BIOLOGY

REPRODUCTION

Prepared by: Yolla Abou Salha

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Male and female reproductive systems .................................................................................... 3
Male reproductive system ..................................................................................................... 3
Female reproductive system ................................................................................................. 4
Diploid and haploid cells ............................................................................................................ 6
Karyotype ............................................................................................................................... 6
Meiosis ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Spermatogenesis........................................................................................................................ 7
Oogenesis ................................................................................................................................... 8
Folliculogenesis ........................................................................................................................ 10
Fertilization .............................................................................................................................. 12
N.B table of differences between meiosis and mitosis .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The sexual cycle ....................................................................................................................... 13
Uterine cycle / Endometrial cycle ........................................................................................ 14
Cervical mucus cycle ............................................................................................................ 14
Cyclic evolution of the ovarian hormones ............................................................................... 15
Ovarian hormones ............................................................................................................... 15
Roles of oestrogen and progesterone ................................................................................. 15
Hypothalamo-pituitary axis and ovarian secretions ................................................................ 16
Ovarian feedback control on the hypothalamo-pituitary axis ................................................ 18
Contraceptive methods ........................................................................................................... 20
1. Ovulation....................................................................................................................... 20
2. Fertilization ................................................................................................................... 20
3. Implantation.................................................................................................................. 21
Contragestive methods ............................................................................................................ 21
Medically assisted procreation ................................................................................................ 21
1. Artificial insemination (AI) ............................................................................................ 21
2. In vitro fertilization (IVF) & embryo transfer (ET) ......................................................... 22

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MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Cowper’s gland

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1- Testes/testicles (male gonads)

 They are the site of spermatogenesis.
 They are responsible for the secretion of the male sexual hormone
(testosterone).

2- Epididymis
 It’s a coiled tubule.
 It’s responsible for storage and maturation of spermatozoa to be able to
survive, motile and fertilize.
 Is found within the scrotum.

3- Sperm ducts (vas deferens)

 They are responsible for the transportation of spermatozoa from epididymis
towards penis.

4- Accessory glands
 Prostate gland + seminal vesicles + Cowper’s (bulbourethral) glands.

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  They provide spermatozoa with the needed nutritive substances (fructose).
 Semen = spermatozoa 10% + nutritive fluid 90%
5- Urethra/uro-genital tube
 It is a tube-like structure found within the penis.
 The sperm ducts are united and pour their secretion in the urethra.

6- Penis
 It’s the male Copulatory organ (male sexual organ).

7- Orifice (uro-genital opening)

 It is the site through which both urine and semen are ejected but at different
times.
 Each ejaculation contains around 3-5ml semen.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1- Ovaries
 They are the site of oogenesis.
 They are responsible for the secretion of the female sexual hormones
(estrogen and progesterone).

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 2- Oviducts/fallopian tubes
 They are the site of fertilization
 They are responsible for the conduction of the ova and later on the embryo
(in case of fertilization) from the ovary towards the uterus

3- Uterus/womb
 It is the house of the embryo
 It consists of 3 layers:
 Endometrium
 Myometrium
 Serous layer

4- Cervix
 It is the neck of the uterus.
 It possesses mucus glands or cervical glands.

5- Vagina
 It’s a tube-like structure.
 It is the female copulatory organ.
 Its outer part called vulva

Comparison Male reproductive system Female reproductive

system
Gonads Testes Ovaries
Genital duct Epididymis, vas deferens Oviduct, uterus and cervix
and urethra
Copulatory organ Penis Vagina
Mode of action Spermatogenesis is a Oogenesis is a cyclic process
continuous process, but it starting from embryonic life
decreases with age (it starts then pause at birth until
from puberty till old age) puberty where it starts
again till menopause and
interrupted during
pregnancy

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DIPLOID AND HAPLOID CELLS

Diploid cells are cells that have 2 homologous copies of a chromosome (2n).

Haploid cells are cells that have 1 copy of a chromosome (n).

Somatic cells and germ stem cells contain diploid number of chromosomes (pairs of
homologous chromosomes).

In humans there are 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 autosomes + 1 gonosomes/sex

chromosomes (XX or XY).

Gametes contain haploid number of chromosomes.

KARYOTYPE

It’s a way of chromosome arrangement

based on

Their decreasing The position of Their banding

relative length the centromere pattern

Notes

Colchicine is added to block cell division at metaphase

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SPERMATOGENESIS

It’s the process by which haploid spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules of
the testes.

It occurs continuously from puberty till old age.

2n,1

2n,2

n,2

n,1

n,1

Each spermatogenic cycle lasts for 74 days in human.

Leydig cells: they secrete male hormone Testosterone

Sertoli cells: separate between 2 spermatogenesis processes and are sites from which
sperm cells Leave to lumen and to nourish sperm cells

Spermiogenesis: is the process

by which spermatids are
transformed into mature sperm
7 cells.
OOGENESIS

It is the process that leads to the formation of haploid oocyte starting from diploid stem
cells.

It occurs in the peripheral or cortical zone of the ovaries.

It is a discontinuous process:

 Starts at fetal stage (before birth)

 Resumes at puberty
 Ends at fertilization
 It consists of the following phases :

1st phase: multiplication phase (mitosis)

The mother cell oogonium undergoes many successive divisions to give oogonia

It occurs during fetal & embryonic life

A total of 7 million oogonia exist at this stage

2nd phase: growth phase (interphase)

The oogonia develop into primary oocytes

Each primary oocyte is surrounded by few flattened follicular cells to form

primordial follicles

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3rd phase: maturation phase (meiosis)
During fetal life, a large number of primordial follicles degenerate (follicular
atresia).
In the other follicles the primary oocyte undergo the 1st meiotic division and
arrests at prophase 1 at birth, it remains blocked at this phase till puberty

With the onset of puberty and periodically each month 10 follicles out of the
remaining 500 follicles will reach maturation phase and only one will mature
to become The graafian follicle, while all the others will degenerate.

In the graafian follicle , a few hrs before ovulation (release of oocyte from
ovary to the oviduct) the primary oocyte will complete the 1st meiotic
division producing 2 non-identical morphologically different daughter cells:
the secondary oocyte + the 1st polar body

The secondary oocyte starts the 2nd meiotic division but remains blocked at
metaphase 2.
If fertilization occurs the secondary oocyte is stimulated to continue the
second meiotic division to produce the fertilized ovum + second polar body.

2n, 1

2n, 2

n, 2

n, 1

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FOLLICULOGENESIS
It is the developmental cycle of the follicular cells which begin during fetal life and resume
its activity at puberty.

Primordial follicles: they are formed during fetal life & remain at rest until puberty.

Primary + secondary: they are formed few months before the menstrual cycle, starting from
puberty.

Tertiary follicle: are formed at day 0 of the cycle where it develops into a graafian follicle
during the follicular phase.

Corpus luteum: it’s a yellow body that is formed after the graafian follicle is ruptured during
ovulation (it’s formed during the luteal phase).

Corpus albican: the corpus luteum transforms into corpus albican if fertilization doesn’t
occur.

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 Notes

If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum remains until the end of the first trimester.

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FERTILIZATION

Secondary oocyte
arrested in 2nd meiotic
division

It is the union of 2 haploid gametes: a sperm cell and an oocyte, to give a diploid cell called
Zygote which is the first cell of a new individual.

It leads to a transformation from haploid to diploid stage.

Notes

Capacitation is the acquiring of sperm cells to their fertilizing capacity in the female
reproductive tract.

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THE SEXUAL CYCLE

Postovulatory or
luteal phase (day 14
Preovulatory or to 28)
follicular phase (day Ovulation at Ruptured follicle
0 to 14)
day 14 forms the corpus
One of the follicles luteum that
become graafian Rupture of the
degenerates into
follicle &is ready for graafian follicle corpus albican if no
ovulation. fertilization took
place.

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UTERINE CYCLE / ENDOMETRIAL CYCLE

Uterine mucosa - Thickening of blood

Menses
develops blood vessels
Release of blood by
vessels to supply - Glands start in
sloughing off of the
nutrients + oxygen secretion.
endometrium
to the embryo. - Spiral form of blood
vessels

CERVICAL MUCUS CYCLE

Cervical glands secrete thick mucus to prevent sperm entry in the days where no ova is
available but around ovulation it becomes thin to facilitate sperm entry.

Notes

During the sexual cycle the body temperature of a female varies within 0.4 degrees.

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CYCLIC EVOLUTION OF THE OVARIAN HORMONES
OVARIAN HORMONES

There are 2 types of ovarian hormones: estrogen + progesterone.

Oestrogen (oestradiol):

 It’s secreted by granulosa cells & internal theca of the developing follicle during
follicular phase.
 Maximum amount is secreted by the graafian follicle around ovulation.
 A smaller amount is secreted by the corpus luteum during the luteal phase.

Progesterone:

 It’s secreted by the corpus luteum during the luteal phase.

ROLES OF OESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE

Estrogen Progesterone
Proliferation of the uterine and vaginal Stimulation of gland secretions in the
mucosa uterine mucosa and the cervix
Development of the tube-like glands of the Development of spiral arterioles
endometrium
Development of the cervical glands Increase in the body temperature
Growth of the blood vessels Inhibition of the uterine contractions

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HYPOTHALAMO-PITUITARY AXIS AND OVARIAN SECRETIONS

Hypothalamus

It is a region of the brain and contains neurons that secrete hormones called Gonadotropic-
releasing hormones “GnRH” that is conducted via blood vessels in the duct that connects
the hypothalamus to the pituitary.

Posterior part of the hypothalamus is responsible for stimulating the pituitary gland for FSH
and LH secretion.

Pituitary gland / hypophysis

 It’s connected to the hypothalamus by hypophyseal vascular duct.

 Is an endocrine gland that controls the activity of the menstrual cycle.
 It’s made of an anterior part + a posterior part (post hypophysis).
 The anterior part secretes 2 hormones that are called gonadotropic hormones: FSH +
LH.

FSH = follicular stimulating hormone

It stimulates the growth and maturation of the cavitary/tertiary follicle.

LH = luteinizing hormone

It stimulates the growth and maturation of the cavitary follicle + promotes the
transformation of the degenerated follicle into corpus luteum.

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 Notes

 LH: is the primary stimulus for the secretion of testosterone by the testes.
 FSH: it stimulates spermatogenesis.

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OVARIAN FEEDBACK CONTROL ON THE HYPOTHALAMO-PITUITARY AXIS

Feedback control: the regulation of ovarian hormones is controlled by the level of these
hormones themselves in such a way the ovarian hormones exert a feedback control on the
hypothalamo-pituitary axis

 positive feedback: it occurs when the stimulus and response are parallel to each
other.
 negative feedback: it occurs when the stimulus and response are opposite to each
other.

 1st feedback (-ve feedback): low oestrogen + progesterone leads to increase in LH &
FSH
 2nd feedback (-ve feedback): moderate oestrogen increase leads to decrease in FSH
 3rd feedback (+ve feedback): maximal oestrogen increase leads to peak (surge) of
FSH & LH causing ovulation

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 4th feedback (-ve feedback): increase of oestrogen & progesterone leads to decrease
in LH & FSH

Notes

 During pregnancy the ovarian hormones are secreted in a continuous

constant manner exerting a negative feedback on the hypothalamo-pituitary
axis, thus FSH & LH remain at their constant minimum values the end of
pregnancy
 During menopause the opposite events occur where the ovarian hormones
aren’t secreted anymore because all follicles where depleted, a negative
feedback control will be exerted then the levels of FSH & LH will increase
freely without control.

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CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS
They are the biological methods that can be used in order to prevent pregnancy.

They prevent pregnancy either temporarily or permanently by preventing ova from meeting
sperm cells.

There are 3 levels on which contraceptive methods can be applied:

1. OVULATION

Combination pill (Orally)

 It’s made up of synthetic oestradiol & progesterone, thus exerting a negative

feedback on the hypothalamo-pituitary axis which leads to a suppression in GnRH
secretion so inhibiting FSH & LH production.
 Prevents follicle development as well as ovulation.
 Leads to production of thick cervical mucus.
 Makes the endometrium inappropriate for implantation.

Mini pill (orally)

 It consists of a low dose of progesterone.

 It plays a role in producing thick cervical mucus during the whole cycle in order to
trap sperms at cervix.

Long lasting methods:

I. Long lasting steroids placed in a pump that is implanted under skin.

II. A progesterone injection that blocks pituitary function for several days.
III. Long lasting progesterone that is placed under the skin.

2. FERTILIZATION

by inhibiting the meeting of gametes

 For males: condoms or vasectomy

 For females: tubal ligation or diaphragm

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 3. IMPLANTATION

By using IUD (intra uterine devices)

 Are flexible coils placed and inserted towards the uterine cavity.
 They cause a state of chronic inflammation of the endometrium making it no longer
an acceptable site for implantation.

CONTRAGESTIVE METHODS
They are biological methods that are used to abort, stop, terminate, and interrupt
pregnancy/ gestation.

 Types of contragestive methods: 

o Mechanical method (curettage): Induced abortion during 1st trimester of
pregnancy is considered relatively safe.
o Chemical method (RU-486 pill):
 It’s an oral pill that stimulates uterine contractions causing abortion.
 It has an anti-progesterone effect (it has a competitive role with
progesterone).
 It binds to progesterone receptors.
 It causes sloughing off of the endometrium.
 It prevents implantation + gestation.

MEDICALLY ASSISTED PROCREATION

They are biological methods that are used to overcome or palliate infertility or sterility;
thus, they help couples to bear children.

1. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI)

 case problem: if cervical factors prevent fertilization, or when the husband has a low
sperm count.
 Method: inserting spermatozoa directly to the uterus by special tool

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 Types:
o Artificial insemination from husband (AIH): where the sperm cells can be
taken from the husband if he suffers from oligospermia (low sperm count)
o Artificial insemination from donor (AID): where sperm cells are taken from a
donor who is not the female’s husband in case of azoospermia (no sperm)

2. IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF) & EMBRYO TRANSFER (ET)

 Case problem: for women with blockage in the oviduct/fallopian tubes that prevents
the passage of gametes (sperm cells & ova) & hence interferes with fertilization.
 Oocytes are removed by suction from the follicles in ovary before ovulation through
the insertion of a cannula in a surgical removal.
 Ova are incubated in vitro under proper conditions with sperm cells.
 Embryos are allowed to reach 8 to 16 (morula stage) cell stage after 3-4 days.
 3-5 embryos are inserted after being placed in a fine tube through vagina.

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