction in carbon footprint. Unfortunately, he was familiar with a similar installation in a
competitor’s shop and knows that the device will cause a decrease in temperature and considerable breezes
 Introduction to Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Sustainable Design, and Evaluating Options 17

on the plant floor. The foreman of the plant estimates that this will cause extra “warm-up” breaks during
the winter for the plant’s 20 $15 > hour fork truck drivers. Assuming a loss of half hour per day for 12 cold
weather weeks (60 days), the productivity impact will be $9000 annual loss.
Productivity cost is assumed to escalate at 3% per year in the analysis presented below:

Solution:
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: $30,000 Energy-Saving Device, 10-Year Life, Including
Productivity as well as Environmental Values

Life cycle of investment (years) 10

Installation cost 30,000
First-year energy saving (utility rates first year) 7,500
Annual maintenance and repair 500
Productivity loss 9,000
Cost assigned to CO2 emissions reduction (gain) 2,625
Energy escalation rate 3%
Repair and maintenance escalation rate 3%
Labor (productivity) escalation rate 3%
CO2 emissions cost escalation rate 3%
Discount rate 15%

Cash Flows in Year of Occurrence

Energy Repair and Value of CO2 Productivity Gain Total Annual Present Value
Year Install Cost Saving Maintenance Reduction (Loss) Cash Flow Total Annual

0 (30,000) - - - - (30,000) (30,000)

1 - 7,500 (500) 2,625 (9,000) 625 543
2 - 7,875 (515) 2,704 (9,270) 794 600
3 - 8,269 (530) 2,785 (9,548) 975 641
4 - 8,682 (546) 2,868 (9,835) 1,170 669
5 - 9,116 (563) 2,954 (10,130) 1,378 685
6 - 9,572 (580) 3,043 (10,433) 1,602 693
7 - 10,051 (597) 3,134 (10,746) 1,842 692
8 - 10,553 (615) 3,228 (11,069) 2,098 686
9 - 11,081 (633) 3,325 (11,401) 2,372 674
10 - 11,635 (652) 3,425 (11,743) 2,665 659
Net Present Value of Life-Cycle Cash Flows ($) (23,457)

This hypothetical example shows that so-called “soft costs” can make a difference in the economic perfor-
mance of concepts. Inclusion of even small changes in productivity of building occupants can have a very large
effect on the decision process. In this case loss of productivity makes the energy saving feature ill-advised.

QUESTIONS 1.4 What will the relative impact be on CO2 for heating
and for cooling, assuming the buildings in Question
1.1 What are the benefits of buildings with shallow floor 1.1 are located in the Midwest (hot summers, cold
depths? winters)?
1.2 How much CO2 will be liberated to the atmosphere 1.5 How does “sustainable” design differ from energy-
in a year’s time due directly to a lighting system con- effective design?
suming 300,000 kWh per year? 1.6 What factors should the architect and engineer con-
1.3 If a corporation is concerned with its carbon footprint sider to produce a high performance environment for
and accepts a value of $25 per ton to account for soci- building occupants?
etal costs, what is their perceived economic impact of 1.7 How does saving energy help to protect the
this much CO2? environment?
18 CHAPTER ONE

1.8 What is the role of maintainability in sustainable 1.17 Will a commercial building developer use a higher
buildings? or lower discount rate than an institutional building
1.9 How could building site selection affect the owner? Why?
environment? 1.18 An energy conservation option has a first cost of
1.10 What factors should interior designers consider $50,000. It requires $4000 per year maintenance and
in terms of indoor air quality? Architects? HVAC saves $10,000 per year in utilities. What is the simple
engineers? payback period for the option?
1.11 What design features would you suggest to allow per- 1.19 The system in Question 1.18 will last 15 years with
sonal climate control in a single-story residence? A no salvage value. What is the 15-year life-cycle cost
high-rise office building? A classroom building? assuming energy cost escalation of 4% annually,
1.12 Compare the importance of commissioning for a data maintenance cost escalation of 2% annually, and a
center versus a classroom building. 5% discount rate? What if the discount rate is 15%?
1.13 What sustainable design issues should architects con- 1.20 Assume the option in Question 1.18 is installed in a
sider in deciding window materials and locations? building with 200 occupants, with average person-
1.14 Name a few quantitative factors involved in the anal- nel cost of $60,000 per year. If the device interferes
ysis of a building HVAC system. Name a few quali- with temperature control, resulting in a 2% decrease
tative factors. in productivity, what would the simple payback be?
1.15 Is there ever a time when energy conservation is 1.21 What would the payback be if the option in Question
unwise? If so, give examples. 1.18 improved temperature control and resulted in a
1.16 Prepare three decision matrices to evaluate operable 2% increase in productivity?
windows versus fixed windows in an office building. 1.22 Calculate the life-cycle costs for the two cases (2%
Use the process described in Section 1.4.3. Fill out decrease, 2% increase in productivity) using data
the matrices as an occupant, a maintenance staffer, from Questions 1.19 and 1.20 for a 5% discount rate
and a building owner. and a 15% discount rate.
 CHAPTER
TWO

HVAC FUNDAMENTALS

T he initial chapters of this book deal with heating,

ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems.
HVAC systems use and convert energy and move fluids
of water 1°F. Stated another way, if we heat 1 lb of water
(about 1 pint) 1°F, the water will have absorbed 1 Btu. If we
heat a pound of water 2°F, we will need 2 Btu. Pound for
to make buildings provide thermal comfort and healthy air pound, water will absorb much more heat than most other
quality. Fig. 2.1 illustrates that air and water are conducted materials for a given temperature rise. Only 0.156 Btu will
through ducts and pipes to accomplish the task. A basic be necessary to raise 1 lb of concrete 1°F. If we normalize
understanding of fluid flow, energy forms, and conversion the heat-absorbing capacity of water at 1.0, the heat capac-
factors is essential to the study of HVAC systems along with ity (C) of concrete will be 0.156. These relationships can be
other mechanical and electrical (M/E) systems. combined into the following equation:

q = M * C * ∆T (2.1)

2.1 BASICS OF ENERGY where

AND POWER q = heat absorbed (or released) (Btu)
M = mass (lb)
M/E systems use and convert energy and move fluids to make
C = heat capacity (often called “specific heat”)
buildings habitable and functional. Energy forms applicable
(Btu lb °F)
to building systems include thermal energy, electricity, me-
∆T = temperature increase or decrease, °F
chanical energy, and chemically stored energy (fuels).
Thermal energy is measured in British thermal units The quantity C, heat capacity or specific heat, is listed
(Btu). A Btu is the amount of heat required to raise 1 lb for many common materials in Table 2.1.

Example 2.1 A 10'-by-10' concrete floor is 8" thick. If the floor is warmed by the sun to 80°F during the day and cools
to 70°F overnight, how much heat is stored and released by the floor on a daily basis?

Solution: The specific heat of concrete is 0.21 Btu per lb °F. The density of concrete is approximately 144 lb>ft3.
Heat storage is calculated as follows:

Q = M * C * ∆T
= 144 * (10 * 10 * 8/12) * 0.21 * (80 - 70)
= 20,200 Btu

The words “energy” and “power” are often used inter- by a structure (load) and the amount of heating or cooling
changeably, but there is an important distinction between capacity required by equipment to offset the heat or load.
the two. Energy is a quantity, such as heat; power is the rate For all forms of energy the following equation will
at which the quantity is transferred or used. Table 2.2 shows apply, but units will depend on energy form:
the forms of energy and power, their units of measure, and
conversion factors. Power = Energy>time
The unit of energy for heat is the Btu. The unit of power or
for heat will be Btu per hour, abbreviated Btuh. This unit is
used in quantifying the amount of heating gained or lost Energy = Power * time (2.2)

19
20 CHAPTER TWO

RELIEF AIR COOLING

TOWER
RELIEF AIR
DAMPER RETURN AIR FAN
D M RETURN AIR
DUCT EXHAUST
AIR FAN

CONTROL
TERMINAL
SUPPLY AIR
DUCT

DIFFUSER
RETURN AIR
DAMPER
FILTERS
HEATING COIL
D M COOLING
COIL
OUTSIDE
AIR
DAMPER D MIXED AIR

M
AIR HANDLING & DELIVERY
BOILER SUPPLY AIR
FAN

HR CONDENSING WATER
RETURN

H CONDENSING
HEATING WATER PUMP
WATER PUMP
C

HEATING PRODUCTION
CR

CONDENSING
WATER SUPPLY
LEGEND CHILLER
CHILLED WATER
H - HEATING WATER SUPPLY
PUMP
HR - HEATING WATER RETURN
C - CHILLED WATER SUPPLY
CR - CHILLED WATER RETURN
COOLING PRODUCTION

FIGURE 2.1. Components of a large HVAC system (based on hot–chilled water system).

TABLE 2.1 Heat Capacities of Common TABLE 2.2 Forms and Units of Energy and Power
Materials
Unit of Measure
Material Density lb , ft3 Heat Capacity Btu , °F lb Energy Conversion
Form Energy Power to Btu
Water 62.4 1.0
Wood 45 0.57 Heat British thermal British thermal unit 1.00
unit (Btu) per hour (Btuh)
Foam insulation 2.5 0.34
Electric Watt-hour Watt (W) 3.41
Air 0.075 0.24
(Wh)
Concrete 144 0.21
Kilowatt-hour Kilowatt (kW) 3,412
Steel 489 0.12 (kWh)
Mechanical Horsepower- Horsepower (hp) 2,545
hour (hp-hr)
 HVAC Fundamentals 21

Example 2.2 In the previous example, the heat was released from the concrete slab during a night setback period from
10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. What was the average capacity of the slab over this period to assist in heating the
building?

Solution: The amount of heat is 15,000 Btu. It was released over an 8-hour period; therefore, the average capacity was

Power = Energy>time
= 20,200 Btu>8 hr = 2500 Btuh

Electric power is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts Electric energy 1kilowatt@hours, or kWh2
(1000 W). These are power units. If power is applied over = Electric power 1kilowatts, or kW2
time, energy is the product:
* time 1hours2 (2.3)

Example 2.3 A 100-W light is on for 10 hours per day. How much energy will the light use in a year’s time?

Solution: Energy = power * time

Energy1kWh2 = 100 Watts * 10 hr>day
* 365 days per year
= 365,000 watt@hours, or 365 kWh

Electrical energy can be converted to mechanical en- A small portion of the electrical energy is lost as heat.
ergy in a motor, to light in a lamp, or to heat in a resis- Eventually, even the mechanical energy degrades into
tance heater. All of the electrical energy used in a heater heat. In a lamp, a portion of the electrical energy becomes
becomes heat. In a motor, the majority of the electrical en- light, and a portion becomes heat. Eventually, virtually all
ergy becomes mechanical power, measured in horsepower. the light is absorbed by room surfaces and becomes heat.

Example 2.4 An electric motor running a large copier draws 1.6 kW. How much heat is produced in the space as a result
of the copier’s operation?

Solution: From Table 2.2 we find the conversion factor from electric to heat energy or power:

Heat power 1Btuh2 = Electric power 1kW2 * 3412 Btuh>kWh

= 1.6 * 3412 = 5460 Btuh

2.2 FUELS 2.2.2 Relative Cost of Fuels

2.2.1 Energy Content The relative cost of fuels is an important consideration in
selection of the energy source for heating buildings. Based
Fuels are burned to produce thermal energy, which can be on approximate average 2016 U.S. costs for various fuels,
used to heat buildings or run engines to produce mechani- Table 2.4 shows the cost per million Btu of net heating en-
cal energy. The mechanical energy can be used to operate ergy, considering typical equipment efficiencies. Energy
machinery, vehicles, or to produce electricity in a gen- costs can vary greatly between locations, and due to market
erator. Fuels commonly associated with building systems fluctuations, so current, local analysis should be performed
include natural gas (primarily methane), propane (LP), oil for actual projects. The analysis should consider not only
(various grades), and coal (for very large applications). current prices but also projected future trends based on best
The thermal energy produced by burning various fuels is available opinions.
shown in Table 2.3.
22 CHAPTER TWO

TABLE 2.3 Heating Values of Various Fuels

Fuel Unit of Measurea Nominal Heating Value , Unit, Btu (kJ)

Natural gas cu ft 1,000 (1,055)

LP (propane gas) gal 93,000 (98,000)
No. 1 oil (diesel) gal 138,000 (146,000)
No. 5 oil (heavy) gal 145,000 (153,000)
No. 6 oil (bunker C) gal 153,000 (161,000)
Soft coal (bituminous) lb 13,000 (14,000)
13,700 (14,800)
Hard coal (anthracite) lb 12,500 (13,500)
13,200 (14,300)
Electrical resistanceb kWh 3,412 (3,600)
c
Electric heat pump kWh 10,200 (10,800)
a
1 gallon = 3.78 liters; 1 cubic foot = 28.32 liters; 1 pound = 0.454 kilogram.
b
Electrical to heat energy conversion efficiency.
c
Heat available with coefficient of performance (COP) of 3. COP for heat pump is the ratio of useful heat output
divided by energy input.

Example 2.5 A 75% efficient boiler is required to produce 800,000 Btuh to offset a heating load. If the boiler uses
natural gas, what will the input rate be in cubic feet per hour?

Solution: From Table 2.3, each cubic foot of gas has a heating value of 1000 Btu. At 75% efficiency, each cubic foot
will produce a net heating value of 0.75 * 1000, or 750 Btu. To produce 800,000 Btuh, we will need
800,000 Btuh>750 Btu>ft3, or 1067 ft3 per hour.

Electric Rates Determining electric rates is not a simple a lower average cost for electricity than a small residence
issue due to complexity in rate structure. Cost per kWh from because the former has more usage in the higher blocks.
most utilities is generally lower in winter, so the cost used The stepped rate structure also promotes electric heat-
for a heating energy comparison should be lower than the ing. A homeowner, for instance, might pay $0.09 per kWh
average annual cost per kWh. For instance, a Midwest util- for blocks representing the kWh quantity that is typically
ity might have an average summer cost of $0.12 per kWh, used for general power usage (lights and appliances). The
and an average winter cost of $0.08. The lower cost is due block above general power usage could be priced at $0.06,
to supply and demand factors. More power is demanded in which the electric company might statistically assume is
summer due to air conditioning, and the electric utility has used for heating.
more available capacity in winter, so more efficient power A very large building may have a rate structure that
plants can be base loaded. includes a demand charge for the peak monthly power re-
An additional complexity results from rate “steps,” quirement (kW) as well as an energy charge (kWh). In many
which could be considered as a volume discount. The low- areas demand charges can be half or more of the total elec-
est “block” of usage has a higher unit cost per kWh than tric bill in the summer months. The application of demand
subsequent blocks. Accordingly, a large residence will pay charge is shown in Example 2.6.

Example 2.6 The summer rate structure for a large building is $0.04 per kWh and $15.00 per kW of peak monthly demand.
If a large building under this rate uses 300,000 kWh in July and the peak July demand is 1,200 kW, what
is the July electric bill? What is the average cost per kWH? (Ignore basic charges and taxes for simplicity.)

Solution:
Usage charge 300,000 kWh * $0.04/kWh = $12,000
Demand charge 1,200 kW * $15.00/kW = $18,000
Total July bill (exclusive of basic charges and taxes) $30,000 (Avg. $0.10 per kWh)
 HVAC Fundamentals 23

TABLE 2.4 Range of Cost for Various Fuels

Range of Unit Range of Cost $ ,

Cost $ , Unit Million Btu
Energy Source for Energy (Btu) Typical
Heating a Building Billing Unit per Unit Efficiency (%) Low High Low High

Natural gas Therm 100,000 80 0.30 0.95 3.75 12.88

LP (propane) Gallon 93,000 80 2.00 4.75 13.44 63.84
No. 1 oil (diesel) Gallon 138,000 80 2.50 2.75 13.59 24.91
Electric resistance kWh 3,412 100 0.04 0.08 10.26 23.45
Heat pump kWh 3,412 300 0.04 0.08 3.42 7.82

For large buildings, most utility companies measure de- in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 to give a general comparison of elec-
mand in two periods: peak and off-peak. The time period tric heat pumps with other heating energy sources.
between 10:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m. weekdays is commonly
considered as peak period. Demand during the off-peak pe- Natural Gas Cost of gas is similarly complicated by rates
riod may be allowed to exceed peak period demand by a and contracts. In 2016 the average cost of gas for residential
factor of 2 times before being used as a basis for the demand customers was about $0.95 per therm according to the U.S.
charge. Since most heating occurs at night and during the Energy Information Administration. Commercial customers
early morning hours, the cost per unit for most of the kWh paid, on average, about $0.65 per therm. These values vary by
used for electric heat could be very low since this power location and size of building and are similar to electric rates.
doesn’t contribute to the demand charge. Usage charges Very large facilities may have much lower gas prices if they
(exclusive of demand) between $0.035 and $0.06 per kWh directly procure from producers and pay the local utilities only
are not uncommon for large buildings in the Midwest. Much for distribution overhead. Gas costs as low as $0.30 are not
higher values could apply in other parts of the United States. uncommon for this practice, but it’s only used for very large
facilities such as college campuses and industrial complexes.
Heat Pumps For heat pumps the coefficient of perfor-
mance (COP) is defined as the heating energy output divided LP and Oil During the same general time frame refer-
by the electric energy input. If a heat pump has a COP of 3, enced for electric and gas, LP (propane) cost varied from
then 3 units of heat are produced by 1 unit of electric input. about $2.00 per gallon to $4.75 per gallon. Heating oil cost
Stated another way, 1 kWh input transports 2 kWh of heat varied from $2.50 per gallon to $2.75 per gallon, with a
from outdoor air (air source heat pump) or from the earth national average of about $2.10 per gallon. Heavy oils and
(ground source heat pump) for a total of 3 kWh of heat. COP coal are not commonly used as a primary heating energy for
varies greatly by system and location, so a COP of 3 is used buildings, so they are excluded from Table 2.4.

Example 2.7 A proposed building has an estimated annual heating energy load of 3000 mmBtu per year. The owner
wishes to consider using a heat pump concept (air source or ground source) instead of natural gas, which
is the most commonly used fuel in his town, despite the fact that the town’s gas rates are on the high side.
Before spending a lot of time in design, he’d like to get a ballpark estimate of potential savings. His engi-
neer suggests that electric to run the heat pumps during the winter would cost about $0.06 per kWh. How
much might he expect to save using the heat pump concept?

Solution: From Table 2.4, natural gas would likely cost about $12 per mmBtu, and cost of heat pumps would lie
between $3.42 and $7.82, or about $5.50 per mmBtu. This results in an estimate of 3000 mmBtu *
$12.00 per mmBtu = $36,000 for gas and 3000 mmBtu * $5.50 = $16,500 for heat pump. Savings
would likely be in the range of $20,000 per year.

2.3 PROPERTIES OF AIR–WATER 2.3.1 Psychrometry

MIXTURES Psychrometry is the study of properties of air–water mix-
The design of environmental control systems relies on an tures. A psychrometric chart is a convenient source for data
understanding of the properties of air, including temperature on the properties of such mixtures. Fig. 2.2 shows how im-
and humidity. These properties affect loads on buildings, portant properties are presented on a psychrometric chart.
and HVAC systems are used to alter the properties of air and Fig. 2.3 is a complete chart that can be used in analysis of
produce comfort. processes associated with HVAC.
24 CHAPTER TWO

2.3.2 Absolute and Relative Humidity to evaporative cooling. The drier the air, the more effec-
tive will be the evaporative cooling, and the lower will be
Two basic properties of air–water mixtures are temperature the temperature measured. If the air is saturated, then there
and humidity. The humidity of the air can be expressed in will be no evaporation and the wet-bulb thermometer will
two ways: absolute and relative. Absolute humidity, also measure the same temperature as a dry-bulb thermometer.
known as the humidity ratio (W), is the amount of water The temperature and humidity of the air can be determined
in the air and is measured in grains or pounds of water per by measuring both dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures. A
pound of dry air. A grain is equivalent to 1/7000 of a pound. combination of wet- and dry-bulb temperature represents a
This unit is preferred owing to the very small amount of discrete point on the psychrometric chart.
water present in air. Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of
the actual water content to the maximum possible moisture
content at a given temperature, expressed as a percent. If 2.3.5 Sensible, Latent, and Total Heat
the air is currently holding all the moisture possible, the rela- Air contains thermal energy in two forms: sensible heat and
tive humidity is 100 percent, and the air is termed saturated. latent heat. Water vapor, or humidity, in the air contains
the water’s latent heat of vaporization (approximately 1000
2.3.3 Effect of Temperature on Humidity Btu/lb of water). Temperature is a measure of sensible heat,
The moisture-holding capacity of the air depends on the air while water vapor content is a measure of latent heat. Total
temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than cold heat—the sum of sensible and latent heat—is enthalpy,
air. For this reason, the same absolute humidity results in symbolized by the Greek letter eta, or by H. Enthalpy is ex-
different relative humidities at different temperatures. The pressed in units of Btu/lb of dry air. High temperature or
psychrometric chart illustrates the relationship of tempera- high humidity constitutes high energy.
ture, absolute humidity, and RH. On the psychrometric chart, horizontal movement is as-
sociated with sensible heat change (no change in absolute
humidity), and vertical movement is associated with latent
2.3.4 Wet-Bulb Temperature heat change (no change in temperature). Moving upward or
If a wet sock is placed over the bulb of a conventional to the right indicates a higher energy level; moving down-
thermometer, a lower temperature will be recorded owing ward or to the left indicates a lower energy level. Lines of
Humidity ratio

Humidity ratio
Saturation Saturation
curve curve

Dry-bulb temperature Dry-bulb temperature

Lines of constant dry-bulb temperature Lines of constant relative humidity

(a) (b)
Humidity ratio

Humidity ratio

Saturation Saturation
curve curve

Dry-bulb temperature Dry-bulb temperature

Lines of constant absolute humidity Lines of constant wet-bulb
temperature (enthalpy similar)
(c) (d)

FIGURE 2.2. Lines representing major properties of air–water mixture on the ASHRAE psychrometric chart.
(a) Vertical lines: constant dry-bulb (DB) temperature. (b) Curved lines: constant relative humidity (RH).
(c) Horizontal lines: constant humidity ratio (W), also commonly referred to as absolute humidity. (d) Sloped
lines: constant wet-bulb (WB) temperature; lines with same slope: constant enthalpy (H).
 HVAC Fundamentals 25

constant enthalpy slope upward and to the left at approxi- Hygroscopic substances, or desiccants, such as silica gel
mately the same slope as lines of constant wet-bulb temper- and lithium bromide are used in certain applications to ab-
ature. This is no coincidence, for wet-bulb temperature is a sorb moisture from the air. As moisture condenses in the
good measure of total energy. desiccant its latent heat is liberated, heating the desiccant
Often, changes in air conditions result in changes in and the air. Absorption is represented by a movement on the
both humidity and temperature as shown in Fig. 2.4. The net psychrometric chart approximately opposite in direction to
change in energy level, or enthalpy, can be determined by evaporative cooling.
plotting the initial and final conditions on the psychrometric
chart. 2.3.8 Examples to Understand the
Psychrometric Chart
2.3.6 Sensible Heating and Cooling
1. Air at 70°F DB and 75% RH is heated to 84°F. What is
Sensible heating (cooling) occurs when the temperature of the RH of the air at this higher temperature?
an air–water mixture is raised (lowered) but the absolute Solution: In Fig. 2.3, locate the air at the initial
moisture content remains the same. Sensible heating or condition (70°F DB and 75% RH) and follow the hori-
cooling occurs as air in spaces is warmed or cooled by build- zontal line to the right until it meets the 84°F DB line
ing loads that do not change the moisture content of the air. (vertical). The heated air is now at 47% RH.
Sensible heating or cooling is also performed by systems to 2. Air at 90°F DB and 70% RH is cooled to 75°F. What is
compensate for loads. For instance, room air may be cooled the relative humidity?
by an outside wall during cold winter weather. To com- Solution: In Fig. 2.3, from the intersecting point
pensate, a heater at the base of the wall may warm the air. of 90°F DB and 70% RH, draw a line to the left. This
Sensible heating or cooling is represented by a horizontal line meets the saturation curve at 79°F, which is the
movement along the psychrometric chart. dew point temperature of the air. The air is then cooled
further, following the saturation curve until it stops
2.3.7 Processes Involving Latent Heat at 75°F. Between 79°F and 75°F, the air is saturated,
and moisture condenses out of it. The RH of the air is
Heating and cooling represent a change of sensible heat; now 100%.
humidification and dehumidification represent a change of
3. Outside air at 95°F DB and 78°F WB is mixed with
latent heat. The amount of moisture liberated or absorbed by
air returning from a room at 75°F > 50% RH. The
air is measured by its initial and final absolute humidities.
mix is 20% OA > 80% return. What is the condition
Air can be humidified either by adding dry steam to it
of the mix?
or by evaporating moisture into it. If dry steam is added,
Solution: The dry-bulb temperature of the mixed
the air will have a higher energy level, taking on the latent
air can be determined as follows:
heat of the steam. (There will also be a slight increase in
temperature owing to the sensible heat of the steam, but the Mixed air temp = 20% * OA temp + 80% * RA temp
effect is small and generally ignored in practice.) On the = 0.2 * 95 + 0.8 * 75 = 79°F
psychrometric chart, this process is represented by a vertical
movement. The humidity ratio of the mixed air can be deter-
If water is evaporated into air, the air will cool, but mined by a similar equation. From the psychrometric
the final energy level of the air does not change. The heat chart, the humidity ratio of air at 95°F DB and 78°F WB
required to vaporize the water cools the air. The sensible is 0.0168 lbs/lb, and the humidity ratio of air at 75°F DB
heat loss equals the latent heat gain, resulting in constant and 50% RH is 0.0093 lbs/lb. The mix is 0/0108 lbs/lb.
enthalpy. This process is called adiabatic saturation. (No 4. Air at 95°F DB and 78°F WB is cooled to 55°F. What is
energy is added or removed.) Evaporative humidification the change in humidity ratio?
is accompanied by evaporative cooling and is represented Solution: In Fig. 2.3, from the intersecting point
on the psychrometric chart by an upward movement along a of 95°F DB and 78°F WB, draw a line to the right to
line of constant enthalpy (approximately parallel to a line of the vertical axis, and read the humidity ratio, which is
constant wet-bulb temperature). 0.0168 lbs/lb. Then draw a line from the initial condi-
Cooling is a method for dehumidifying air. If moist tion to the left. This line meets the saturation curve at
air is cooled to the saturation curve, further cooling will 72°F, which is the dew point temperature of the air.
not only reduce temperature but also remove moisture. The air is then cooled further, following the satura-
The temperature at which moisture begins to condense is tion curve until it stops at 55°F. Between 72°F and
termed the dew point. Liquid moisture removed from the 55°F, the air is saturated, and moisture condenses out
air by this process is termed condensate. The air that re- of it. Humidity ratio at 55°F saturated is determined
sults from the process is both cooler and less humid than by drawing a line to the right to the vertical axis, and
it was initially. read the humidity ratio, which is 0.0092 lbs > lb. The
Air also can be dehumidified by absorption. Some sub- change is humidity ratio is 0.0168 minus 0.0092, or
stances are hygroscopic, meaning that they absorb moisture. 0.0076 lbs > lb.
26
FIGURE 2.3. Psychrometric chart.
(©ASHRAE, [Link]. (2017) ASHRAE Handbook—(IP version page 1.15, their Fig.1 ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1.). Used with permission.)
 HVAC Fundamentals 27

Saturation

Absolute humidity

Absolute humidity
curve
Saturation Heating
curve

Cooling

Dry-bulb temperature Dry-bulb temperature

Sensible heating and cooling Dehumidification by cooling

(a) (b)

Absolute humidity

Absolute humidity
Saturation Saturation
curve curve

Dry-bulb temperature Dry-bulb temperature

Humidification with steam Dehumidification by absorption

(c) (d)
Absolute humidity

Saturation
curve

FIGURE 2.4. Basic psychrometric process. (a) Sensible

heating and cooling—horizontally. (b) Dehumidification
by cooling—follows saturation curve. (c) Humidification
with steam—essentially up vertically with slight heating.
Dry-bulb temperature (d) Dehumidification by absorption—essentially down
Humidification by evaporative cooling vertically with slight heating. (e) Humidification by
evaporative cooling—approximately follows the
(e) wet-bulb line.

2.4 FLUID FLOW AND has a headwall holding water 100 ft in depth has a pressure
PRESSURE IN MECHANICAL of 100 ft of head at the bottom. A pressure measurement of
SYSTEMS 100 ft of head at a particular point in a piping system would
be the same as water pressure at 100 ft depth. One psig is
Mechanical systems use the flow of air, water, and steam equal to 2.31 ft of head.
to transfer energy. Airflow is measured in cubic feet per Steam is measured in pounds (lbs), and flow is mea-
minute, abbreviated CFM. Air pressures in heating and air- sured in lbs per hour. Pressure is measured in psig.
conditioning systems are very low, and measuring in the fa-
miliar unit of psi (pound per sq in) would result in numbers
too small to be used conveniently. Pressure is measured in
2.5 ENERGY TRANSPORT
“inches of water column” as explained in Fig. 2.5.
Water flow is measured in gallons per minute, abbrevi-
IN HVAC SYSTEMS
ated GPM. Pressures are measured in two units: psig and “ft Fig. 2.1 shows that HVAC systems use fluids to transport
of head.” Head, measured in feet, is equal to the pressure at heat and cold to satisfy loads and maintain comfort. Such
the bottom of a column of water. For instance, a dam that fluids include air, water, steam, and refrigerant. Equations
28 CHAPTER TWO

Duct Mass flow is quantified in units of cubic feet per minute,

or CFM. An equation for sensible heat transfer in air can be
Water level
Air rise due to derived given that the density of air at standard pressure is
flow pressure in 0.075 lb > ft3 and that the specific heat of air is 0.24 Btu > lb·°F:
duct
Qsensible = 0.076 lbs>ft3 * .024 Btu>lb # °F
(2.6)
Air pressure measured in “inches of water column.” * 60 min>hr = 1.1 * CFM * ∆T
where CFM = airflow (ft3 > min)

Water column Latent Heat Transfer in Air Mass flow is quantified

Pipe height will be
supported by in units of cubic feet per minute, or CFM. An equation for
pressure in pipe latent heat transfer in air can be derived given that the density
Water of air at standard pressure is 0.075 lb > ft3 and that the latent
flow heat of vaporization of water is 1076 Btu > lb. The difference
in humidity ratio WD can be expressed in lbs of H2O > lb of
dry air or in grains H2O > lb of dry air:

Water pressure measured in “feet of head.”

Qlatent = 0.075 lbs>ft3 * 1076 Btu>lb
(2.7)
* 60 min>hr = 4840 * CFM * ∆W
FIGURE 2.5. Measuring pressure of air and water in HVAC
systems. where CFM = airflow (ft3 > min)
∆W = difference in humidity ratios
(lbs of H2O > lb of dry air)
are developed in this section that can be used to determine
heat transport based on the flow rate and the initial and final Or, if difference in humidity ratio WD is expressed in grains
conditions of the fluid. These equations can also be used in of H2O per lb of dry air:
equipment design to specify flow rates or conditions, based Qlatent = (0.075 lbs>ft3 * 1760 Btu>lb * 60>min/hr)>
on requirements for heat transport. The rate of heat flow is
7000 grains>lb = 0.68 * CFM * ∆W (2.7a)
measured in Btus per hour, or Btuh. Fluids are used to trans-
port heat in HVAC systems. where CFM = airflow (ft3 > min)
∆W = difference humidity ratios
(grains of H2O > lb of dry air)
2.5.1 Heat Transport in Air
Sensible Heat Transfer in Air The natural property of Total Heat Transfer in Air Total heat, termed
a fluid that affects heat transfer is called specific heat; this is enthalpy (H), is the sum of sensible and latent heat. The total
the amount of energy (Btu) required to raise the temperature heat of air at various conditions of temperature and humidity
of 1 lb of a substance 1°F. The specific heat of water is 2.0 can be taken from a psychrometric chart or tables, and the
and that of air is 0.24. The heat liberated from a quantity following equation can be used to determine energy flow:
of fluid is equal to the specific heat of the fluid multiplied
by the number of pounds of the fluid and the temperature Q = 4.5 * CFM * ∆H (2.8)
change between the initial and final states of the fluid; where ∆H = change in enthalpy (Btu > lb) ∆
that is,
q = m * C * ∆T (2.4)
2.5.2 Heat Transport in Water
where q = heat energy (Btu)
m = mass (lb) Mass flow is quantified in units of gallons per minute (GPM).
C = specific heat (Btu > (lb·°F)) Knowing that 1 gal of water has a mass of 8.35 lb and that
∆T = temperature difference, °F (final temperature there are 60 minutes in 1 hour, the following equation can be
minus initial temperature) derived:

HVAC equipment loads, equipment capacity, and output are Q = 1 Btu>lb # °F * 8.35 lbs>gal
expressed as quantities per unit time, or rates: * 60 min/hr * flow (gal/hr) (2.9)
Q = M * C * ∆T (2.5) * temp. difference (°F)
= 500 * GPM * ∆T
where Q = heat flow (Btu > hr, or Btuh)
M = mass flow (lbm > hr) where Q = Heat flow (Btu > hr, or Btuh)
C = specific heat (Btu > (lb·°F)) GPM = water flow (gal > min)
∆T = temperature difference, °F ∆T = temperature difference, °F
 HVAC Fundamentals 29

2.5.3 Heat Transport by Fluid Phase Systems using chilled air for cooling generally have supply
Change air temperatures between 50°F and 60°F. Equation 2.12 can
also be used to determine the airflow rate required to satisfy
Heat Transfer in Steam Heat is liberated from steam the sensible portion of cooling loads. Once the airflow rate
by a change of phase from vapor to liquid. One pound of is determined, the humidity can be determined from a psy-
steam liberates approximately 1000 Btu as it condenses. chrometric chart.
Conversely, a boiler must produce 1000 Btu to boil 1 lb of
water. For steam, heat flow is approximated by the equation Steam Flow The rate of steam flow required to satisfy
Q = 1000 Btu>lb * lb>hr = 1000 * SFR (2.10) a given heating load is determined by using Equation 2.13.

where SFR = steam flow rate (lb > hr) SFR = Q>1000 (2.13)
where SFR = steam flow rate (lb > hr)
Heat Transfer in Refrigerants Refrigerants absorb Q = heat flow (Btuh)
heat by changing phase from liquid to gas. The heat ab- 1000 = heat (Btu) liberated by condensation
sorbed is equal to the latent heat of vaporization, measured of 1 lb of steam
in Btu per pound, times the refrigerant flow rate, measured
in pounds per hour. There are many types of refrigerants, Refrigerant Flow The rate of refrigerant flow for cool-
and each has its own distinct latent heat of vaporization. ing is determined by dividing the cooling load by the latent
heat of vaporization.
2.5.4 Selecting Fluid Flow Rates The foregoing concepts and equations are used to
for HVAC Systems estimate theoretical fluid flow rates required to meet a
given load. The resulting estimates are the basis for sizing
HVAC systems and subsystems are designed to satisfy heat the piping and duct systems, along with the pumps and fans
loads by using heat transport fluids. Fans, pumps, boil- required to transport heating and cooling.
ers, and distribution elements are sized according to flow
requirements, which must be determined by the HVAC
designer. The first step is to estimate building heat loads. 2.5.5 Examples for Understanding Heat
Methods for estimating loads are presented later in this Transfer by Fluid Flow
chapter. Once they are estimated, the HVAC designer must
decide on the proper combination of flow and conditions 1. A room has a sensible cooling load of 55,000 Btuh.
for fluids used to transfer heat and thereby compensate for How many CFM at 55°F will be required to keep the
loads. Initial and final conditions are generally selected on room at 75°F?
the basis of accepted general practice found to achieve sat- Solution: Using Equation 2.12, the required air-
isfactory results. Equations (2.1) through (2.5) can be used flow will be as follows:
to calculate flow, given the heat transfer requirement and the
initial and final conditions of the fluid. CFM = Q>(1.1 * ∆T ) = 55,000>(1.1 * (75 - 55))
= 2500 CFM
Water Flow For devices using hot water for heating, a 2. The air in the preceding example is cooled and dehu-
supply temperature of 160°F might be chosen and the load midified in a cooling coil. The coil inlet condition is
equipment selected to allow a 20°F drop in water tempera- 79°F, 0.0108 lbs of H2O > lb of dry air, and the coil
ture, resulting in a 140° return temperature. Once this deci- outlet condition is 55°F, 0.0092 lbs of H2O > lb of
sion is made, the required water flow rate can be calculated dry air.
using Equation 2.11. What is the sensible heat removal at the coil?
GPM = Q>(500 * ∆T) (2.11) Solution: Using Equation 2.6, the sensible heat
removal will be as follows:
Similarly, chilled water can be used for cooling. Chilled-
water supply temperatures between 40°F and 50°F are Qsensible = 1.1 * CFM * ∆T = 1.1 * 2500
common for building HVAC applications, and systems are * (79 - 55) = 66,000 Btuh
designed for water temperature rises ranging from 10°F to What is the latent heat removal at the coil?
15°F. The same equation applies for determining the re- Solution: Using Equation 2.7, the latent heat re-
quired chilled-water flow rate. moval will be as follows:
Airflow For systems using warm air for heating, supply Qlatent = 4840 * CFM * ∆W = 4840 * 2500
temperatures between 105°F and 140°F will be appropriate * (0.0108 - 0.0092) = 19,400 Btuh
to maintain a space at, say, 75°F. Given a space temperature
What is the total heat removal at the coil?
and a selected supply temperature, the required airflow rate
Solution: From the psychrometric chart we
can be calculated using Equation 2.12.
determine that the entering air enthalpy (H) is approxi-
CFM = Q>(1.1 * ∆T) (2.12) mately 30.7 Btu > lb and the enthalpy of the leaving air
30 CHAPTER TWO

is approximately 23.2 Btu > lb. Using Equation 2.8, the Expectations must also be considered: Saunas are hot on pur-
total heat removal will be as follows: pose, and a wide variety of conditions are commonly toler-
ated without complaint in factories. The physical condition
Qtotal = 4.5 * CFM * ∆H = 4.5 * 2500 of the occupants, including their age and health, also affects
* (30.8 - 23.2) = 85,500 Btuh their comfort. Even the seasons affect comfort: Warmer en-
vironments are tolerated during the summer and cooler envi-
3. The coil receives 45°F chilled water, and is selected
ronments in winter, because of clothing and acclimatization.
based on a 15°F temperature rise to 60°F. What chilled
Economics and concerns about energy conservation
water flow rate is required to remove the 85,500 Btuh?
are also considered in defining comfort. People might be
Solution: Using Equation 2.11, the required chilled
satisfied with less comfort when they know the purpose is
water flow will be as follows:
energy conservation or to save money.
GPM = Q>500 * ∆T = 85,500>500 * (60 - 45)
= 11.4 GPM 2.6.2 Temperature and Humidity
4. A building has a heating load (heat loss) of 6000 mBh. Both temperature and humidity affect our sense of comfort.
The heating system uses hot water and is designed for An ASHRAE graph shows the acceptable range of each for
a 40°F ∆T at full load conditions. What is the required persons wearing typical summer and winter clothing in-
hot water flow? volved in sedentary activities. The lower comfort limit in
Solution: Using Equation 2.11, the required hot cold weather is 68°F at about 30 percent RH. More recent
water flow will be as follows: versions of the ASHRAE graph have eliminated the lower
GPM = Q>500 * ∆T = 6,000,000>500 * (40) limit on humidity, recognizing that most commercial build-
= 300 GPM ings do not use humidifiers during the heating season, due
primarily to cost and high maintenance. The upper limit in
5. If the building in the preceding example were heated by hot weather is 79°F at about 55 percent RH. HVAC sys-
steam, what steam flow would be required? tems are generally designed to maintain temperature and
6. Solution: Using Equation 2.13, the steam flow will be RH within a tighter range during the cooling season, and to
as follows: maintain temperatures, but not humidity in a tighter range
during the heating season.
SFR = Q>1000 = 6,000,000>1000 = 6000 lbs>hr
An interior design temperature of about 75°F is con-
sidered comfortable by most people in general-use spaces.
2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT During the summer, a slightly higher temperature may be
appropriate because of light clothing and acclimatization
2.6.1 Comfort for Occupants to warm weather; this should be considered in designing
The temperature of a space is not the only factor affecting air-conditioning systems. Conversely, slightly cooler tem-
a person’s comfort. Even if the temperature is within an ac- peratures are acceptable and can be considered in the de-
ceptable range, the space may seem warm if the humidity sign of heating systems. Most air-conditioning systems are
is too high, the airflow is too low, or there are warm sur- designed to maintain a summer temperature of 72–78°F.
faces radiating heat to occupants. Conversely, a space may During winter, heavier clothing and acclimatization to cold
seem cool if the humidity is low, the space is drafty, or there weather result in a recommended design temperature of
are cold surfaces absorbing heat radiated from occupants. 68–72°F for heating systems. These interior design tempera-
Comfort for building occupants is affected by a number of tures will be appropriate for the majority of buildings.
environmental variables, including the following: Humidity in excess of 60 percent is considered high in
general-use spaces. High humidity not only is uncomfort-
■■ Temperature able but also can result in indoor air-quality problems due
■■ Airflow to mold growth. Humidity lower than 25–30 percent can re-
■■ Humidity sult in discomfort due to drying of breathing passages and
also cause problems with electronic equipment due to static
■■ Radiation
electricity.
Indoor air quality is another aspect of comfort. In air of
good quality, sufficient oxygen is present and objectionable
impurities such as dust, pollen, odors, and hazardous materi-
2.6.3 Airflow
als are absent. Systems must be designed for adequate airflow to prevent
Different conditions may be deemed comfortable, complaints of “stuffiness” or drafts. The measure of air-
depending on the type of activity that goes on in a space. flow is velocity. Space air velocities less than 10 feet per
Appropriate conditions for an office would be too warm minute will be stuffy; those more than 50 feet per minute
for a gymnasium and too dry and cool for a natatorium. may seem drafty.
 HVAC Fundamentals 31

2.6.4 Air Quality higher air velocities will be needed to offset the effects of
warm surfaces. Downdrafts from cold surfaces are also un-
Systems must provide sufficient amounts of clean air to keep comfortable and can be offset by proper placement of heat-
oxygen at an acceptable level and to dilute contaminants ing devices, generally below windows.
generated within occupied spaces. Air should be reasonably
free of dust, and spaces free of odors or other pollutants that
2.6.6 Special Considerations
may be hazardous or objectionable. These conditions are
generally achieved through the use of filters and by the in- Buildings such as museums, computer centers, and labora-
troduction of outside air into the system at rates specified in tories have special requirements for temperature, humidity,
ASHRAE Standard 62, “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor airflow, and air quality. In some instances these require-
Air Quality.” ments are consistent with the comfort of the occupants, but
Ventilation rates for indoor air quality have been sub- in others they are at odds with comfort.
ject to change based on social context. They decreased Interior environmental criteria are often based on speci-
during the energy crisis of the 1970s and subsequently in- fications for equipment used within an occupied space.
creased with reports of “sick-building syndrome” shortly Computer rooms, for example, are often drafty and cold in
thereafter. There is current research available which might the aisles where air is supplied to rack fronts and hot in the
increase ventilation rates further based on reported health aisles where the racks discharge their heat. This will be an
and productivity benefits. Accordingly, there are LEED uncomfortable environment for staff in the computer room,
Credits associated with using ventilation rates higher than and special provisions may necessary for comfort certain
ASHRAE Standard 62. areas of the room. Similarly, materials stored in a warehouse
may tolerate cold or hot temperature, but the warehouse em-
ployees need a refuge of human comfort.
2.6.5 Radiant Effects Economics and expectations of comfort also affect
Even if the temperature, humidity, and airflow in a space design criteria. Energy conservation is a component of
are acceptable, the space may be uncomfortable owing to sustainable design, and occupants might accept less com-
radiant effects from cold windows or walls. Systems must fortable conditions to save energy. However, as noted in
therefore compensate for these effects with radiant heat Chapter 1, comfort should not be sacrificed at the expense
or higher temperatures. Similarly, cooler temperatures or of productivity.

QUESTIONS 2.6 What is the difference between absolute humidity,

often called humidity ratio, and relative humid-
2.1 If the lighting load for a 10,000-ft2 building is ity? What are the units used to express each of these
estimated at 1 W/ft2, what will be the resulting heat quantities?
generated by lighting in units of MBtu for 3000 hours 2.7 If the dry-bulb temperature is 95°F and the wet-bulb
of lights on? temperature is also 78°F, what is the relative humid-
2.2 If the lighting load were increased, what would be the ity? What is the dew point? What is the humidity
effect on other building systems in a Midwestern U.S. ratio? What is the enthalpy?
climate? Would you increase the capacity of the heat- 2.8 If the dry-bulb temperature is 55°F and the wet-bulb
ing system? The cooling system? What would the en- temperature is also 55°F, what is the relative humid-
ergy impact of higher lighting loads be on gas for heat- ity? What is the dew point? What is the humidity
ing, electric for cooling, and overall electric usage? ratio? What is the enthalpy?
2.3 How much heat (Btus) will be stored in a 100-ft2 con- 2.9 If 20,000 CFM of air at the condition in Question 2.7
crete wall 1 ft thick if it is warmed from 65°F to 85°F is cooled to the condition in Question 2.8, what is
by exposure to sunlight? the rate of sensible heat removal (Btuh)? What is the
2.4 What is the equivalent value of the heat in Question rate of latent heat removal (Btuh)? What is the rate of
2.3 compared with gas at $0.65 per therm burned in total heat removal (Btuh)?
a boiler at 85% efficiency? What equivalent value 2.10 If 2000 CFM of air at 5°F is mixed with 8000 CFM
compare with electric at $0.06 per kWh? of air at 75°F, what is the temperature of the mixed
2.5 Compare the annual cost of heating by propane at $2.00/ air?
gallon in a 85% efficient furnace versus electric heat 2.11 If the humidity ratio of the 5°F air in Question 2.10 is
pump with a COP of 3 using electric at $0.06 per kWh. 0.002 lbs of H2O > lb of dry air, and the humidity ratio
The building is 3000 ft2, and the engineer assumes an of the 75°F air is 0.0093, what is the humidity ratio of
annual heating requirement of 30,000 Btu/ft2/yr. the mixed air? How much moisture in lbs/hour would
32 CHAPTER TWO

be needed to raise the mixed air humidity to 0.0093 hot water flow would be required through the coil if
lbs of H2O /lb of dry air? the hot water supply temperature is 140°F, and the
2.12 A space has a heat gain of 40,000 Btuh sensible. How hot water return temperature is 120°F?
much 55°F air needs to be supplied to the space to 2.17 If a steam coil were used in Question 2.16, what
maintain the space temperature at 75°F? How much would be the required steam flow in lbs/hr?
would be needed if the supply air were 50°F? 2.18 Discuss the effects of humidity on interior comfort.
2.13 If the 55°F air in Question 2.12 is being discharged in What would you recommend for upper and lower
a saturated (100% RH) condition from a chilled water limits during summer and winter? How does temper-
coil, and the inlet air to the coil is 100% outside air at ature influence your answer?
95°F DB and 78°F WB, what is the sensible load on 2.19 What are the effects of excessively high and exces-
the coil (Btuh)? Latent load? Total load? sively low air velocities in occupied spaces? What
2.14 If the chilled water is being supplied at 45°F, and the range of values might be appropriate for design?
coil is selected so that the chilled water temperature 2.20 In general, nonnumerical terms, how would you de-
rise is 10°F, what is the required chilled water flow fine good air quality?
through the coil in GPM? 2.21 How might you compensate for discomfort from a
2.15 A space has a 60,000 Btuh heat loss in winter. It is cold window?
heated by a furnace discharging 110°F air. How 2.22 Historically, what factors have caused variations in
much air will be needed to keep the space at 72°F? standards for ventilation of buildings in the United
2.16 If the space in Question 2.15 were heated with air States? What is the authoritative source of these
from a hot water coil discharging air at 110°F, what values?
 CHAPTER
THREE

HVAC LOAD ESTIMATING

3.1 NATURE OF HVAC LOADS inspection to reduce the risk of poor-quality construction,
which is a major reason why engineers apply safety factors
The design of HVAC systems starts with an estimate of in sizing equipment.
the loads the system must satisfy. Heating loads represent Accepted methods for calculating heating and cool-
how much heat is lost and therefore must be made up by the ing loads are documented in the ASHRAE Handbook of
system. Cooling loads represent how much heat is gained Fundamentals, which is revised periodically. ASHRAE
and must be removed. Humidity must also be considered. methods have become increasingly precise and have be-
Internal and external moisture gains and losses may need come the basis for algorithms in computer programs. In the
to be counteracted in maintaining proper humidity levels. following discussion we use one of the earlier, simpler
Estimates of these loads involve both sensible and latent methods to describe the basic principles of calculating
heat transfer and conversion into and within the building. heating and cooling loads. In most cases, the results will
be conservative. Greater precision can be achieved by
3.1.1 Methods for Estimating Loads computer analysis using more complex methods; however,
Many methods are available for calculating heating and reasonable safety factors and allowances for unknown
cooling loads for buildings. All, however, should be consid- developments still need to be applied in sizing HVAC
ered estimates, the precision of which depends on how the systems and components.
method accommodates the nonuniform qualities of building
assemblies and contents and the non-steady-state nature of
building loads. Heat transfer in building systems is a dy-
3.2 LOAD CRITERIA
namic process, with ever-changing loads from outside and 3.2.1 Critical Conditions for Design
within the building.
The designer must select an appropriate set of conditions for
calculating the load. Relevant conditions include the outside
3.1.2 Manual Versus Computer weather, solar effects, the inside temperature and humidity,
Calculations the status of building operations, and many other factors.
Building load calculations are done almost exclusively by For heating, the critical design condition occurs dur-
using computer programs. Many good programs are avail- ing cold weather, at a time when there is little or no heating
able. Most use data, algorithms, and methods developed by assistance from radiant solar energy or internal heat gains
ASHRAE. Manual load calculations should be considered from lights, appliances, or people. The selection of an ap-
only for preliminary design or simple buildings; therefore, propriately cold outside air temperature for design is an im-
the simplified methods presented here tend to be appropri- portant decision.
ately conservative. For cooling load calculations, the critical design con-
dition is the peak coincident occurrence of heat, humidity,
3.1.3 Accuracy and Precision solar effects, and internal heat gains from equipment, lights,
and people. The position of the sun varies by season and
Oversized HVAC equipment operates at lower efficiency through the day, as does the weather. Building operations
than properly sized equipment. The results are higher oper- also vary. Sometimes, several estimates must be performed
ating cost and higher initial cost for installation. Accuracy in for different times to determine the highest combination of
load calculations and proper equipment sizing are part of the individual load components.
sustainable design process, and have a significant effect of
initial and operating costs.
The architect and the HVAC engineer generally work
3.2.2 Temperature Criteria
to the same deadline for completion of design. This neces- The inside temperature and humidity criteria are based
sitates that the engineer make many assumptions regarding on expectations of comfort. Energy codes recommend a
the construction prior to the architect’s documents being maximum winter indoor design temperature of 72°F and a
finalized. These assumptions are prone to be conservative. minimum summer indoor design temperature of 75°F.
In addition, engineers generally apply a safety factor to ac- Outside weather conditions affect heating and air-
count for poor construction. Both of these causes of over- conditioning loads from introduction of outside air for
sizing could be eliminated with proper scheduling of the ventilation, infiltration (leakage) of air and conduction
design/construction process and better commissioning and of heat through the building envelope. Historic extremes

33
34 CHAPTER THREE

of temperature and humidity are the basis for design load

TABLE 3.1 Climatic Conditions for HVAC Design
calculations here. Statistical data compiled for locations
St. Louis MO
throughout the world are used by HVAC designers.
The outside temperature criteria used to calculate loads Heating DB 99.6% 7.5 DB
depend on the nature of the building. If it is essential that the 99% 12.7 DB
system be capable of always meeting demand, the designer
Cooling DB & MCWB 0.4% 96.2 DB
might assume the coldest recorded temperature. Buildings 76.7 MCWB
are seldom designed according to that criterion, however.
1% 93.5 DB
A few buildings are designed to meet an outside tem- 76.1 MCWB
perature criterion corresponding to a median of extremes.
2% 91.1 DB
For heating systems, this is the mean of the coldest re- 75.0 MCWB
corded temperatures. The median value has as many annual
0.4% 79.5 WB
extremes above as below it. This is a stringent criterion 90.9 MCDB
that may be appropriate when system performance is criti-
cal, during the coldest temperatures. For instance, perfor- Evaporative WB & MCDB 1% 78.2 WB
89.3 MCDB
mance is important in a hospital because of the condition
of the patients. Also, the occupants are present during the
early morning hours, when the lowest outside temperatures
generally occur. 3.3 CALCULATING HEATING
For most buildings, criteria need not be so stringent. LOADS
If the inside temperature of an office building falls a few
degrees lower than the intent of the design, no great harm The first step in the design of HVAC systems is to calculate
results. In addition, the schedule of office occupancy is such loads. Heat losses include conducted loads through building
that the lowest outside temperature is not coincident with envelope elements (walls, windows, roof, etc.) and outside
the presence of many people in the building. For most build- air loads from leakage (infiltration) and ventilation air. (See
ings, outside design temperatures are selected on the basis of Fig. 3.1.) The amount of ventilation air required depends on
a “percent” concept. the type of occupancy, the number of occupants contem-
For heating load calculations, temperatures are stated plated, and the area of the space.
in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals corresponding
to 99.6 and 99.0 percent annual frequency of occurrence.
If, for instance, the 99.6 percent value for a specific loca-
3.3.1 Conduction
tion is 6°F, then statistically 0.4 percent of the year will be Heat transfer by conduction is proportional to the temperature
colder than 6°F (8760 × 0.4% = 35 hours colder than 6°F). difference between the warm and cold sides of the building
A 99.0 percent value of 10°F would imply that statistically envelope element (wall, roof, window, etc.). Inside tempera-
1.0 percent of the year would be below the listed value ture will depend on design criteria for either personal com-
(8760 × 1% = 88 hours colder than 10°F). The former crite- fort or manufacturing process, whichever is applicable, and
rion is more stringent than the latter. If even more stringent weather conditions—such as outside air temperature, wind
criteria are warranted (lower outside design temperature), velocity, and humidity—selected for design.
the public weather records can be searched to find record Conduction is proportional to the difference between the
low or median of the extremes. outside and inside temperatures. It is also proportional to the
Cooling load criteria are similar, but they use different area through which the heat is transferred; that is, twice the wall
percentage values, including 0.4 percent, 1.0 percent, and begets twice the heat transfer. Conduction also depends on the
2.0 percent. If a 2.0 percent design criterion is used, we insulating quality of the wall, which is measured by resistance
can expect that, on average, 2.0 percent of the year will be to heat transfer: the R-value. Envelope elements are made up
warmer than anticipated by the load calculation, and simi- of several layers, and heat must flow through each layer in se-
larly for 1.0 percent and 0.4 percent. quence. The insulating value of a total assembly is the sum
Extremes of hot weather are expressed as the dry-bulb of the R-values of each component. The higher the resistance,
temperature (DB) and the mean coincident wet-bulb temper- the lower is the heat transfer. Heat transfer, temperature differ-
ature (MCWB). The wet-bulb temperature (WB) is also listed ence, area, and resistance are related by the equation
in Table 3.1 according to percent occurrence along with mean
coincident dry-bulb temperature (MCDB). This information Q = A * TD>R (3.1)
is provided for specifying evaporative equipment for which
where
performance is sensitive to the wet-bulb temperature. Such
equipment includes cooling towers, evaporative condensers, Q = heat transfer (Btuh)
and evaporative coolers. A = area of assembly (ft2)
For example, the following values from ASHRAE TD = temperature difference (5F)
Handbook would be applicable for St. Louis MO: R = resistance (hr.ft2.°F>Btu)
 HVAC Load Estimating 35

Outside air Conducted

loads loads

Roof
Ventilation

Infiltration
No credit Windows
for internal
heat gains

Walls

Foundations

Slabs and
basement
floors

FIGURE 3.1. Components of building heating load.

The tendency of an assembly to conduct heat is called insulating materials are specified according to their R-values,
the U-factor, or U, and is mathematically the reciprocal such as an R-13 fiberglass batt.
of R. Thus, heat transfer is inversely proportional to R and Airspaces contained in building assemblies offer sig-
directly proportional to U. Substituting U for R in the nificant resistance to heat flow. The resistance of an airspace
preceding equation, we have depends on the thickness of the space, the temperature and
orientation of the space, and the emissivity of surfaces facing
Q = U * A * TD (3.2) the airspace. Emissivity is a measure of a surface’s ability
to reflect and absorb radiant heat. For winter conditions and
where U = U@factor (Btu>hr.ft2.°F) high emissivity (generally, dull and non-reflective) surfaces
This equation is used in calculating heating load to estimate facing the cavity, resistances of air spaces in vertical walls
conduction heat loss through a wall, roof, or window. For are approximately 1.1 hr·ft2·°F∙Btu for thicknesses from
calculating air-conditioning load, different equations must 0.5 to 3.5 inches. A value of approximately R-1 adds sig-
be used that consider the effects of the heat of the sun as nificantly to the overall resistance of a wall assembly, and air
well as the outside air temperature. spaces need to be considered in estimating U-factors.
A film of air clings to any surface and has a resistance
3.3.2 Estimating U-Factors for Building to heat flow that depends on the thickness of the film. In
still air, the film will be thick. If wind is present, its thick-
Assemblies ness will be less. Films on the exterior have resistances
Resistance to heat flow and the U-factor for a wall or roof can be between 0.17 and 0.34 hr·ft2·°F∙Btu. The lower resistance
calculated using thermal properties for the elements that make is appropriate for winter due to higher expected wind speed.
up the assembly. The sum of the resistances of individual layers The higher resistance would be appropriate for summer.
of the assembly will be the total resistance for the assembly. Films on the interior have resistances between 0.68 and 1.13
Thermal resistances for representative materials are hr·ft2·°F∙Btu. The lower value would be appropriate for
listed in Table 3.2. These values are used in sample calcula- walls; the higher, for ceilings. Similar to air spaces, air films
tion and in the problem set. For some materials, resistance add significantly to the overall resistance of a wall assembly
is tabulated by the inch. For example, concrete has a resis- and should be considered in U-factor estimating.
tance of 0.10 per inch. Thus, 8 in. of concrete has a ther- U-factors for glass are published by manufacturers and
mal resistance of 8 * 0.10, or 0.80. For certain commonly include allowances for summer and winter values of air
used modules, resistances are tabulated for the module. An films. Values for selected glass materials are shown in Table
8-in. concrete masonry unit has a resistance of 1.35. Some 3.3. Additional glass properties pertaining to cooling load
36 CHAPTER THREE

Zone 1 is the warmest, Zone 2 is mid range, and Zone 6

TABLE 3.2 Representative Thermal Resistances
is coldest. Values given below are for glazing materials.
for Building Elements Used in
Vendor can also provide performance for window assem-
U-Factor Calculation Exampless
blies with specific frame construction. Design of window
Resistance frame will affect overall U-factor according to the conduc-
tivity of the frame material and design of thermal breaks be-
(ft2–°F) per (ft2–°F)
tween the inside and outside surfaces of the frame. The size
Item (in.-Btuh) per Btuh
of the window will also affect thermal performance accord-
Gypsum board, 1/2″ — 0.45 ing to the area ratio of glass to frame.
Plywood, 1/2″ — 0.62 Figs. 3.2 through 3.5 illustrate the procedure for cal-
Plywood, 3/4″ — 0.93 culating the total assembly resistance and U-factor. Note
— 13.00
in the examples that some assemblies have a nonuniform
3-1/2″ fiberglass batt
construction, such as stud walls with insulation between
Fiberglass 4.00 —
framing. The U-factor of the assembly will be the average
Expanded polyisocyanurate 7.20 —
based on areas of the different constructions.
Expanded polyurethane 6.25 —
Expanded polystyrene 4.00 —
Facebrick 0.17 —
6″ concrete block — 1.20 3.3.3 Infiltration
8″ concrete block — 1.35 The HVAC system must have sufficient capacity to heat or
12″ concrete block — 1.45 cool air infiltration (air leakage) at windows and entries and
Concrete (140 lb./ft3) — 0.10 through loose construction. Infiltration loads will depend on
Concrete, light weight — 0.30 the amount of outside air leakage and the difference in con-
Shingle roofing — 0.44 ditions between the outside and inside air. For heating load
Builtup roofing (3/8″) — 0.33 calculations, the following equation, derived in the previous
Framing lumber 1.00 —
chapter (Equation 2.6), is used:
Air space — 1.00 Q = 1.1 * CFM * TD (3.3)
Outside air film — 0.17
Inside air film, horizontal heat flow — 0.68
If the space must be humidified, the humidification load can
be determined by comparing the absolute humidity of the
Inside air film, heat flow up — 0.61
outside air and the desired space condition. Absolute humid-
Inside air flow, heat flow down — 0.92
ity (W) is expressed in terms of grains or pounds of water per
pound of dry air (1 lb = 7000 grains). The humidification
load is determined approximately using either of the following
calculations are shown in Table 3.5 in section 3.4.1. Note in equations:
Table 3.3 that maximum U-factors are specified by ANSI/
ASHRAE/IES Std. 90.1-2013 for various Climate Zones. Q = 4840 * CFM * 1Wroom - Woa 2 (3.4a)
Values for Climate Zones 1, 4, and 6 are listed in the table. where Q = Humidification energy (Btuh)
Wroom = desired room humidity ratio (pounds
moisture>pound dry air)
TABLE 3.3 U-Factors of Various Glass Materials Woa = outside air humidity ratio (pounds
moisture>pound dry air)
Type of Glass U-Factor
Q = 0.68 * CFM * 1Wroom - Woa 2 (3.4b)
Single strength clear glass 1.05
1″ insulating glass, 1/4″ lites, clear 0.47 where Q = humidification energy (Btuh)
Wroom = desired room humidity ratio (grains
ANSl/ASHRAE/lES Std. 90.1-2013 0.50
Zone 1 minimum performance
moisture>pound dry air)
Woa = outside air humidity ratio (grains
ANSl/ASHRAE/lES Std. 90.1-2013 0.35
Zone 4 minimum performance moisture>pound dry air)
ANSl/ASHRAE/lES Std. 90.1-2013 0.32 If steam is being used to humidify the space, the steam load
Zone 6 minimum performance can be calculated using Equation (2.13), or
Low solar gain double glazed reflective 0.29
with lo-E coating SFR = Q / 1000 (2.13)
Low solar gain double glazed reflective 0.24
with lo-E coating and argon fill where SFR = steam flow rate (lb / hr)
 HVAC Load Estimating 37

Section at Insulation (85% of wall area)

Item Thickness r per in. r for item

Outside air film - - 0.17
Wood siding 1/2" 1 0.50
3/4" plywood - - 0.93
R-13 batt insulation - - 13.00
1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film - - 0.68

Rtotal 15.73
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.064

Section at framing (15% of wall area)

Item Thickness r per in. r for item

Outside air film - - 0.17
Wood siding 1/2" 1 0.50
3/4" plywood - - 0.93
Wood stud 3-1/2" 1 3.50
1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film - - 0.68

Rtotal 6.23
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.161
U-factoraverage 0.85 0.064 0.15 0.161 0.079

FIGURE 3.2. Sample calculation of U-factor for frame wall.

Section at Insulation (85% of wall area)

Item Thickness r per in. r for item

Outside air film - - 0.17
4" face brick 3-5/8" 0.17 0.62
Air space - - 1.00
3/4" plywood - - 0.93
R-13 batt insulation - - 13.00
1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film - - 0.68
Rtotal 16.85
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.059

FIGURE 3.3. Sample calculation of U-factor for brick veneer wall.

38 CHAPTER THREE

Section at framing (15% of wall area)

Item Thickness r per in. r for item

Outside air film - - 0.17

4" face brick 3-5/8" 0.17 0.62
Air space - - 1.00
3/4" plywood 3-1/2" 1.0 0.93
3-1/2" wood stud - - 3.50
1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film - - 0.68
Rtotal 7.35
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.136
U-factoraverage 0.85 0.059 0.15 0.136 0.071

FIGURE 3.3. Continued.

Section at insulation (85% of wall area)

Item Thickness r per in. r for item
Outside air film - - 0.17
4" face brick 3-5/8" 0.17 0.62
Air space - - 1.00
6" concrete block - - 1.20
1-1/2 " polystyrene 1-1/2" 4 6.00
2x2 furring @ 16" o.c. - - -
1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film 0.68
Rtotal 10.12
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.10

Section at furring (15% of wall area)

Item Thickness r per in. r for item

Outside air film - - 0.17

4" face brick 3-5/8" 0.17 0.62
Air space - - 1.00
6" concrete block - - 1.20
1-1/2" polystyrene - - -
2x2 furring @ 16" o.c. 1-1/2" 1.0 1.50
1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film 0.68
Rtotal 5.62
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.18
U-factoraverage 0.85 0.10 0.15 0.18 0.11

FIGURE 3.4. Sample calculation of U-factor for masonry cavity wall.

 HVAC Load Estimating 39

Section at Insulation (85% of roof area) Section at Framing (15% of roof area)
Item Thickness r per in. r for item Item Thickness r per in. r for item
Outside air film - - 0.17 Outside air film - - 0.17
Metal roof - - 0.00 Metal roof - - 0.00
3/4" plywood - - 0.93 3/4" plywood - - 0.93
Air space - - 1.00 Air space - - 0.00
6" fiberglass 6" 4 24.00 Metal joist - - 0.00
1/2" drywall - - 0.45 1/2" drywall - - 0.45
Inside air film - - 0.61 Inside air film - - 0.61
Rtotal 27.16 Rtotal 2.16
U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.037 U-factor (1/Rtotal) 0.463

U-factoraverage 0.85 0.037 0.15 0.463 0.101

FIGURE 3.5. Sample calculation of U-factor for metal roof.

Q = heat flow (Btuh) TABLE 3.4 Outdoor Air Requirements for
1000 = heat (Btu) liberated by condensation of Ventilation, Typical Spaces with
1 lb of steam Code Occupancy Densities
In the early phases of design, most designers prefer to
Minimum Ventilation Rates in Breathing Zone
use a simple procedure to estimate infiltration called the air
change method. Airflow into a space can be estimated in air Default Values
changes per hour, where the air flow is based on the volume of People
the perimeter space. Air leaks only into spaces with exposure Outdoor Air Area Outdoor Occupant
to outside. For instance, a perimeter room 12 ft. deep, 10 ft. Occupancy Rate (CFM/ Air Rate Density (CFM/
Category person) (CFM/ft2) (#/1000 ft2) person)
wide, and 10 ft. high has a volume of 1200 ft3. One air change
per hour would be 1200 ft3 per hour, or 1200∙60 = 20 CFM. Classrooms 10 0.12 25 15
If the space in question is a deep open office plan, only the (ages 5–8)
perimeter portion of the space (generally considered 10 ft to Classrooms 10 0.12 35 13
15 ft deep) is used in calculating the volume for air change. (age 9 plus)
For instance, a 100 ft. wide, 15 ft. deep, 10 ft. high perimeter Lecture hall 7.5 0.06 150 8
area of an office building floor has a volume of 15,000 ft3. (fixed seats)
Space interior of the perimeter space is not considered in the Office space 5 0.06 5 17
estimate. One air change would be 15,000 ft3/hr, or 250 CFM. Reception 5 0.06 30 7
For estimating infiltration, air change rates are assumed on areas
the basis of the engineer's judgment regarding the tightness of Main entry 5 0.06 10 11
the wall, windows, or doors that separate the interior from out- lobbies
side. Winter air change rates estimated for design will gener- Libraries 5 0.12 10 17
ally vary from 0.25 air changes per hour for perimeter rooms Retail sales 7.5 0.12 15 16
of a tight building to 2 air changes per hour for a loosely con- Gym, stadium — 0.30 30 —
structed building. Summer values are generally estimated at half (play area)
of the winter values due to low wind speeds during hot weather. Spectator areas 7.5 0.06 150 8
Exceptional buildings might warrant higher or lower estimates.
Doorways to outside will instantly admit very large volumes of Source: Data from ASHRAE Standard 62.1—2013 ([Link]).
40 CHAPTER THREE

air when they open. The load in this instance is based on the de- 3.4 shows the consensus standard for outside air rates used
sired “recovery time” rather than the instantaneous load. in most current codes. Rates are specified according to
usage of space.
3.3.4 Ventilation
Outside air is introduced by the HVAC system to dilute
3.3.5 Miscellaneous Loads
building air contaminants and to make up for exhaust. During In addition to conduction, infiltration, and ventilation, heat-
cold weather, the air must be heated to the temperature of the ing loads should take into account miscellaneous factors
space. The ventilation load is calculated by the same equa- such as losses through walls below grade and slabs on grade.
tions used for infiltration. Basement floor and wall losses can be estimated from 2 to 6
Determining the proper amount of outside air requires and 1 to 3 Btuh per ft2, respectively, depending on ground
analyses of the building’s exhaust systems and fresh air re- water temperature. If performance is critical, as for an oc-
quirements for occupancy and a consideration of excess air to cupied church basement assembly area, more precise meth-
pressurize the building slightly and prevent undue infiltration. ods of estimating basement loads are available in ASHRAE
Minimum values for outside air are specified by code Handbook of Fundamentals.
to maintain acceptable indoor air quality. Model codes gen-
erally incorporate recommendations of ASHRAE Standard 3.3.6 Heating Load Problem 3.1
62.1. Code requirements for outside air have varied signifi-
cantly over the years, owing to varying concerns about en- This sample problem demonstrates methods for calculating
ergy conservation and attention to indoor air quality. Table heating and humidification loads for a small office building,

North East

3' * 7' Door

typical

50'-0" 30'-0"

South West

5' * 5' Window

typical

Elevations

11' floor to ceiling

8' Basement

Section

FIGURE 3.6. Elevations and section of the building, Problem 3.1. U-factors are as follows: walls, 0.064;
roof, 0.32; windows, 0.35; and doors, 0.75.
 HVAC Load Estimating 41

CALCULATIONS FOR PROBLEM 3.1 ▼

Load Components Load (Btuh)

Roof Q = U * A * TD
Q = 0.032 * (30 * 50) * (72 - 8) 3070
Walls# Q = U * A * TD
North Q = 0.064 * (11 * 50) * (72 - 8) 2250
South Q = 0.064 * (11 * 50) * (72 - 8) 2250
East Q = 0.064 * (11 * 30) * (72 - 8) 1350
West Q = 0.064 * (11 * 30) * (72 - 8) 1350

Doors Q = U * A * TD
North Q = 0.75 * (3 * 7) * (72 - 8) 1010
East Q = 0.75 * (3 * 7) * (72 - 8) 1010

Windows Q = U * A * TD
North Q = 0.35 * (3 * 5 * 5) * (72 - 8) 1680
South Q = 0.35 * (4 * 5 * 5) * (72 - 8) 2240
East Q = 0.35 * (1 * 5 * 5) * (72 - 8) 560
West Q = 0.35 * (2 * 5 * 5) * (72 - 8) 1120

Basement floor Q = Btuh>ft2 * area

Q = 3 * (30 * 50) 4500

Basement walls Q = Btuh>ft2 * area

Q = 6.0 * (8 * (30 + 50 + 30 + 50)) 7680

Infiltration, sensible only Q = 1.1 * CFM * TD

CFM = (air exchanges per hour * volume)>60 minutes per hour
Q = 1.1 * ((1.5 * (30′ * 50′ * 10′))>60) * (72 - 8) 26,400

Ventilation, sensible only Q = 1.1 * CFM * TD

CFM = 500
Q = 1.1 * 500 * (72 - 8) 35,200
Total Heat Loss = 91,700 Btuh
Humidification (Optional)

Infiltration air Q = 4840 * CFM * (Wroom - Woa)

CFM = (air exchanges per hour * volume)>60 minutes per hour
Q = 4840 * ((1.5 * (30′ * 50′ * 10′))>60) * (0.005 - 0) 9,080

Ventilation air Q = 4840 * CFM * (Wroom - Woa)

CFM = (air exchanges per hour * volume)>60 minutes per hour
Q = 4840 * 500 * (0.005 - 0) 12,100
Total Humidification of Outside Air = 21,200 Btuh
(21.2 lbs./hr. steam)

#
For simplicity, areas of doors and windows are not deducted from wall area calculations in this example. Adjustment is appropriate if doors and window
areas are significant in comparison with the respective wall areas.

defined in Fig. 3.6. The criteria and physical properties of ■■ Infiltration—1.5 air changes per hour
the building are as follows: ■■ Ventilation—500 CFM (based on exhaust; Table 3.4
would require only 140 CFM)
■■ Design conditions—indoor (72°F, 30% RH), outdoor
(8°F, near 0% RH)
42 CHAPTER THREE

Power for
fans and pumps
Outside air
for ventilation Roof

Lighting Walls
People
Infiltration
through Appliances Windows
doors, and skylights
windows,
and structure

FIGURE 3.7. Components of building

cooling loads.

3.4 CALCULATING COOLING The shading coefficient (SC) is a property of the glazing ma-
LOADS terial and accessories such as blinds or draperies. SC is the ratio
of solar heat admitted in comparison with what is admitted by
The first step in sizing air-conditioning equipment is to calculate clear single-strength glass, which has a shading coefficient of 1.0.
loads. Heat gains include conduction, solar effects, outside air Thus, a glazing with 0.5 SC allows only half as much solar heat
loads, and internal heat loads, as illustrated in Fig. 3.7. into the space as clear single-strength glass does. Shading coef-
ficients of 0.2 or lower can be achieved with heavily reflective
3.4.1 Conducted and Solar Heat Through films or coatings.
Glazing Low shading coefficients can be accompanied by
low visible light transmission (VT). High VT is desir-
Solar and conducted effects must be considered in esti- able for daylight and view through windows. Sacrificing
mating heat gains through windows and skylights. These VT to achieve low SC, or SHGC is discouraged by ANSI/
heat loads are considered in two parts—simple conduction ASHRAE/IES Std. 90.1 by setting a lower limit on the ratio
and Conduction and solar heat gains must be considered in of VT to SHGC of 1.10. Accordingly, some glazing material
estimating cooling loads through windows and skylights. options are not appropriate for buildings under the jurisdic-
Equation (3.5) applies: tion of this document. However, lower VT might be advan-
Q = U * A * TD + SC * A * SHGF (3.5) tageous for skylights to prevent excessive glare.
Table 3.5 gives properties for selected glazing materials
where SHGF = solar heat gain factor (Btuh>ft2) (nonresidential, nonmetal framing).
SC = shading coefficient (dimensionless) Glass manufacturers also publish solar heat gain coef-
ficient (SHGC) for their products. SHGC is the ratio of en-
The term “U * A * TD” represents the conducted heat gain, ergy transmitted to energy incident on the glazing material.
and the term “SC * A * SHGF” represents the solar heat gain. SHGC is equal to 86% of shading coefficient (SC).

TABLE 3.5 Thermal Properties of Glass

Glass Properties

Type of Glass U-Factor SC SHGC VT VT/SHGC

Single strength clear glass 1.05 1.00 0.86 0.90 1.05

1″ insulating glass, 1/4″ lites, clear 0.47 0.80 0.70 0.79 1.13
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Std. 90.1-2013 Zone 0.50 0.29 0.25 0.28 1.10
1 (southern US) minimum performance
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Std. 90.1-2013 Zone 0.35 0.46 0.40 0.44 1.10
4 (middle US) mínimum performance
ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Std. 90.1-2013 Zone 0.32 0.46 0.40 0.44 1.10
6 (northern US) minimum performance
Solar control double glazed clear with 0.29 0.44 0.38 0.70 1.84
lo-E coating
Low solar gain double glazed reflective with 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.82
lo-E coating and argón fill

SC = shading coefficient
SHGC = solar heat gain coefficient
VT = visible transmittance
 HVAC Load Estimating 43

well as temperature difference. The value of TETD will vary

TABLE 3.6 Solar Heat Gain Factors (SHGF) for
with the latitude, orientation, time of day, absorption property
Estimating Peak Room Loads and
of the surface, and thermal mass of the building assembly.
Peak Block Loads
Thermal mass affects the timing of heat entry to the interior.
Orientation Peak value Time of peak 4:00 PM value Light thermal mass would be associated with wood or
metal frame construction or curtain wall. Medium thermal
North 38 Noon 28
mass would typically be the case if masonry veneer were
South 109 Noon 29 added to the assembly. Heavy thermal mass would be associ-
East 216 08:00 AM 26 ated with concrete or concrete masonry units and brick ve-
West 216 04:00 AM 216 neer. For roofs, light thermal mass would be associated with
Horizontal 267 Noon 153 metal deck. An example of medium thermal mass would be
light weight concrete over metal deck. Heavy thermal mass
would be structural concrete deck or precast concrete planks.
The solar heat gain factor (SHGF) is the amount of solar heat For walls and roofs, the cooling load is calculated by
in Btuh/ft2 that will enter a clear single-pane window at a given using the equation
latitude, time of year, and time of day, facing a specific orientation.
Solar loads from windows are generally the largest Q = U × A × TETD (3.6)
component of overall envelope loads, and, as such, are im- where TETD = total equivalent temperature difference (°F)
portant to consider in formulating load management strate- Generally, wall and roof loads are much less than loads for
gies as covered in Chapter 4. Plotted values of SHGF are windows. Due to high window loads and the influence of west
shown in Fig. 4.4. Values relevant to most load estimating sun, most buildings experience peak block load at 4:00 pm as
problems are shown in Table 3.6 for July 21, 405N. stated earlier. Thus the wall loads at 4:00 pm are of interest for
For most buildings at 405 north latitude the peak over- their contribution to the peak block load for the building. For
all cooling load occurs around 4:00 pm when window solar east facing rooms or zones, the peak room load will occur at
loads are highest due to intense heating from the western sun. 8:00 am due to the influence of eastern sun through east facing
However, loads in individual rooms or zones which face other glass. Thus the load due to TETD at 8:00 am is of interest for
directions will exhibit their peak loads at other times of day. east facing rooms. Similarly, the noon TETD values for south
Rooms facing east will have their peak loads occur at 8:00 am and north walls are of interest in determining the peak loads
when the eastern solar heat is greatest. Rooms facing south for rooms facing these orientations. The 4:00 pm TETD value
and north will experience peak loads at noon. In order to es- is appropriate for west facing rooms. TETD values for estimat-
timate the peak overall building load, referred to as “block ing peak block load and room loads are shown in Table 3.7.
load,” values of SHGF are given for 4:00 pm for all orienta-
tions. In order to estimate peak room loads, SHGF is given for
the peak values experienced for the various orientations. 3.4.3 Infiltration and Ventilation
To use Table 3.6 for estimating solar load for a building
Generally, the amount of air infiltration is much lower dur-
block load, apply the 4:00 pm values for all orientations. To
ing hot weather than during cold weather. This is because
estimate a room load (generally one orientation), apply the
winds are milder, and lower temperature differentials cause
peak value for the window(s) facing that orientation. For in-
less of a chimney effect. Accordingly, air change rates
stance, if the room faces south, use 109 Btuh∙ft2 for the south
should be estimated lower for summer than for winter.
facing window in the room. If a corner room has glass facing
Infiltration loads have two components: sensible and
two orientations, determine which glass orientation has the
latent. The equations governing such loads are identical to
higher load at the time of the peak value for that orientation.
those cited earlier for heating load calculations:
A good answer will generally result from using the peak value
for this orientation and the 4:00 pm value for the other. Qsensible = 1.1 * CFM * TD (3.7)
One observation should be made regarding south facing
glass. Peak cooling loads are generally assumed to occur on July Qlatent = 4840 * CFM * 1Wfinal - Winitial 2 (3. 8)
21, but south facing walls with significant glass areas may exhibit
Total heat, termed enthalpy (H), is the sum of sensible and
peak load on a warm day in December. The low southern sun on or
latent heat. The total heat of air at various conditions of tem-
about the solstice has an SHGF of over 250 Btuh/ft2 (see Fig. 4.4f).
perature and humidity can be taken from a psychrometric
chart or tables, and the following equation can be used to
3.4.2 Conduction Through Walls and Roofs determine energy flow:
In the estimation of cooling loads due to walls and roofs, a
simple temperature difference between inside and outside Q = 4.5 * CFM * ∆H (3.9)
air will not account for solar heat. The outside surface of a
where ∆H = change in enthalpy (Btu>lb of air)
wall or roof may be much warmer than the surrounding air,
owing to solar effects. Accordingly, conduction through walls Outside air introduced for ventilation by the air-conditioning equip-
and roofs is estimated by equations using a total equivalent ment will result in sensible and latent loads calculated according to
temperature difference (TETD) that includes solar effects as the same equations. Recommended minimum ventilation rates are
44 CHAPTER THREE

TABLE 3.7 Total Equivalent Temperature Differences (TETD) for Estimating Peak Room
Loads and Peak Block Load

Orientation Thermal mass Peak Time of peak 8:00 AM value Noon value 4:00 PM value

North Light 21 4:00 PM 14 17 21

Medium 25 8:00 PM 6 10 19
Heavy 23 10:00 PM 8 9 15
South Light 33 2:00 PM 14 28 31
Medium 38 6:00 PM 5 12 34
Heavy 33 8:00 PM 9 10 26
East Light 41 10:00 PM 32 37 28
Medium 42 2:00 PM 9 38 40
Heavy 37 6:00 PM 10 28 37
West Light 48 6:00 PM 17 24 42
Medium 55 8:00 PM 8 9 25
Heavy 46 10:00 PM 14 10 19
Roof Light 96 2:00 PM 24 88 81
Medium 58 4:00 PM 6 28 58
Heavy 53 6:00 PM 13 26 48

shown in Table 3.4. When determining ventilation requirements, air quantity should include conduction from the plenum through
no credit can be taken for infiltration, which will vary depending the ceiling. For the overall system load there is an equal offset
on wind and temperature, and how well the building is sealed. to the load in the plenum. Space loads and plenum loads can be
distinguished by comparing the two cases shown in Fig. 3.14.
3.4.4 Internal Heat Gains
3.4.6 Sample Problems 3.2 and 3.3
Heat is generated inside buildings by lights, appliances, and
people. People liberate both sensible and latent heat. Latent heat The following problems illustrate the calculation of cooling
results from exhaled moisture and evaporation of perspiration. loads for a small office building, shown in Fig. 3.9. Problem 3.2
Loads will depend on the level of activity. For normal office is a load calculation for the building with direct return as shown
activities many engineers use 250 Btuh sensible and 250 Btuh in Fig. 3.10(b). Problem 3.3 is a load calculation for the build-
latent per occupant. The ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals ing with a return air plenum ceiling and shown in Fig. 3.10(a).
provides data for a wide range of activities and building types. Criteria and physical properties of the building are as follows:
Heat from lights and appliances can be calculated using ■■ Design conditions: inside (78°F, 50% RH); outside
the factor for conversion of electrical to thermal energy: (95°F DB and 78°F WB).
Q = 3.41 * P (3.10) ■■ Construction: wall, masonry (heavy thermal mass);
U-factor, 0.064 roof— insulation over metal deck (light
where P = power input to light fixture or appliance (watts) thermal mass); U-factor, 0.032 windows—U-factor, 0.35;
shading coefficient, 0.46 doors—U-factor, 0.75 ceiling
Often, a precise figure for the heat from building lighting and
(Problem 3.3 only)—U-factor, 0.30.
appliances is unavailable at the time the air-conditioning system
is being designed. In that case, an allowance is assumed in watts ■■ Outside air: infiltration, ½ air exchange per hour;
per square foot of building or room area. Guidelines for estimat- ventilation, 500 CFM (based on general exhaust; code re-
ing electrical loads for common types of buildings are given in quired minimum per Table 3.4 would be only 140 CFM).
Chapter 14, which covers Electrical Design and Wiring. ■■ Lighting: 30 Fluorescent fixtures 60 W each all heat to
occupied space in Problem 3.2 and 50% in Problem 3.3.
3.4.5 Loads in Return Air Plenums ■■ Appliances: allowance of 1.5 W per square foot.
If lighting is recessed in a ceiling that is used as a return air ple-
■■ Occupants: (10) adults, general office work.
num, heat from the back side of the fixtures will not enter the Completing the problems shows that the overall air-
occupied space. Heat to the plenum will still need to be removed conditioning load will be about the same, regardless of
by the air-conditioning system but will not affect the amount of whether there is a return air plenum; however, the load in
supply air delivered to cool the occupied space. Similar adjust- the occupied space will be considerably lower if the design
ments should be made for roof loads that occur above return air includes a return air plenum. This will have an important ef-
plenum ceilings. The actual load to the space and required supply fect on the amount of supply air required for cooling.
 HVAC Load Estimating 45

Conducted heat Conducted heat

Diffused solar heat

(estimate as north
exposure) Direct solar heat

Shaded glass Glass in sun

FIGURE 3.8. Heat gain through glazing.

Rooftop unit
North East

3' * 7' Door

typical

50'-0" 30'-0"

South Rooftop unit West

5' * 5' Window

typical

Elevations

1' Ceiling plenum

Sample Sample
11' Floor problem problem 10' Floor
3–2 3–3

Section

FIGURE 3.9. A small office building.

46 CHAPTER THREE

Roof

Plenum warmer Wall

Return
than space

Wall
Ceiling Light

Supply

Window

Appliances

Occupants

(a) Room with return air plenum

Denotes load to space

Denotes load to plenum

Roof

Wall
Return

Wall
Lights
Occupants
Supply

Window

Appliances

Room with direct return

(b)

FIGURE [Link] of return air plenum on load to conditioned space. (a) Room with return air plenum.
(b) Room with direct return.