SCIENCE – Grade 8 REVIEWER (Name:

____________________________________________________________________) (Section:
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FOOD = chemical substance used by any living organism to sustain growth & repair, life, and to maintain
health & vital processes.
 When you do not eat, you will lose Glycogen.
GLYCOGEN = storage form of glucose, converted into usable energy when we do not eat. It is used for
breathing and brain function.
Fats & Protein are also alternative sources of energy, used when glycogen is losing, and we start to be weaker.
BORBORYGMUS – gurgling sound of fluid & gas movements in the intestine.
 When stomach is empty, it secretes hormones that send signals to the brain.
 Both these reasons signal us if we are hungry. 6 Major Classes of Nutrients
HUNGER can be divided into 2: Carbohydrates Vitamins
Biological = when the stomach is literally empty Proteins Minerals
Psychological = when mind tells we are hungry even if we Fats Water
are not physically hungry.
CARBOHYDRATES CONCEPT MAP CARBOHYDRATES
Starchy carbs include: Bread, Rice, Potatoes, Pulses.
Sugars
Natural Free Sugars
Fructose (Fruit Sugar) Unsweetened Fruit Juice
Biscuit
Lactose (Milk Sugar) Honey
Sucrose (Table Sugar)
PROTEINS
- Composes mainly muscles, hair, skin, and body organs.
- Sources of usable energy when glycogen is lost
- Necessary for formation of antibodies
AVAILABLE SOURCES:
Fish Almonds Broccoli Nuts
Sprouts Milk Chicken Oats
Eggs Centils Seeds Greek Yogurt
FATS OR LIPIDS
- Provide more energy than carbohydrates and protein
- Act as insulators (subcutaneous fats) in the body that
help regulate body temperature
- Too much fat can result in severe health problems
(atherosclerosis)
 Sources include butter, olive oil, cooking oil, chicken skin, and other animal fats.
VITAMINS AND MINERALS
 They do not provide energy, but necessary for various processes in the body.
 They help absorb the nutrients for the body.
 Substance that cannot be manufactured by the human body, but acquired by consuming foods.
WATER
 Composes approximately 60% of the human body.
 Acquired from food such as vegetables and fruits, through which Water helps in digestion processes.
 Can be a miracle cure for headaches, fatigue, and joint sprints.
The digestve system breaks down food into tiny particles so blood can take nourishment to all parts of the body
4 MAJOR PHASES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Ingestion >> Digestion >> Absorption >> Elimination
INGESTION = process of taking in the food into your mouth
DIGESTION = process of breaking down food into small particles or molecules.
 Mechanical Digestion – food is smashed, chewed, ground, & mixed in the mouth up to churning in
stomach
 Chemical Digestion – When organs through enzyme secretion can break larger molecules into smaller
molecules.
ABSOPRTION = process where smaller molecules enter the cells after the digestion of food.
ELIMINATION = also called excretion, process of eliminating undigested and absorbed molecules, which
passes out the body as wastes through the anus.
10 Parts of the Digestive Tract MOUTH AND TEETH
1. Mouth & Teeth > Where the digestion starts. It does both mechanic and chemical digestion
2. Pharynx > MASTICATION – chewing or grinding of food into smaller pieces.
3. Esophagus > Three accessory organs: Tongue ; Teeth ; Salivary Glands
4. Stomach Incisors and Canines are sharp and used to bite and tear down food.
5. Small Intestine Molars are large surface and help grind the food
6. Large Intestine Tongue aids in moving the food
7. Anus Salivary glands, parotid, submandibular and sublingual secrets saliva
8. Liver that help soften food
9. Gall Bladder PHARYNX (throat)
10. Pancreas > Bolus goes down the pharynx through the act of swallowing
BOLUS = ball-like mass of food; SWALLOWING = act of bringing food from mouth to pharynx
EPIGLOTTIS = a windpipe that is closed by small tissue when swallowing.
ESOPHAGUS
 The conveyor of the bolus from the pharynx to the stomach, where it travels by peristalsis.
PERISTALSIS = the moving and trasnferring of the bolus from the pharynx to the stomach.
STOMACH
 The enlarged sac-like portion of the digestive tract, composed of strong layers of muscle.
 It is the principal organ for digestion
 It includes peristaltic movement and churning action of the stomach muscles.
GASTRIC JUICE = produced by the gastric glands.
Components of Gastric Juice:
MUCIN (mucus) – protection for stomach
PEPSINOGEN – inactive enzyme produced by mucus cells. Chief cells of the stomach, digests protein.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID - activator of pepsinogen and essential in destroying microorganisms
>> MAJOR PARTS OF THE STOMACH
1. Fundus or Fundic Region – uppermost position of th estomach. Acts as
Temporary storage area and can “balloon up”. Normally filled with air.
2. Cardia or Cardiac Region – smalles region being near the cardiac sphincter where
the esophagus connects the stomach.
3. Body – largest portion of the somach, being at the middle-most position between
The fundic and pyloric region.
4. Pylorus or Pyloric Region – terminal portion of the stomach. It constricts, forming
The pyloric canal. It acts as a valve preventing backflow of material. Ends at an area of thickened smooth
muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
SMALL INTESTINE
 Long, narrow tube connecting the stomach and large intestine. Has three parts: dondenum, jejunum,
and ileum.
DOEDENUM = very small section receiving the chyme. Responsible for continuous breaking down process.
 Chyme – thick liquid formed from the digestion of the food.
JEJENUM = the middle section where chyme pass.
ILEUM = final portion of the small intestine, responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
VILLI = hair-like figures on the lining of the small intestine responsible for absorbing nutrients.
LARGE INTESTINE
 Where undigested food is deposited. It is about 1.5 meters long and is the site for water reabsorption
It has 5 sections: Cecum, Ascending Colon, Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, and Sigmoid Colon.
Cecum – entrance to large intestine, which has vermiform appendix (appendix)
Hanging off it. The appendix contains toxins that can harm your body organs.
RECTUM AND ANUS
 Rectum = spot where waste materials travel.
 Anus = external opening at the end of the rectum.
 Strong muscular walls of the rectum expand to hold the feces until nerves
signal the brain that you have to push it out of your body.

ACCESSORY ORGANS involve: Liver Pancreas Gall Bladder

LIVER – contains up to 13-14% of body’s blood supply. Largest organ in the digestive tract.
 Production of Bile (Fat Emulsifier) GALL BLADDER
 Storage of Glycogen -- Storage for Bile
 Production of Cholesterol PANCREAS – it aids in digestion and regulates blood
 Regulation of Amino Acids in Blood sugar, releasing Insulin.
 Storage of Iron - It also releases enzymes needed for digesting
 Detoxification. Carbohydrates and Fats.
SKIN – the largest organ in the human body FILTRATE – materials filtered from the blood.
FILTRATE contains water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids, and some vitamins. However, not all filtrate
will be used to form urine. Urine is formed from waste and excess water via the nephrons.
 Filtrate may be reabsorbed by active transport and return to the blood.
THE URINE FORMATION HAPPENS WITH THREE MAJOR STEPS:
1. Filtration = process where nephron filters out impurities
2. Reabsorption = process where electrolytes, minerals, and other solutes are absorbed back
3. Excretion = process where urine is transported from the kidneys to the ureters and stored in the urinary
bladder until ready to excrete via urination.
KIDNEY – bean-shaped organs below the livers that are for filtering blood and removing excess water from the
body. The kidneys contain the nephrons, which have glomerulus for returning essential substances to the blood
and pulls out additional wastes, thereby filtering the blood.
OTHER EXCRETORY ORGANS IN THE HUMAN BODY:
RECTUM – storage of waste products of digestion before excreted by the body through the anus.
SKIN – performs its excretory function through the sweat glands, via the small pores through perspiration
LUNGS – get rid of the by-product of respiration—carbon dioxide—via exhalation
GENES – determine the traits that organisms possess. It makes an individual unique while sharing common features.
TRAITS – observable characteristics of an organism.
 DIVIDED INTO TWO: Species Traits ; Individual Traits
SPECIES TRAITS = characteristics that make a particular species different from another
INDIVIDUAL TRAITS = characteristics that make one organism or individual different from others.
HEREDITY – the passing on traits from parent to offspring
GENETICS - the Science that deals with the study of heredity.
PHENOTYPE = characteristics that appear in the offspring, also known as DOMINANT TRAIT
GENOTYPE = the unique sequence of DNA or the genetic makeup.
PUNNETT SQUARE – used to predice the possible genotypes and phenotypes of an offspring.
A a PHENOTYPE: GENOTYPE: Homozygous = same alleles (AA)
A 4 or 100% Dominant 2 Homozygous Dominant Heterozygous = different (Aa)
A 2 Heterozygous Dominant ------------------------------------
RECESSIVE TRAIT = characteristics that do not appear, being only expressed if offspring has 2 copies
ALLELE = forms of genes, being either dominant or recessive.
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL = “father of Genetics”; Austrian monk who was born in Czech Republic.
 Son of peasant farmers PRINCIPLE OF DOMINANCE AND
 Studied Theology & was a priest at St. Augustine RECESSIVENESS – law where one allele
 Went to University of Vienna, studying Botany. may conceal the recessive trait to the second
GREGOR FORMED 3 LAWS OF INHERITANCE: filial generation
1. Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION - the
2. Principle of Segregation alleles form into each other, so that the
3. Principle of Independent Assortment gametes carry only one allele for each gene.
PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT – alleles from diff. traits are distributed to gametes
independently of one another. Gregor Mendel chose pea plants for his experiment
P1 = First parental generation because it had a short life cycle, large number of
F1 (also P2) = First Filial generation – offspring of P1 offspring, and the easy handling and care.
F2 = Second Filial generation – grandchildren of P1 -- Gregor used 7 traits for the pea experiment.
POD COLOR POD SHAPE SEED COLOR SEED SHAPE FLOWER COLOR
FLOWER POSITION HEIGHT (page 25)
PHENOTYPIC RATIO =
classify by physical characteristics,
no homozygous and heterozygous.
GENOTYPIC RATIO =
classify by genetic sequence,
MONOHYBRID CROSS DIHYBRID CROSS with homozygous and heterozygous.
SUN = ultimate source of light and energy on Earth. PHOTOSYNTHESIS – the
 KEY NOTE: way of trapping energy from the sun
Only 1% of the sun’s energy is used by plants in Photosynthesis and transforming water and carbon
However, this amount sustains practically all life-forms on Earth. Dioxide into glucose and oxygen.
PRODUCERS = mostly plants, life forms able to make their own food. Most plants and algae, some
CONSUMERS = living things that dpeend on producers for food. protists and bacteria can do this.
Catalyst – subtance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction, but is neither a part of the reaction nor the end product.
Chlorophyll – green pigment that causes plant leaves to be green. They absorb and trap sunlight, exciting the
electrons to fuel the succeeding chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts – contains chlorophyll. They are membrane-bound organelles surrounding a fluid-filled space
called stroma. Another membrane ystem within stroma are disklike acs called thylakoids.
 NOTE: A stack of thylakoids is called granum, plural grana. Where chlorophyll and others are found.
Light-dependent reactions happen in the thylakoids, while light-independent happen in the stroma.
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION – depends on light, involving its conversion to chemical energy.
 In the thylakoid membrane, when Photosystem II (chlorophyll) absorbs light, electrons get energy (excited)
The electrons leave chlorophyll and move to an electron transport, but since the chlorophyll lost electrons,
the obtained water is split and its electrons go to the chlorophyll, making O2. This is called PHOTOLYSIS.
The electrons get transported, and while this happens, its energy pumps hydrogen ions (protons) into the thylakoid.
This form high concentration of H+. Then, ATP Synthase, a special enzyme, allows H+ to passively
diffuse from high to low concentration. This causes the Synthase to spin and produce ATP.
 Once the electrons reach the end of its first electron transport, they go to Photosystem I, where light excites them once again.
They travel down a second, shorter electron transport chain, where NADP+ accepts them. It also accepts Hydrogen
and becomes NADPH, an electron carrier. It carries electrons and hydrogen for the Calvin Cycle.
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION – also called The Calvin Cycle, does not need light.
 NOTE: To function the Calvin Cycle, we need two components: ATP and NADPH
 PHASE 1: Carbon Fixation – An enzyme called RuBisCO takes CO2 from the air and adds it to RuBP, a five
Carbon compound. This makes a six Carbon compound that splits in half to make two molecules of 3-
Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). We do this process for three molecules of CO2.
 PHASE 2: Reduction – ATP from the light reactions provide energy to make an intermediate compound called
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. This can then be reduced or gain electrons and hydrogen. * The electrons and hydrogen
come from NADPH, used to reduce the compound to make glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (PGAL or G3P).
 PHASE 3: Regeneration – One PGAL is taken and reduces the count to 5. The 5 PGAL is then transferred, and
utilized with energy from ATP to transform it back to RuBP. Refer to all of this in Page 45-46
THIS EQUATION SUMS
6CO2 + 6H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 IT UP: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
carbon dioxide water light glucose oxygen NOTE: Glucose = for the nourishment of plants; extra glucose is stored as starch
for later use of the plant.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION = biological process that breaks down food molecules to produce ATP.
Aerobic Respiration – takes place in the presence of oxygen; Anaerobic Respiration – takes place in the absence of O2.
Xylem = plant tissue that transports water all throughout the plant’s body.
 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration are related in a way that helps the environment and all life forms.
Photosynthesis takes place in the plants, where it produces glucose and oxygen for consumers such as us. These are
then transferred to the mitochondrion, where the food molecules of the glucose are broken down, and in return
produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP), to be used by the plants.
In short, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are dependent of one another, and help return the favor for life.
This equation sums up the process of Cellular Respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Energy

“Don’t ever let somebody tell you that you can’t

do something. If you want something, go get it.
Period.”

EXTRA SPACE FOR EXTRA NOTES