Notes

Q1. Explain the scope of Military Psychologists in the recruitment process of Indian Armed Forces. (10
marks)

Ans. Military Psychology is a unique sub-discipline of Psychology that determines its boundaries not by
subject content or methods of conducting research, but by the requirements of the user (the armed
forces). Military Psychology is a relatively recent development in the context of India. It was around the
time of the Second World War that Military Psychology found its beginnings in India, though on a very
low-key basis, it was mainly concerned with the selection of personnel for the military. Although the
importance of psychological applications in the military was realized during World War I, it was firmly
established by the Second World War.

The pioneers of Military Psychology in India faced many unique challenges. Selection of officers and men
for the armed forces was one of the major responsibilities of military psychologists. The first problem
was of deciding upon the qualities to be assessed before beginning the actual selection process. Job
analyses were conducted for the officers and the Other Ranks of all the services. Assessors were trained
to effectively apply the psychological technique of selection. The psychological tests used for personnel
selection were validated on Indian samples before being used. Besides ascertaining the validity and
reliability of the selection tools, it was also felt essential that these tests must be adapted as per the
needs of the Indian candidates. Job profiles were drawn on the basis of job analyses, the impact of
training on performance was assessed, the procedure of officers’ selection was standardised, qualities of
an average officer were delineated, officer quality rating scale was developed, accessibility of the officer
like qualities by different techniques was investigated, and job summaries for different jobs were
prepared.

The three techniques employed for officers’ selection- the interview technique, group testing technique,
and psychological technique- were gradually refined.

Today, there are two vital stages of this whole recruitment process of SSB

• STAGE-I Testing

1. Screening: Screening is the preliminary stage for filtering out the potential candidates from all
the candidates who have applied for the SSB. In screening, the selection is done on the basis of
following two tests.

a. Verbal and Non-Verbal Test – Officers Intelligence Rating

b. Picture Perception and Discussion Test (PPDT)

• STAGE II Testing

After the list of candidates who have cleared the Stage I is out, the second stage begins. This stage
involves Psychology four tests to check the psychological suitability of the candidate as an officer.

• The Psychology tests, as stated earlier, comprises for four main sections:
 i. Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)
ii. Word Association Test (WAT)
iii. Situation Reaction Test (SRT)
iv. Self-Description Test (SD)

The armed forces receive thousands of applications of young men and women desirous of recruitment
as officers. A practical need is to device a scientific method of screening that would effectively shortlist
the potential candidates, since it is not possible to put all the candidates through the five-day tedious
selection schedule currently in use, due to resource crunch and paucity of time. Any conventional
intelligence or personality test that is commercially available does not provide a viable option for the
purpose as maintaining the secrecy and sanctity of the test material is an essential requirement. The
screening method needs to be effective and

Q2. Briefly explain the Comprehensive Soldier Fitness Model. How can we implement a similar model
force Indian Military personnel and family? (10+10=20 marks)

Ans. Mental health care in military can take different shapes; not all deal with
recruitment and selection. An alternative approach is to develop proactive training
and development programmes to provide soldiers with the personal skills needed to
display a resilient response to combat stress. CSF is a programme designed to
improve resilience skills in US army soldiers, their families and army civilians.
CSF was mandated in August 2008 by then-Chief of Staff of the United States
Army, General Casey, and is based largely on positive psychology. During the Civil
War, soldiers were said to suffer from ‘soldier’s heart’. In the 20th century, the
stress reactions were referred to as ‘combat shock’ or ‘battle fatigue’.
What is now known as PTSD, as a formal diagnostic psychiatric disorder, emerged
following the Vietnam War. The constellation of symptoms described above was
codified in the 1980 edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American
Psychiatric Association. The military response to any health problem has always
been proactive and systematic.
General George Casey, Chief of Staff of the United States Army, in consultation with
leading psychologists and health-care specialists, led the development of an
approach to deal with the psychiatric casualties of war. It was felt that a traditional,
disease model, reactive approach to dealing with large numbers of psychiatric
casualties could never be sufficient, in and of itself, to reduce the incidence rates of
PTSD and related disorders. First step was to define the components of resilience
and to develop a metric to assess soldier resilience. A panel of psychologists from
across the United States, led by former American Psychology Association President
Martin E. P. Seligman, developed both a conceptual model of resilience and
identifying existing psychological tests possessing good psychometric properties
that could be used to assess the various dimensions of resilience. After considerable
discussion, the team specified five domains that were thought to be critical to
resilience in soldiers.
 1. Emotional: refers to the soldier’s personal cognitive and affective skills and
strategies needed to respond adaptively in the face of personal challenge and
adversity.
2. social: focuses on the soldier’s network of friends and, especially in a military
setting, his or her fellow soldiers, and knowing how to rely on them to help
face difficult challenges.
3. family: It is closely related to social resilience, but instead deals with the
soldier’s family situation. For young, unmarried soldiers, this could be parents
and siblings. For married soldiers, this would expand to include spouse and
children. In some instances, extended family members including
grandparents, aunts and uncles and others would also fall into this category.
4. Spiritual: was considered relevant for the soldiers because they must deal
with the possibility of their own death and/or taking the lives of others. It is
important to note that spiritual, while it might include religiosity, is a broad
concept. Perhaps it is best thought of as “meaning and purpose” of life.
5. Since the original inception of CSF, a fifth ‘pillar’ of resilience— enhanced
performance— has been added. Enhanced Performance involves programme
aimed to improve and enhance mental and emotional skills that soldiers need
to succeed in training, combat and their personal lives. Examples include self-
confidence, controlling attentional processes, goal setting, energy
maintenance and mental imagery skills.

The resilience training, development and intervention strategy adopted by CSF

includes a variety of individualized and unit training. Some of it will be
institutionalized within the training component of the Army such that all soldiers
receive ‘schoolhouse’ education about resilience and the dimensions of
psychological fitness. Individualized training and interventions may be suggested
from personal feedback on the Generalized Assessment Tool.
CSF2 Training Strategies
It was renamed as Comprehensive Soldier and Family Fitness (CSF2) in October
2012. CSF2 is not simply a program designed to treat certain illnesses or
pathologies; that particular mission is the responsibility of the Army Medical
Department. CSF2 provides the psychological tools prior to potential crises so that
Soldiers might be better able to cope with the effects of such crises. To execute the
program, the Army utilizes four components of resilience training.
1. The first component of the program consists of the GAT–– the online survey
instrument that provides feedback about Soldiers’ R/PH levels upon
completion. For analytic purposes, the GAT also serves as an indicator of
overall psychological health and well-being, which can be used to assess
Soldier fitness in relation to a number of outcomes.
2. Soldiers are able to take online self-help Comprehensive Resilience Modules
(CRM), which are computer-based distance-learning modules that take
approximately 20 minutes to complete.
3. MRTs are trained in a number of strategies that Soldiers can use to practice
and promote resilience. The Army’s goal is to embed MRTs within every
battalion and brigade in the Army so they can pass along their training to
peers and subordinates.
 4. Resilience training has been made mandatory at every US Army leader
development school.

Implementation of a similar model in Indian context would mean

considering factors like resources, training delivery mode and the vast
strength.

Q3. What occupational stress? Explain in detail which organizational stressors are relevant in Military
jobs and why? How can you as a trained counsellor help a military personnel deal with these
stressors? (5+10+5=20 marks)

Ans. Occupational stress has become a major area of concern in the field of Human
Resource Management in today's competitive era. Apart from the stressors outside
the organization, such as family-related stressors and individual stressors, there are
various stressors affecting an employee, which are associated with the organization
itself. Occupational stressors are various job-related stressors which negatively
influence the performance and well-being of the employees, since they exist in
every organization, though their degree may vary from occupation to occupation
and individual to individual.
Among the various dimensions of occupational stress, the most important of them
are work characteristics, organizational environment and psychological/behavioural
characteristics of an individual. Management style including lack of participation of
workers in decision-making, poor communication in the organization and lack of
family–friendly policies contribute to work stress. However, close relationships
between supervisors and their subordinates can often lead to dysfunctional
organizational consequences like unethical behaviour. In addition, poor
interpersonal relations of employees with their colleagues can be a leading source
of stress between them. Besides the personal beliefs and values of the employees,
the cues received from the conduct of seniors and co-workers shape the employees'
perception about the organizational climate. Further, deficient social support in the
organization causes stressful situations, which increases work stress. Hence, the
lower the level of support from the organization, the higher is the level of stress
experienced by employees at work. In a study, stress was found to have significant
negative impact on organizational citizenship behaviours thereby affecting the
performance of the work group and the organization simultaneously.

Occupational Stress in the Military

In the context of the armed forces, military stressors faced by soldiers during
peacekeeping missions such as isolation, ambiguity, powerlessness, boredom, and
danger/threat. Active-duty military personnel were found to have poor mental and
physical health compared to veterans and reserve personnel. Britt et al. (2004)
emphasized that leadership behaviours can ameliorate or buffer the stressors
experienced by soldiers. Further, frequent uncontrollable conditions of
peacekeeping mission under unsafe conditions were found to make the soldiers
experience frustration and predicted post-traumatic stress disorder among them. It
has been pointed out that suicides committed by soldiers are not incidental and are
an outcome of several highly complicated processes occurring simultaneously. Stetz
et al. (2007) pointed out that improved organizational support in the form of
lowering occupational stressors improves the psychological wellbeing of soldiers
and also helps in lowering their depressive symptoms.
In the last decade India has not indulged in any war activity, though several
counter-insurgency operations have been accomplished by the Army. The stress
levels, however, have still increased. In this regard, it has been observed that
though military personnel have managed to adapt to the temporary hardships of
wartime and humanitarian missions, the chronic stressors faced at the home base
are found to be beyond their tolerance limit. Moreover, occupational stress arising
out of routine military work environment is found to have significant negative
impact on the mental health of military personnel. Despite volumes of research
work available in the domain of occupational stress, there is a lack of empirical
research on the Indian army.

As a military counsellor, the following strategies need to be focused on:

1. Becoming aware of their unique stressors
2. Psychoeducation
3. Being Empathetic
4. Active listening
5. Maintaining confidentiality owing to sensitivity involved

Q1. What is PTSD? List the signs and symptoms of PTSD. Why is it relevant in the Military context?
(5+5+10 = 20 marks)

Ans. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that's

triggered by a terrifying event — either experiencing it or witnessing it. Symptoms
may include flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as uncontrollable
thoughts about the event. Most people who go through traumatic events may have
temporary difficulty adjusting and coping, but with time and good self-care, they
usually get better. If the symptoms get worse, last for months or even years, and
interfere with your day-to-day functioning, you may have PTSD. Getting effective
treatment after PTSD symptoms develop can be critical to reduce symptoms and
improve function.

Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms may start within one month of a traumatic
event, but sometimes symptoms may not appear until years after the event. These
symptoms cause significant problems in social or work situations and in
relationships. They can also interfere with your ability to go about your normal daily
tasks.

PTSD symptoms are generally grouped into four types: intrusive memories,
avoidance, negative changes in thinking and mood, and changes in physical and
emotional reactions. Symptoms can vary over time or vary from person to person.

Intrusive memories

Symptoms of intrusive memories may include:

  Recurrent, unwanted distressing memories of the traumatic event
 Reliving the traumatic event as if it were happening again (flashbacks)
 Upsetting dreams or nightmares about the traumatic event
 Severe emotional distress or physical reactions to something that
reminds you of the traumatic event
Avoidance

Symptoms of avoidance may include:

 Trying to avoid thinking or talking about the traumatic event

 Avoiding places, activities or people that remind you of the traumatic
event
Negative changes in thinking and mood

Symptoms of negative changes in thinking and mood may include:

 Negative thoughts about yourself, other people or the world

 Hopelessness about the future
 Memory problems, including not remembering important aspects of the
traumatic event
 Difficulty maintaining close relationships
 Feeling detached from family and friends
 Lack of interest in activities you once enjoyed
 Difficulty experiencing positive emotions
 Feeling emotionally numb
Changes in physical and emotional reactions

Symptoms of changes in physical and emotional reactions (also called arousal

symptoms) may include:

 Being easily startled or frightened

 Always being on guard for danger
 Self-destructive behavior, such as drinking too much or driving too fast
 Trouble sleeping
 Trouble concentrating
 Irritability, angry outbursts or aggressive behavior
  Overwhelming guilt or shame
For children 6 years old and younger, signs and symptoms may also include:

 Re-enacting the traumatic event or aspects of the traumatic event

through play
 Frightening dreams that may or may not include aspects of the
traumatic event
Intensity of symptoms: PTSD symptoms can vary in intensity over time. One may
have more PTSD symptoms when they're stressed in general, or when they come
across reminders of what they went through. For example, they may hear a car
backfire and relive combat experiences. Or one may see a report on the news about
a sexual assault and feel overcome by memories of their own assault. PTSD among
Military personnel

1. Working conditions
2. Losing a limb during military operation
3. Loss of a mate
4. Loss of a family member
5. Bullying/humiliation at work

Q2. What is Death Anxiety? Why is it prevalent in Military personnel? How can you help an individual
showing signs of death anxiety? (5+5+10=20 marks)

Ans. Awareness of mortality and fear of death have been part of the human
condition throughout recorded history. Themes of death and the wound of mortality
have featured heavily in both ancient and modern art, literature, theater,
philosophy, and psychology (Menzies, 2012, Yalom, 2008). Not surprisingly, death
has the power to evoke fears of powerlessness, separation, loss of control, and
meaninglessness (Noyes et al., 2002, Stolorow, 1979, Yalom, 2008), and for some
individuals, fear of death can negate fulfillment and happiness (Yalom, 2008). Death
anxiety or Thanathophobia, is a potentially paralyzing fear of one’s own death upon
which an individual’s conscious mind is unceasingly focused. According to studies,
death anxiety, both distressing and unavoidable to mortal humans, is a normal
human experience, and is at the core of anxiety itself. In building upon the ideas of
fear and death, all humans have the innate capacity to not only understand but to
interpret the implications of their own inevitable death in addition to their instinct
for survival. The experience of death anxiety has been deemed normal, yet there is
a point when it becomes too much – even unconsciously. Langs (2008) suggested
the normality of death anxiety, yet also concluded that “excessive conscious death
anxiety is likely to seriously disrupt adaptive functioning”. Manifestations of
excessive death anxiety can lead to generalized anxiety and depression.

Although human beings are thought to develop adaptive methods for coping with
death anxiety, periods of heightened stress or threats to the health of self or loved
ones can result in inefficient and pathological modes of coping for some individuals
(Kastenbaum, 2000, Yalom, 1980, Yalom, 2008). Death anxiety will become more
conscious and can become excessive in the face of death or death experiences. For
soldiers, the most common form of this is exposure to war. The fear of death is
considered a phobia if the fear:

 arises almost every time a person thinks about dying

 persists for more than 6 months
 gets in the way of their everyday life or relationships

Key symptoms that a soldier may have a phobia of dying include:

 immediate fear or anxiety when thinking about dying or the process of dying
 panic attacks that can cause dizziness, hot flushes, sweating, and a raised or
irregular heart rate
 avoidance of situations where thinking about death or dying may be
necessary
 feeling sick or getting stomach pains when thinking about death or dying
 general feelings of depression or anxiety

Phobias can lead to a person feeling isolated and avoiding contact with friends and
family for extended periods of time. The symptoms may come and go over an
individual’s lifetime. Someone with mild death anxiety might experience heightened
anxiety when they think about their death or the death of a loved one or death of
their troop member, such as when they or a troop member is in an operations or a
sensitive location. If death anxiety is linked to another anxiety or depressive
condition, the personnel may also experience specific symptoms related to the
underlying conditions.

Therapy for Death Anxiety–

Social support may help to protect personnel against death anxiety. Some people
may come to terms with death through religious beliefs, though these may
perpetuate a fear of death in others. Those with high self-esteem, good health, and
a belief that they have led a fulfilling life are less likely to have a fear of death than
some others. Treatment options for death anxiety include:

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioral therapy or CBT works by gently altering a person’s behavioral

patterns so that they can form new behaviors and ways of thinking.

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapies, or talking therapies, involve talking through anxieties and fears

with a psychologist or psychotherapist. These professionals will help personnel find
out the cause of their fear, and come up with strategies to cope with anxieties that
occur during the day. Sometimes, even just talking about the anxiety can help them
feel more in control of their fear.

Exposure therapy

Exposure therapy can help the personnel face their fears. Instead of burying how
they feel about death or not acknowledging their concerns, they are encouraged to
be exposed to their fears. A therapist will help to carry out exposure therapy by
very gradually exposing the personnel to their fear, in a safe environment, until the
anxiety response reduces, and a he/she/they can confront their thoughts, objects,
or feelings without fear.

Medication

If doctors diagnose them with a specific mental health condition, such as

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) or PTSD, they may prescribe anti-anxiety
medication. When they receive medicines alongside psychotherapies, the recovery
is effective.

Relaxation techniques

Practicing self-care can be powerful for boosting overall mental health, including
helping a person feel more able to cope with their anxieties. Avoiding alcohol and
caffeine, getting qualitative sleep, if not quantitative, and eating a nutritious diet
are some ways of self-care practices which can taught to the individual. The
personnel can be taught specific relaxation techniques that can help clear their
mind and de-escalate their fears. These may include:

 doing deep breathing exercises

 focusing on specific objects in the environment, such as sound of the chirping
birds
 meditation or focusing on positive imagery

Q3. What is psychological warfare? Comment on ancient and modern psychological warfare strategies.
(5+5=10 marks)

Ans. Psychological warfare is the planned tactical use of propaganda, threats, and other non-combat
techniques during wars, threats of war, or periods of geopolitical unrest to mislead, intimidate,
demoralize, or otherwise influence the thinking or behaviour of an enemy. Psychological warfare is a
broad term, but in all documented cases, the concept uses actions intended to reduce an opponent's
morale or mental wellbeing.
The aim is to use manipulative tactics to intimidate or persuade a person or people. This process is
usually employed through propaganda. Propaganda is ideas or statements that are false or exaggerated
and is deliberately spread to influence the masses.

The goal of psychological warfare is to intentionally use propaganda to manipulate another and break
down their will without using physical force. Psychological warfare uses fear to break down the
psychological wellbeing of an opponent. There are several techniques that can be used to spread
psychological uncertainty, fear, and terror.

Goals of Psychological warfare:

The tactical goals of psychological warfare (PSYWAR) or psychological operations
(PSYOP) as:
Assisting in overcoming an enemy’s will to fight

Sustaining the morale and winning the alliance of friendly groups in

countries occupied by the enemy
 Influencing the morale and attitudes of people in friendly and neutral
countries toward them.
 To achieve their objectives, the planners of psychological warfare
campaigns first attempt to gain total knowledge of the beliefs, likes,
dislikes, strengths, weaknesses, and vulnerabilities of the target
population; knowing what motivates the target is the key to a successful
PSYOP.
Techniques:

As a non-lethal effort to capture "hearts and minds," psychological warfare typically

employs propaganda to influence the values, beliefs, emotions, reasoning, motives, or behaviour of its
targets. The targets of such propaganda campaigns can include governments, political organizations,
advocacy groups, military personnel, and civilian individuals. Simply a form of cleverly “weaponized”
information, PSYOP propaganda may be disseminated in any or all of several ways:

To get a clearer picture, let's take a look at some techniques that have been used
throughout history.
1. News Outlets:
The news is a large information source that all can tap into. Whether its
government run or independently owned, the news has the ability to spread
whichever information it chooses. By infiltrating a news source, a population
could be tainted by volatile information.
2. Threats:
Threats of violence, restrictions of freedom, and control can be made to instill
fear in the people. These could be empty threats or threats with true intention.
Whatever the case, threatening a group or groups of people can psychologically
damage the recipients over time, putting them in a state of constant fear,
anxiety, and terror.

Ancient Psychological warfare strategies:

War Elephants: As the tallest terrestrial animal on the planet, few creatures are as intimidating as an
elephant. Add body armor and some blades or spikes to tusks, and you have a fearsome battle beast!
Used in Africa and India, both African and Asian elephants were incorporated into armies. In India, war
elephants were so common that they were entire corps of militaries. While not completely invincible, an
elephant could easily sweep individual soldiers aside by swinging its massive head. Famously, horses
were often intimidated by larger elephants and could refuse to charge into battle facing them. However,
the psychological warfare inflicted on opponents by war elephants could be countered.
Famously, flaming pigs were used to terrify war elephants, which could turn around and trample their
own soldiers in an attempt to escape. If an elephant panicked, it could cause almost as much damage to
its own troops as the enemy! Thus, using war elephants was a high-risk strategy. Although the Romans
successfully overcame war elephants–at tremendous cost–when fighting the Egyptians and
Carthaginians, they came to adopt some for themselves, although mainly for entertainment and
spectacle.

Modern Psychological warfare strategies:

1. While most people are familiar with the use of propaganda to bolster support
for a war on the home front, World War I saw the use of anti-war propaganda
intended to sap enemy morale and convince them to surrender. Already
suffering from the industrialized war that saw the wide-scale introduction of
machine guns, modern artillery, poison gas warfare, and even the first
armored tanks, German troops were bombarded with leaflets announcing
their efforts were futile. Some German troops surrendered and asked for the
rations promised in the leaflets, perhaps hastening the war’s end.
2. Future wars saw the use of propaganda leaflets on both sides. They could be
dropped by planes or released from artillery shells. World War II saw both
Axis and Allied powers try to convince soldiers from the other side to
surrender and that they were being used as pawns for the elites. In addition
to leaflets, both Germany and Japan used English-speaking radio
broadcasts as propaganda. Both Allied and Axis broadcasts (and leaflets)
tried to reduce enemy morale by claiming that the war was going according
to plan for their side.
While World War I saw largely static trench warfare for much of the conflict,
especially on the Western Front in France, World War II was much more
maneuverable and complex. After the D-Day invasion of France in June 1944,
the US used ghost armies of lightweight, artificial equipment, including
inflatable tanks, to fool the enemy. In addition to physical decoys, ghost army
units also used fake radio chatter and sounds of military action on
loudspeakers to convince the Germans that forces were elsewhere than they
actually were…or much larger than they actually were. Believing they were
facing large units up to 35-40 times their actual size, the Germans chose to
disengage rather than fight, potentially saving tens of thousands of Allied
troops.
3. During the Vietnam war, the conflict mainly saw guerrilla warfare in a jungle
environment rather than conventional warfare. Both the US military and the
North Vietnamese military looked for psychological warfare advantages to
sap the morale of their enemies. The US used spooky tape recordings
in Operation Wandering Soul to play on the superstitions of North Vietnamese
and Viet Cong soldiers, hoping to get them to desert their positions. Success
was mixed, with enemy soldiers sometimes discovering the ruse and firing on
the speakers or the recordings, spooking South Vietnamese soldiers and
civilians as well as the intended targets. For their part, the North Vietnamese
and Viet Cong also played on Americans’ anxieties. They used deadly booby
traps to sap soldiers’ morale. Knowing that you could be killed anywhere,
even with no sign of an enemy present, made many soldiers question the war
effort. Between 1966 and 1971, US military morale fell as the Vietnam War
dragged on, and little seemed to be accomplished. Some soldiers in Vietnam
turned to illegal drug use to cope with continual anxiety and harsh conditions.