DEMOGRAPHY NOTES

BY MR. BULINYA OSCAR

COURSE OUTLINE

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO POPULATION STUDIES

i. Demography
ii. Sources of Demographic Data
iii. Census
iv. Registration of Vital Events
v. Sample Surveys
CHAPTER TWO: DEMOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENT TOOLS
AND TECHNIQUES
i. Tools of Measurement
ii. Ratios
iii. Proportions
iv. Rates
v. Techniques of Demographic Measurement
vi. Measures of Fertility
vii. Measures of Mortality
CHAPTER THREE: GROWTH OF POPULATIONS
i. Reasons for Population Growth
ii. Population Growth Forms
iii. Population Dynamics
iv. Population Structure
v. Population Pyramids
vi. The Ecological Ages
vii. Types of Populations
viii. Theory of Demographic Transition
i. Family size Preference
ii. Education
iii. Trends in Mortality
iv. Mechanisms of Mortality Decline
v. Mortality Differentials
vi. Infant Mortality
vii. Female Education
viii. Migration
ix. International Migration
 x. Internal Migration

CHAPTER FOUR: WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT

i. Introduction
ii. Understanding Gender
iii. Violence Against Women
iv. Gender – based Violence
v. Empowering Women
vi. Education
vii. Employment Opportunity
viii. Legislating Equality
ix. Emphasizing the Girl Child
x. Male Responsibility
xi. The status of Women in
xii. Working conditions
xiii. Social services
CHAPTER FIVE: POPULATION POLICIES
i. The Population Policy of Ethiopia
ii. Background
iii. Rational of the National Population Policy
iv. Objectives of the National Population Policy

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO POPULATION STUDIES

 Define Demography
 Identify the different sources of demographic data
  Explain the differences between the major sources of data
 List and state steps needed in conducting population census.
Demography

Demography can be defined as the study of human populations including their composition,
distributions, densities, growth and other characteristics as well as the causes and consequences
of changes in these factors.
Demography, as understood today, is the scientific study of human population and its dynamics.
It is derived from two Greek Words:
Demos means population
Graphics means to draw
Demography focuses its attention on three readily available human phenomena:
Changes in population size (growth or decline)
The composition of the population and
The distribution of population in space.

Demography deals with major “demographic processes” namely fertility, mortality and
migration. These processes are continually at work within a population determining its size,
composition and distribution.
Sources of Demographic Data
Demographic data are important in providing factual basis for decisions on matters of public
policy and action concerning social and economic affairs. These data can be processed to
indicate present and future requirements of the population in terms of the types and extent of
social needs of the society such as health, education and employment.
The major sources of demographic data include:
i. Census
ii. Registration of vital events (Records)
iii. Sample surveys
iv. Ad-hoc Demographic studies
Census
Census is defined as an enumeration or complete population count at a point in time within a
specified geographical area. A census provides more reliable and accurate data if properly
enumerated.
Techniques of Census Taking
There are two techniques of conducting census, dejure and defacto.
DEJURE

De Jure Census Taking Technique

 A de jure census is a method of census taking in which people are counted based on
their usual place of residence, regardless of whether they are physically present there on
the census day or not.
 In other words, it records individuals according to their permanent home.
 This technique is the counting of people according to the permanent place of location or
residence.

Characteristics of De Jure Census

1. Individuals are enumerated at their usual residence (not where they happen to be on
census night).
2. People who are temporarily away (e.g., traveling, hospitalized, on business) are still
counted at their permanent home.
3. Requires detailed record-keeping to avoid duplication or omission.
4. More complex than de facto census since it involves tracing people to their usual
residence.

Advantages of De Jure Census

 Gives a more accurate picture of the stable population in an area.

 Useful for long-term planning (housing, schools, hospitals).
 Facilitates comparison between different regions or countries

Disadvantages of De Jure Census

 More time-consuming and costly, since it requires follow-up for absent individuals.
 Risk of inaccuracy if information about absent people is not provided correctly by
family or neighbors.
 Difficult to apply in areas with high migration or nomadic lifestyles.

Example

 If a student normally lives in Kakamega but is studying in Nairobi, in a de jure census

they are counted in Kakamega (their usual residence), not Nairobi (where they are
physically on census day)

De Facto Census Taking Technique

  A de facto census is a method of census taking in which people are counted based on
where they are physically present on the census day/night, regardless of their usual or
permanent residence.

Characteristics of De Facto Census

1. People are enumerated where they sleep or stay on census night.

2. Travelers, visitors, and temporary residents are included in the place they are found.
3. Does not depend on permanent or usual residence.
4. Simpler to carry out compared to de jure census.

Advantages of De Facto Census

 Easier and faster to conduct since people are counted where they are found.
 Lower risk of duplication since each person is counted only where they are present.
 Useful for short-term planning (transportation, food supply, emergency services).

Disadvantages of De Facto Census

 Gives an inflated count in towns/cities where many visitors are present.

 Rural areas may appear under-populated because many residents are absent on census
night.
 Less accurate for long-term policy and planning since it does not reflect permanent
residence.

Example

 If the same student from Kakamega is studying in Nairobi and is present in Nairobi on
census night, in a de facto census they are counted in Nairobi, not in Kakamega.

Use of Census
 Provide the facts essential to government for policy-making, planning and administration.
 Decision-making that facilitates the development of socio-economic policies -enhance
the welfare of the population.
 Provides important data for the analysis and appraisal of the changing patterns of
rural/urban movement and concentration, the development of urbanized areas,
geographical distribution of the population according to such variables as occupation and
education, as well as the socio-economic characteristics of the population and the labor
force.
 Aids in the decision-making processes of the private sector. Population size and
characteristics influence the location of businesses and services that satisfy the needs of
the target population.
  Population censuses also constitute the principal source of records for use as a sampling
frame for the household surveys during the years between censuses.
 Calculating health indicators and vital indices.
Users of Census Data
• Central and local government
• Interest and representative groups
• Businesses
• Local community
• Ethnic groups
•Students
• Media

Steps in Conducting Census

The major steps to be followed in a census include.
Planning and preparation
Collecting information
Compilation and analysis
Evaluation

1. Planning and Preparation → foundation for the census.

2. Collecting Information (Enumeration) → actual data collection.
3. Compilation and Analysis → turning raw data into statistics.
4. Evaluation and Dissemination → verifying and sharing results.

Qualities of a Census
A census must have the following qualities
It should include every individual in the area (no omission or duplication).
Information should relate to a well – defined point in time.
It should be taken at regular intervals (preferably every 10 years).
It should refer to people inhabiting a well-defined territory.
Information be obtained from personal contact.
Registration of Vital Events (Statistics)
It is a regular and continuous registration of vital events. Civil registration system, which records
births, deaths, marriages etc. (vital statistics), enables rates of population growth to be calculated;
but are much less adequate than national censuses. In developing countries where illiteracy rates
are high and communications are poor, the problems of recording births and deaths are immense
not only in rural populations but also in urban areas. However, efforts are being made to improve
the collection of these data in many countries.
Sample Surveys
A sample survey is another source of demographic data carried out in a scientifically selected
area which covers only a section or portion (sample) of the population under consideration.

Study Questions
 What is Demography?
 Name and explain the different sources of demographic data?
 State the steps that should be followed to undertake a population census.
 Explain the advantages and limitations of sample surveys.

CHAPTER TWO: DEMOGRAPHIC MEASURMENT TOOLS

AND TECHNIQUES
 Stat the measurements used in demographic data
 Calculate ratios, proportions and rates and discuss their importance
 List and calculate the different measures of fertility and mortality

The major demographic processes of fertility, mortality and migration constitute the basic
components to determine the size, composition and distribution of a population which require
basic tools and techniques of measurement.
Tools of Measurement
The tools of measurement include:
Ratios
Proportions and
Rates

Ratios:
Ratio is a quotient of any two demographic quantities. It is the result of dividing one quantity by
another. Ratio quantifies the magnitude of one occurrence or condition in relation to another. It is
expressed in the form of:
a,b or a; b
Examples:
Sex Ratio (male – female) = Males/Females
Doctor to Population Ratio =Number of Doctors/Number of Population
Dependency Ratio = No. of People < 15 years +65 years and above/No. of Population 15-64
years of age
Qualification:
The numerator and denominator (a and b) are defined for a specific geographic area and period
of time.
The numerator may or may not be a sub – group of the denominator.
Proportion
A proportion is a ratio which indicates the relation in magnitude of a part of the whole. The
numerator is always included in the denominator. A proportion is usually expressed as a
percentage.
Example: Males to total population ratio
Males x 100
Males + females

Illegitimate Birth Ratio = No. of illegitimate live births x 100

Total No. of live births
Rates: A rate measures the occurrence of some particular event (example death) in a population
during a given time period. It is a statement of the risk of developing a condition. It indicates the
change in some event that takes place in a population over a period of time. It is defined per unit
of time.
Rate = Vital event X (K) Population at risk
Example: Death Rate = No. of deaths in one-year X 1000
Mid-year population
A rate comprises the following elements:
i. Numerator
ii. Denominator
iii. Time specification and
iv. Multiplier or constant (100, 1000, 10000, 100,000 etc)
A Rate
is a ratio or a proportion in which the numerator is part of the denominator. All rates are ratios,
but all ratios are not rates.
Techniques of Demographic Measurement
A change in the overall size of a population is the result of three cumulative changes in the
number of births, deaths and migrants. Since births and deaths occur continuously, and since
people frequently change their place of residence, they are the bases of demographic analysis.
Depending on their direction and magnitude these processes are important for social and
economic planning, in assessing the present needs and the needs of the future expansion of socio-
economic infrastructure. The techniques for measuring fertility, mortality and migration are
described further.
Measure of Fertility
Fertility is the reproductive performance of an individual, a couple, a group or a population. It is
meant the actual bearing of children. Some demographers prefer to use natality in place of
fertility.
Fertility leads to increase of population. It differs from fecundity – which refers to the
physiological capability of a woman to reproduce. A woman’s reproductive period is roughly 15
– 49 years of age.
The most important measures of fertility include:

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

The crude birth rate indicates the number of live births (children born alive) per 1000 mid – year
population in a given year.

CBR = Number of live births in a year X 1000

Total mid – year population
General Fertility Rate (GFR)
The General Fertility Rate is the number of live births per 1000 females aged 15-49 years (fertile
age group) in a given year. The GFR in more sensitive measure of fertility than the CBR, since it
refers to the age and sex group capable of giving birth (females 15-49 years of age). It eliminates
distortions that might arise due to different age and sex distributions among the total population.
The major limitation of GFR is that not all women in the denominator are exposed to the risk of
child birth.
GFR = Number of live births in a year X 1000
Number of females 15-49 years of age
The GFR is approximately four times the CBR.

Age specific fertility rates (ASFR)

The Age specific fertility rate is defined as the number of children born alive to females in a
specific age group per 1000 females in that specific age group, example (15-19), (20-24),…..
(45-49) years of age.
ASFR = No. of live births to females in a specific age group in a year X 1000
Mid-year population of females of the same age group

For example, ASFR for women 20 – 24 years of age is expressed as:

ASFR (20-24) = Live births to women 20- 24 years of age X 1000 Total No. of females 20 – 24
years of age
For instance, if there were 4,000,000 women (females) in the age group 20-24 years and if the
there were 200,000 live births to women in the same age group, the Age specific fertility rate for
these women (20-24 years of age) will be;

ASFR (20-24) years of age = 200,000 X 1000 = 50

4,000,000

That is, there are 50 live births for every 1000 women 20-24 years of age.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The total Fertility Rate is the average number of children that would be born to a woman
throughout her life time or her child bearing age (15-49 years), if she were to pass through all her
child bearing years at the same rates as the women now in each age group.
The TFR sums up in a single number the Age Specific Fertility Rates of all women at a given
point in time. If 5 – year age groups are used, the sum of the rates is multiplied by 5. This
measure gives the approximate magnitude of “completed family size”.
The TFR is one of most useful indicators of fertility, because it gives the best picture of how
many children women are having currently.

TFR = Sum of all Age specific fertility rates multiplied by age interval
Calculation of Total Fertility Rate
Age group of Number of Number of live Age specific
mothers Women birth rates
births to the age
group
15-19 years 1,237,721 117,583 0.095
20-24 978,136 268,987 0.275
25-29 979,623 283,111 0.289
30-34 989,693 254,351 0.257
35-39 814,243 162,034 0.199
40-44 548,882 57,633 0.105
45-49 406,540 22,766 0.056
Total 5,954,838 1,166,465 1.276
TFR = 5 x 1.276 = 6.38
6.38 children per woman in her reproductive life.
Total fertility rate also varies widely between populations in the world. It is higher for
developing countries than developed ones.

Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR)

The Gross Reproduction Rate is the average number of daughters that would be born to a woman
throughout her lifetime or child bearing age (15-49 years), if she were to pass through all her
child bearing age.
This rate is like the TFR except that it counts only daughters and literally measures
“reproduction”; a woman reproducing herself by having a daughter.
The GRR is calculated by multiplying the TFR by the proportion of female births (Sex Ratio at
birth).

GRR = TFR X Male births

Male + Female births

Example: - The sex ratio at birth of Ethiopia (2001) = 100.6 (i.e 100.6 males for every 100
females)
- and the TFR (2001) = 5.9 (5.9 children per women)

GRR = TFR X proportion of female births

GRR = 5.9 X 100 = 2.94
200.6
= 2.9 daughters /woman

Child – Woman Ratio (CWR)

Child woman ratio is defined as the number of children 0 – 4 years of age per 1000 women of
child bearing age, (15 -49 years). This ratio is used where birth registration statistics do not exist
or are inadequate. It is estimated through data derived from censuses.

CWR = No of children 0 – 4 years of age X 1000

Total No of women 15 – 49 years age

If the number of children under 5 years of age in an area is 2,000,000 and the number of women
15 – 49 years of age is 8,000,000.

The CWR = 2,000,000 X 1000 = 250

8,000,000
1000
That is 250 children 0 – 4 years of age (under five) per 1000 women of the reproductive age.
Measures of Mortality (Death)
Mortality refers to deaths that occur within a population (reduction of population). The incidence
of death can reveal much about the living standard, the health status of a population and the
availability of health services.
Mortality (Death) rates have three essential elements:

i. A population group exposed to the risk of death (denominator)

ii. The number of deaths occurring in that population group
(numerator)
iii. A time period.

Crude Death (Mortality) Rate (CDR)

The crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 population in a given year.
CDR = Total number of deaths in a year X 1000 Mid-year population
As its name implies the CDR is not a sensitive measure (indicator) of health status of a
population. It is affected by particularly the age structure of the population.
Age specific Death (Mortality) Rates
Death Rates can be calculated for specific age groups, in order to compare mortality at different
ages. E.g. for infants (< one year of age), children 1-4 yeas of age, children under five years, etc.

ASMR = Number of deaths in a specific age group X 1000

Mid-year population of the same age group
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Infant Mortality Rate is the number of deaths of infants under one year of age (0-11 months of
age) per 1000 live births in a given year.

Infant (children under one year of age) are at highest risk of death than any other age group.

IMR = Number of death of children < 1 year of age in a year X 1000

 Total live births during that year

The infant mortality rate is considered to be a sensitive indicator of the health status of a
community, because it reflects the socio-economic condition of the population; i.e. the level of
education, environmental sanitation, adequate and safe water supply, communicable diseases,
provision of health services etc. These factors mostly affect infants and children under five years
of age. Hence, IMR widely varies between countries in the world.

Child Mortality Rate (CMR)

It is the number of deaths of children 1-4 years of age per 1000 children 1-4 years of age. It is a
sensitive indicator of the health status of a community.

CMR = Number of deaths of children 1-4 year of age in a year X 1000

Total number of children 1-4 years of age

Neonatal Mortality Rate (NNMR)

Neonatal period is the first month of age of an infant. Neonatal mortality (death) is the death of
infants under one month (<4 weeks). Per 1000 live births.
Neonatal Mortality Rate (NNMR) = Number of deaths of infants < 1 mouth in a year X 1000
Total number of live births in the same year
Neonatal mortality rate reflects mortality due to:
. Maternal factors during pregnancy
. Birth injuries
. Neonatal infection, etc.
It is an indicator of the level of prenatal and obstetric components of maternal and child health
care (MCH).

Post-Neonatal Mortality Rate (PNNMR)

The past neonatal age is the period of time between one month up to one year.
Post – Neonatal mortality (death) is deaths of infants one month (four weeks) of age up to one
year (1 – 11 months age of) per 1000 live births.
PNNMR = Number of deaths of infants 1 month to 1 year of age in a year X1000
Total Number of live births during the same year

The post-neonatal mortality rate reflects deaths due to factors related to;
i. Environmental sanitation
ii. Infections (communicable diseases)
iii. Nutritional problems
iv. Child care etc.
It can be used as an indicator to evaluate Maternal and Child Health Care services and socio-
economic development of a community or country.
Maternal Mortality (Death) Rate (MMR)
Maternal mortality rate is the number of maternal deaths related to pregnancy, child birth and
post-natal (puerperium) complications per 1000 live births (usually per 100,000 L.B).
MMR = Number of deaths of women related to pregnancy child birth and puerperium in a year X
100,000 over the Total number of live births in the same year
It is a sensitive indicator of health status of a population. It reflects the socio- economic status of
a community.
Sex Specific Death Rates (SSDR)
Sex Specific Death Rate is the number of deaths among a specific sex group (males or females)
per 1000 population of the same sex group.

Sex specific Death (Mortality) Rate for males = Number of deaths among male’s X 100
Total number of males
Sex specific mortality rate is used to determine which sex group is at higher risk of death than
the other.

Study Questions
What are ratios, proportions and rates? Explain their differences.
Distinguish the difference between natality, fertility and fecundity
List and define the important demographic measures of fertility and mortality
CHAPTER THREE: GROWTH OF POPUALTIONS
If we assume that the number of individuals entering a population (immigration), equals the
number of leaving (emigration), population growth is the result of the increase of births over
deaths. This relationship is summarized by a formula known as the balancing equation. It is
expressed as:

P2 = P1 + ( B – D) + ( I + E)
Where: -
P2 = Size of population for the year under consideration
P1 = Size of population in the preceding year
B= Number of births between the two dates
D = Number of deaths between the two dates.
I = Number of immigrants in the time under consideration (between P2 and P1)
E = Number of emigrants in the time under consideration (between P2 and P1)
The differences between births and deaths in a population produces the Natural Increase (or
decrease) of a population. The rate of Natural Population increase is the rate at which a
population is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due to excess (or deficit) of births over
deaths expressed as a percentage of the base population.
RNI = Births - Deaths X 100
Total Population
OR
Birth Rate - Death Rate
Net Migration: is the difference between the numbers of persons entering a geographic area
(Immigrants) and those leaving the area (emigrants).
Total Population Growth Rate
It is the rate at which a population is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due to natural
increase and net migration expressed as a percentage of the base population.
Total Growth Rate = Natural increase + Net Migration X 100
Total Population
Population Growth Forms
Populations have characteristic patterns of increase which are called Population Growth Forms.
There are two patterns of population growth forms.
Exponential Growth Form (J - Shaped Growth Curve) In this growth form density increases
rapidly in exponential or compound interest fashion, when there is no environmental restrictions;
and then stops abruptly as environmental resistance or other limits of
resources become effective more or less suddenly. This resistance is the carrying capacity, the
upper level beyond which no major increase can occur (K).

Population Carrying Capacity

Growth K

Time

Sigmoid Growth Form (S - Shaped)

In this growth form the population increases slowly at first (establishment or positive
acceleration), then increases more rapidly (perhaps approaching a logarithmic phase), but soon it
slows down gradually as the environmental resistance increases percentage wise (the negative
acceleration phase), until a more or less equilibrium level is reached and maintained that is the
carrying capacity, showing more or less an S – shaped curve.

Carrying Capacity
K
Population Growth
Population Dynamics
Population dynamics is the study of the changes in population size and structure over time
Major Factors in Population Dynamics
Three major factors or variables determine the population of a defined area and its growth over
time. There are:
i. Births (Fertility)
ii. Deaths (Mortality)
iii. Migration
iv. immigration (in migration)
v. emigration (out migration)
The balance among these three factors determines whether a population increases, remains
stationary, or decreases in number. The relation between births and deaths is referred to as
Natural Population Increase (Natural Population Growth). When the net effect of migration is
added to natural increase, this is referred to as Total Increase (Total Growth).
Population structure (composition)
Population structure refers to the composition of the population in terms of Age, sex, occupation,
religion, educational status, geographical distribution, socio– economic status etc. The structure
of a population is influenced or affected by births, deaths and migration and their predisposing
factors.
The age – sex structure determines potential for future growth of specific age groups, as well as
the total population.
Population pyramid
The age–sex structure of a country can be studied through population pyramids.
Population pyramids show pictorially (graphically) the effects of the three factors that influence
population. The overall shape of the pyramid indicates the potential for future growth.
Population pyramids present the population of an area or country in terms of its composition by
age and sex at a point in time.
The shape of the pyramid reflects the major influences on births and deaths, plus any change due
to migration over three or four generations proceeding the date of the pyramid. The following
four representations of population age – sex structure provide an overall example of what a
pyramid for different levels of population growth would look like – rapid growth, slow growth,
zero growth and negative growth
A pyramid with a Broad Base
This indicates a high percentage of young population. Rapid population growth. The low
survivorship and high natality of human population in many developing countries result in a
pyramidal stable age - structure, in which most of the population is young.
A Bell shaped Polygon:-
This indicates a moderate proportion of young to old Population. Slow population growth.
A Rectangular Polygon:-
In a more developed countries high survivorship and low natality produce populations with an
almost rectangular, stable age structure in which all age groups are equally abundant. Zero
population growth.
An Urn - shaped Figure
This type of shape indicates a low percentage of young Population, which is characteristic of a
declining Population. Negative population growth.

The Ecological Ages

The ecological age includes:
Pre - reproductive - Population less than 15-year-old
Reproductive - Reproductive age groups (15 - 49 years)
Post reproductive - Elderly people (> 49 years - females)
A stationary population will have a more even distribution of all age classes.

Type of Populations
Population s may be categorized into four major groups depending on their state of expansion:
TYPE I - EXPANSIVE
This is characteristic of traditional poor countries indicated by: -
High Fertility
High Morality
High proportion of children (young age)
Moderate Growth Rate.
TYPE II - EXPANSIVE
Includes modern, less developed countries characterized by:-
High Fertility
Declining Mortality
High Growth Rate
Very young population
TYPE III - STATIONARY
This includes contemporary developed countries characterized by:-
Declining Fertility
Declining Mortality
Moderate Growth Rate
Aging population
TYPE IV - CONSTRICTIVE
These are future developed countries characterized by:-
Low fertility
Low Mortality
Ceasing Growth Rate
Very old Population

Study Questions
Define the following demographic terms Natural population increase, Progression,
Population doubling time, Population Dynamics.
Discuss the hypothesis of Thomas Malthus on Population Growth.
Explain the differences between the Exponential Growth Form and the sigmoid Growth Form
of populations.
What is the demographic transition and why was population growth so slow during the first
stages of the transition?
How can the Age-sex structure of a population determine the needs of that population?
What does it mean to have a “young” or “old” population?
CHAPTER FOUR WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT
After completing this chapter, the learner is able
to:
 Discuss the role of women in development.
 Define gender – based violence
 Explain how gender differences affect women’s health and well – being
 Discuss the status of women in Ethiopia

Gender
refers to the different roles that men and women play in a society, and the relative power they
wield. Gender roles vary from one country to another, but almost everywhere, women face
disadvantages relative to men in social, economic and political spheres of life. Where men are
viewed as the principal decision makers, women often hold a subordinate position in negotiations
about limiting family size, contraceptive use, managing family resources, protecting family
health, or seeking jobs.

 Before or at birth, parents who prefer boys may put girls at risk of sex- selective abortion
(where technology is available to identify the sex) or infanticide.
 Where food is scarce, girls often eat last, and usually less than boys.
 Girls may be less likely than boys to receive health care when they are ill.
 In some countries mainly in Africa, girls are subject to female genital mutilation.
 Adolescent girls may be pressured into having sex at an early age – within an arranged
marriage, by adolescent boys proving their virility, or by older men looking for partners
not infected with STIs,.
  Married women may be pressured by husbands or families to have more children than
they prefer and women may be unable to seek or use contraceptives.
 Married and unmarried women may be unable to deny sexual advances or persuade
partners to use a condom, thereby exposing themselves to the risk of sexually transmitted
infections (STI).
 In all societies, women are more likely than men to experience domestic violence.
Women may sustain injuries from physical abuse by male partners or family members,
and the fear of abuse can make women less

Violence Against Women

Around the world at least one woman in every three has been beaten, coerced into sex, or
otherwise abused in her life time. Most often the abuser is a member of her own family.
Increasingly, gender – based violence is recognized as a major public health concern and a
violation of human rights.

The effect of violence can be devastating to a woman’s reproductive health as well as to other
aspects of her physical and mental well – being. In addition to causing injury, violence increases
women’s long – term risk of a number of other health problems, including chronic pain, physical
disability, drug and alcohol abuse, and depression. Women with a history of physical or sexual
abuse are also at increased risk for unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and
adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Gender - Based Violence

Violence against women and girls includes physical, sexual, psychological, and economic abuse.
It is often known as “gender – based” violence because it evolves in part from women’s
subordinate status in society. Gender – based violence includes spousal battering sexual abuse of
female children, dowry related violence, rape including marital rape, traditional practices
harmful to women, such as female genital mutilation (FGM).
They also include non – spousal violence, sexual harassment and intimidation at work and in
school, trafficking in women, forced position, and violence perpetuated or condoned by the state,
such as rape in war.

Empowering Women
Education
Education is the primary avenue for elevating women’s status. Two – thirds of the world’s
illiterate adults are women; and 70 percent of the children not enrolled in primary school are
girls. There is abundant evidence that more educated women tend to marry later; thus they delay
child bearing and have fewer children over the course of their lives.
Employment Opportunities
Education also expands women’s employment possibilities and their ability to secure their own
economic resources. Women are less likely than men to hold a paying job in part, because
women are not treated as equals to men in the work place. Women are paid less than men
throughout the world, although the gap is somewhat smaller in developed countries
Legislating Equality
Governments have to enact legislation to provide equal opportunities for women and men and to
protect women from discrimination. discrimination is considered essential to increasing women’s
participation in national development agendas and much has to be done beyond enacting
legislation.
Emphasizing the Girl Child
Discrimination can begin even before girls are born. Sex– selective abortions have been reported
in some countries of the world, where sons have a higher economic and social value than
daughters. The preference for boys encourages families to invest more in their sons than their
daughters, further, perpetuating gender disparities.
Male Responsibility
Programs designed to elevate women’s status are unlikely to succeed if they do not have the
backing of men. Men have a deceive role in eliminating gender disparities because they hold the
power to influence societal thinking in most parts of the world. Government policies and
encouraging men to take active part in all aspects of family life: attending to children’s health,
nutrition, and education; practicing family planning; providing economic support; caring for their
own as well as their partners’ – reproductive and sexual health.
 Ensure that women can own property equally with men, obtain credit and negotiate
contracts in their own names, and exercise their rights of inheritance;
 Eliminate gender discrimination in hiring, training, and wages
 Eliminate exploitation, abuse, and violence against women, and
 Enact laws and implement programs enabling both sexes to organize their work around
their family responsibilities.

Study Questions
What does gender mean?
Explain the significance of women on development.
List the acts of gender – based violence and discuss their effects.
What does women empowerment mean? Explain how women can be empowered.
Identify and explain the most important barriers to women empowerment.

CHAPTER FIVE POPULATION POLICIES

After completing this chapter, the learner is able to:

 Define Population Policy

 Explain why governments need to formulate population policies.

 Discuss the rationale, goals and objectives of the population policy

Definition: Population policy is explicit or implicit measures instituted by a government to

influence population size, growth, distribution or composition.
They are government actions (laws, regulations, programs), that try to influence the three agents
of population change (births, deaths and migration), as a way to promote social and economic
development. The stated intent of these policies often, is to improve the quality of life, consistent
with the available resource in a country.
National Population projections are often the stimulus for the introduction of population policies
as governments realize the implication of current growth rates for the future size and structure of
their population.
Population policies are concerned with influencing growth rates, regulating fertility, lowering
mortality altering patterns of internal migration and hence population distribution and controlling
international migration.
Population and Education
A large proportion of the school age population still remains outside the school system, in spite
of significant increase of student enrolment during the last several decades. The quality of
education has seriously deteriorated due to more rapid rate at which enrolment increased relative
to facilities.
Population and Health
It is estimated that only less than 46% of the population of Ethiopia has access to modern health
services. The ratio of different health personnel to population and health facilities to population
are extremely high. Only 18% of the rural population and 78% of the urban population has
access to safe water supply, and 5.3% use any form of latrines. The continuing rapid population
growth rate will still aggravate this situation
Fertility And Maternal And Child Health
High fertility is usually associated with high maternal, infant and child mortality rates. Fetal
deaths, low birth weight and other related problems are also associated with unregulated fertility.
Short birth intervals, pregnancies under the age of 20 and above 35 are some of the causes for
high maternal moralities, infant and child moralities aggravated by high prevalence of infectious
and communicable diseases and malnutrition. The limited budget allocated to the health section
is not adequate to alleviate these problems and even aggravated by poor resource utilization
capacity. Significant reduction in the rate of the growth of the population will decrease the
future burden of rapidly increasing demand of resources.
Population and Housing
The quality of hosing is very low:
70.2% of dwelling units in the country have one room only
The average number of rooms per dwelling unit is 2.3; most of the dwelling units in the country
are below standard and lack adequate living space.
A large proportion of the dwelling units are shared by more than one household
The majority of dwelling units lack even the most basic sanitary facilities.

Population and Welfare

Labour Force and Unemployment
Unemployment and underemployment have been major problems of the Currently, there are
thousands of school leavers who are without job. The situation is likely to be further aggravated
by the rapid rate at which the population of the working age is expected to increase under the
high population growth. The total economically active population is expected to grow at the rate
3.2 to 3.6% a year.
The Situation Of Women
The level of fertility in any society is associated with the economic, social and political status of
women. The roles of women are restricted to household management and matrimonial duties and
are expected to replenish the race by bearing a large number of children. Women are
economically dependent on men and the decision to have or not to have children rests, primarily
in the husband and his relatives.
High fertility is induced by the desire to more children in order to composite the high infant and
child mortality, assuming that not all children born survive. Since education resources are scarce,
parents often decide to use the limited resources available to them in sending male children to
school in reference to females. This is reflected by the low participation in form education and
the high illiteracy rate among females as compare to males.
Low status of women is also reflected by their poor participation in the labor force. Even when
they are employed most of them perform non-professional duties. They represent low proportion
of persons employed in profession laws restrict the right of women to regulate fertility and
discourage the widespread use of modern contraceptive methods, resulting in low contraceptive
prevalence rate.
The Situation of Children and Adolescents
Children and adolescents are the segments of the population most affected by draught, famine
and war related displacement. Thousands of children have lost their parents forcing them to
abandon their communities to urban streets. They are exposed to adverse climatic effects,
hunger, violence, diseases etc

Study Questions
What is Population Policy?
What are the reasons which stimulate governments to formulate population policies?

THE END
By bulinyaoscariss@[Link]