ZHEKIEYA L.

RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

o Unlike exocrine glands, endorine

glands do not have ducts that
• The human body comprises
carry their secretions away.
approximately 40 trillion cells.
• The endocrine system makes efficient,
widespread, and rapid systemic
communication possible, coordinating
the behavior of these many cells.
• The term "endocrine" itself helps define
its function: endo means “in” and crine
means" secretion”, referring to how
hormones are secreted into the
bloodstream.

HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE SIGNALING

• The endocrine system uses chemical
signals called hormones as its means of
communication. • Key Endocrine Glands
• Hormones are signaling molecules o The endocrine system includes the
released into the bloodstream. pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, a
• This process is known as endocrine drenal, and pineal glands.
signaling, where chemicals diffuse into o The pancreas is an organ that
the blood or lymph and can travel great functions equally in endocrine and
distances throughout the body. exocrine secretions.
• Hormones can reach most cells of the • Organs with Endocrine Roles
body and have widespread effects. o Other organs contain cells with
endocrine function, even though
MAJOR REGULATORY FUNCTIONS that is not their primary purpose:
• The endocrine system maintains Hypothalamus, thymus, heart,
homeostasis in the body by regulating a kidneys, stomach, small intestine,
wide variety of physiological processes: liver, adipose tissue, ovaries, and
o Regulating the body’s use of testes.
calories and nutrients
o Secretion of wastes
o Maintenance of blood pressure
and osmolarity
o Growth, fertility, sex drive, lactation,
and sleep
o Impacting mood and emotion

MAJOR ENDOCRINE STRUCTURES

AND TARGET CELLS
• Endocrine Glands vs. Exocrine Glands
o Endocrine glands are the major
players in the system. Their primary
function is to secrete hormones
directly into the surrounding fluid
(extracellular fluid/blood).
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

▪ ES: Widespread (hormones travel

in the blood, reaching most
cells)
o Speed of Response
▪ NS: Rapid (within milliseconds)
▪ ES: Generally slower (some rapid,
others take up to 48 hours)
o Duration of Response
▪ NS: Quick and brief actions
▪ ES: Usually slower acting,
maintaining homeostasis and
working toward longer-term
goals (e.g., growth,
reproduction)

CHEMICL SIGNALING TYPES

• The Target Principle Types of Chemical Signaling in the Body
o A hormone, once in the • Paracrine Signaling
bloodstream, has the opportunity to o Chemical released by one cell
reach just about any of the 40 trillion induces a response in neighboring
cells in the body. cells.
o However, a given hormone only ▪ Neurotransmitters: Chemicals
impacts the activity of its target released by neurons to
cells. communicate with a local cell or
o Target cells are the only cells that cells; a specific example of
possess receptors for that particular paracrine signaling.
hormone. • Autocrine Signaling
o This concept is analogous to a key o Local communication affecting the
(hormone) that only fits one lock cell that releases the signal.
(target cell’s receptor). • Endocrine Signaling
o Releasing chemical signals
ENDOCRINE VS. NERVOUS SYSTEM (hormones) into the bloodstream
COMPARISON that induce responses in specific
• Communication is a process of target cells throughout the body.
transmitting signals to control and
coordinate actions. The nervous and HORMONE CLASSIFICATION
endocrine systems are the two major
organ systems participating in relatively
“long-distance” communication.
o Signal Type
▪ NS: Electrical signals (down
axons) and Chemical signals
(neurotransmitters)
▪ ES: Chemical signals (hormones)
o Pathways/Reach
▪ NS: Local (neurotransmitters act
locally within the synaptic cleft)
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

HORMONE PRODUCTION, STORAGE, ▪ The complex moves to the cell

AND TRANSPORT nucleus and binds to a segment
A. Steroid Hormone Dynamics of DNA.
o Production: The human genome ▪ This triggers transcription of a
contains instructions to make target gene, leading to mRNA
enzymes that modify cholesterol generation and subsequent
into steroid hormones. Made in the protein synthesis.
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER). • Membrane-bound Hormone Receptors
o Storage & Release: Steroid o Location: Expressed on the cell
hormones cannot be stored in surface (extracellular-facing side).
vesicles because they are lipophilic o Hormones: Hydrophilic, water-
and readily diffuse out. They must soluble hormones (most amino
be made on demand and diffuse acid–derived hormones, excluding
out of the cell immediately upon thyroid hormones) bind here, as
synthesis. they cannot diffuse through the
o Transport: Because blood is water- lipid bilayer.
based, hydrophobic steroid o Mechanism (Second Messenger
hormones must travel bound to a System): The hormone (the first
carrier protein. messenger) binds to the receptor,
o Duration: They tend to persist longer initiating a cascade of internal
in the bloodstream (30–90 minutes). signaling molecules (like a relay
B. Peptide/Protein Hormone Dynamics race).
o Production: Synthesized like other
proteins (DNA → mRNA → amino
acids at ribosomes/rough ER).
o Storage & Release: Modified by the
Golgi apparatus and packaged
into vesicles. Released from the cell
via exocytosis when triggered.
o Transport: Travel freely in the blood.
o Duration: Typically persist for only a
few minutes.

MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION

(RECEPTORS AND SIGNALING)
• Intracellular Hormone Receptors
o Location: Found inside the target
cell (in the cytosol or nucleus).
o Hormones: Lipophilic hormones
(Steroid hormones and Thyroid
hormones, T3/T4) readily diffuse
through the lipid bilayer to reach
these internal receptors.
o Mechanism (Genomic Effect):
▪ The hormone binds to the
receptor, forming a hormone-
receptor complex.
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

• The cAMP Second Messenger Pathway B. Negative Feedback Loops (The Self-
(Common Example) Regulating System)
o Hormone binds to receptor o Characteristic: The inhibition of
o An associated G protein is further secretion of a hormone in
activated response to adequate levels of
o The G protein activates the that hormone. Negative feedback
enzyme adenylyl cyclase loops turn themselves off through
o Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to their own actions.
cyclic adenosine monophosphate o Example (Calcitonin):
(cAMP) (the second messenger) ▪ A rise in blood calcium (Ca2+)
o cAMP activates protein kinase levels (stimulus) triggers the
o Activated protein kinases initiate a thyroid gland to secrete
phosphorylation cascade, altering calcitonin.
various cellular proteins, triggering ▪ Calcitonin encourages
a wide variety of effects osteoblasts to remove Ca2+
• Insight: This cascade amplifies the from the blood and deposit it
efficacy of the hormone, allowing a into bone matrix.
significant and rapid cellular response ▪ As blood Ca2+ levels fall back
even from low hormone concentrations. to the homeostatic range, the
thyroid gland stops releasing
calcitonin (inhibition/resolution).
C. Positive Feedback Loops (The
Perpetuating System)
o Characteristic: The cycle will not
stop on its own, but the products of
the loop perpetuate the cycle until
an external interruption occurs.
o Example (Oxytocin and Lactation):
▪ An infant suckling at the breast
provides sensory stimulation.
▪ This triggers the release of
oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary.
▪ Oxytocin causes the release of
breast milk.
▪ The presence of milk
encourages the infant to
continue suckling, which
perpetuates the cycle by
REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION:
continuing nipple stimulation
FEEDBACK LOOPS
and oxytocin release.
A. Necessity of Control
▪ The cycle only resolves when
o Hormones have profound impacts
the infant is full and stops
on homeostasis and must be tightly
sucking (external event).
controlled.
o Control is maintained by regulating
hormone production and
degradation.
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

TRIGGERS OF HORMONE RELEASE THE HYPOTHALAMUS-PITUITARY COMPLEX

There are three different types of stimuli that A. The "Command Center"
control the release of hormones. • This complex is central to the
• Non-Hormone Chemical Signals endocrine system, regulating the
(Humoral Stimuli): synthesis and secretion of hormones
o Endocrine glands directly monitor from many other glands.
blood levels of non-hormone • The hypothalamus integrates the
chemicals, such as ions or nutrients. nervous system and the endocrine
▪ Example: Rising blood Ca2+ system.
levels trigger calcitonin release B. Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
from the thyroid gland. • The posterior pituitary is a neural
• Hormonal Signals (Tropic Hormones): extension of the hypothalamus,
o One endocrine gland secretes a connected by the infundibulum
hormone (tropic hormone) that acts (pituitary stalk).
on another endocrine gland to • It does not produce hormones, but
trigger the release of a second stores and secretes hormones
hormone. produced by neurosecretory cells in
o This often involves the hypothalamus. the hypothalamus.
▪ Example: Thyrotropin-releasing • Hormones Stored/Secreted:
hormone (TRH) from the ▪ Oxytocin (OT): Produced in the
hypothalamus triggers the paraventricular nucleus. Functions
anterior pituitary to release in uterine contraction and milk
Thyroid-stimulating hormone ejection.
(TSH). ▪ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) /
• Neural Stimulation: Vasopressin: Produced in the
o Hormones are released in response supraoptic nucleus. Target cells in
to stimulation from the nervous the kidneys. Released in response
system. to high blood osmolarity to
▪ Example: Stimulation by the conserve water (decrease urine
sympathetic nervous system output).
causes the adrenal medulla to
secrete epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

C. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

• The anterior pituitary is made of (Corticotropin):
distinct glandular tissue. o Type: Peptide
• It is connected to the hypothalamus o Effect: Stimulates the adrenal
by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal cortex to secrete corticosteroid
portal system (a specialized blood hormones (like cortisol).
vessel network). • Prolactin (PRL):
• Hypothalamic regulatory hormones o Type: Peptide
travel directly through this portal o Effect: Promotes milk production in
system to the anterior pituitary, lactating individuals and
preventing dilution and speeding contributes to mammary gland
communication. development.
• The anterior pituitary produces six o Control: Primarily inhibited by
major hormones in response to dopamine (Prolactin-Inhibiting
hypothalamic releasing hormones. Hormone, PIH).
• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):
o Type: Protein
o Effect: Stimulates the production
and maturation of gametes
(oocytes and sperm).
o Control: Stimulated by GnRH
(Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone).
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
o Type: Protein
o Effect: Triggers ovulation (release of
oocytes) and stimulates production
MAJOR ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES of sex steroids (testosterone,
The release of these six protein/peptide estrogens, progesterone).
hormones is controlled by hypothalamic o Control: Stimulated by GnRH.
tropic hormones:
• Growth Hormone (GH):
o Type: Protein
o Effects: Primary function is anabolic
(promotes protein synthesis and
tissue building). Stimulates mitosis in
cartilage and hypertrophy of skeletal
muscle cells. Stimulates lipolysis and
gluconeogenesis to provide energy.
o Control: Stimulated by GHRH and
inhibited by GHIH (somatostatin)
from the hypothalamus.
• Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
(Thyrotropin):
o Type: Protein
o Effect: Stimulates the thyroid gland
to release thyroid hormones (T3
and T4).
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

THE THYROID GLAND

AND METABOLIC REGULATION
• Anatomy and Hormone Synthesis
o The thyroid gland is located over
the anterior surface of the trachea.
o Tissue is composed of thyroid
follicles surrounding colloid, the
precursor to thyroid hormone.
o Follicular cells produce two forms
of thyroid hormone (TH): T3
(triiodothyronine) and T4
(thyroxine).
o Iodine is a key ingredient necessary
for TH production.
o Regulation: T3 and T4 are regulated
by a classic negative feedback
system involving the hypothalamus
(TRH) and anterior pituitary (TSH).
• Functions of Thyroid Hormone (T3 and
T4)
o THs are referred to as metabolic
hormones because they influence
the body’s basal metabolic rate.
o Mechanism: They directly increase
the activity of the Na+/K+ pump
within every cell. Since the pump is
ATP-dependent, increased activity
requires increased cellular
respiration and ATP production.
o Thermogenesis: Heat is a
byproduct of cellular respiration, so
increased ATP demand increases
body temperature (a role in
maintaining warmth).
o Development: Adequate TH is
essential for fetal and childhood
development and growth.
o Potentiation: THs increase the
body's sensitivity to epinephrine
and norepinephrine, allowing these
stress hormones to further
accelerate heart rate and increase
blood pressure.
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS: CALCITONIN AND PTH

• Blood calcium levels are tightly
regulated due to calcium’s critical role
in processes like muscle contraction,
nerve impulse transmission, and blood
clotting.
A. Calcitonin (From Thyroid Parafollicular
Cells)
o Stimulus: Released in response to a
rise in blood calcium levels.
o Action (Decreases Blood Calcium):
▪ Inhibits osteoclasts (cells that
degrade bone matrix and
release calcium).
▪ Increases activity of osteoblasts
(cells that deposit calcium into
bone matrix).
B. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) (From
Parathyroid Chief Cells
o The parathyroid glands are tiny,
round structures embedded in the
posterior surface of the thyroid
gland. Chief cells produce and
secrete PTH.
o Stimulus: Secreted in response to
low blood calcium levels.
o Action (Increases Blood Calcium):
▪ Stimulates osteoclasts (to
release calcium from bone).
▪ Inhibits osteoblasts (preventing THE ADRENAL GLANDS AND STRESS RESPONSE
calcium deposition into bone). The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and
▪ Initiates production of calcitriol function as two physiologically separate
(active vitamin D) in the endocrine glands: the cortex and the
kidneys, which increases medulla.
intestinal absorption of dietary A. Adrenal Medulla (Inner)
calcium. o An extension of the central nervous
C. Regulatory Difference (Insight) system; functions in the acute, short-
o PTH and Calcitonin are term sympathetic stress response.
antagonistic hormones. o Hormones: Chromaffin cells secrete
o The negative feedback regulation amine hormones: Epinephrine
of PTH is considered a simple (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine
endocrine pathway, regulated (noradrenaline).
directly by the level of calcium ions o Action: Increases heart rate, releases
in the blood. stored nutrients, and shifts blood flow
o The negative feedback regulation to favor skeletal muscles.
of T3/T4 is more complex, involving
the hypothalamic and anterior
pituitary tropic hormones.
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

B. Adrenal Cortex (Outer) THE PANCREAS AND BLOOD

o Glandular tissue that secretes steroid GLUCOSE REGULATION
hormones collectively called A. Structure and Cell Types
corticoids. Involved in the long-term o The endocrine function is
stress response. completed by clusters of cells
o Zona Glomerulosa: Produces called pancreatic islets.
Mineralocorticoids (e.g., o Alpha cells: Produce Glucagon
Aldosterone). Regulates Na+ and K+ (secreted when blood glucose is
levels, increasing Na+ retention and low).
blood pressure/volume. o Beta cells: Produce Insulin (secreted
o Zona Fasciculata: Produces when blood glucose is high).
Glucocorticoids (e.g., Cortisol). o Delta cells: Secrete Somatostatin
o Released in response to long-term (inhibits GH, glucagon, and insulin
stress via the CRH-ACTH cascade. release).
o Inhibits tissue building while B. Insulin Action (Lowers Blood Glucose)
stimulating the breakdown of stored o Primary function: To facilitate the
nutrients (glycogen, fats, proteins) to uptake of glucose into body cells
fuel survival activities. (e.g., skeletal muscle and adipose
o Also acts as an anti-inflammatory cells).
agent by downregulating the o Mechanism: Insulin binds its
immune system. receptor, triggering a second
o Zona Reticularis: Produces small messenger system that causes
amounts of steroid Androgens. glucose transporters (stored in
vesicles) to be expressed on the cell
surface, allowing glucose entry.
o Other Effects: Stimulates the liver to
convert excess glucose into
glycogen for storage and promotes
triglyceride synthesis in adipose
tissue.
C. Glucagon Action (Raises Blood
Glucose)
o Secreted by alpha cells in response
to declining blood glucose levels
(e.g., during fasting or exercise).
o Key Effects:
▪ Glycogenolysis: Stimulates the
liver to convert stored glycogen
back into glucose.
▪ Gluconeogenesis: Stimulates the
liver to convert non-
carbohydrate materials (amino
acids, glycerol) into glucose.
▪ Lipolysis: Breakdown of stored
triglycerides into free fatty acids
and glycerol.
ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN-1-Y1-3

• Liver: Releases Insulin-like Growth

Factors (IGFs) in response to GH. Also
produces Angiotensinogen (precursor
to angiotensin, which raises blood
pressure) and Thrombopoietin
(stimulates platelet production).

OTHER DIFFUSE ENDOCRINE TISSUES

Many organs have secondary endocrine
roles.
• Heart: Produces Atrial Natriuretic
Peptide (ANP) in response to stretch
from high blood volume or pressure.
ANP signals the kidneys to allow more
sodium (and therefore water by
osmosis) into the urine, decreasing
blood volume.
• Kidneys: Produce Erythropoietin (EPO)
in response to low oxygen levels. EPO
stimulates red blood cell production in
the bone marrow. Also participates in
blood pressure regulation (RAAS) and
production of Calcitriol.
• Adipose Tissue: Produces Adipokines,
including:
▪ Leptin: Circulates proportional to
body fat levels; produces a feeling
of satiety (reducing appetite) after
a meal.
▪ Adiponectin: Reduces cellular
insulin resistance and protects
blood vessels.
• Thymus: Produces Thymosins, which
contribute to the development and
differentiation of T lymphocytes
(immune cells).
• Skin: Produces inactive Vitamin D3
upon exposure to UV radiation. This is
later converted into the active form
(Calcitriol) in the liver and kidneys.