ZHEKIEYA L.

RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM o Steroid Hormones: Derived from

Role of Reproduction cholesterol. Includes Androgens (like
• In contrast to all other organ systems of testosterone),
the human body, the reproductive o Estrogens, and Progesterone.
systems do not contribute to the
homeostasis of the individual body. KEY STEROID HORMONES
• Their primary functions are the • Androgens (e.g., Testosterone):
production of gametes (germ cells such Influence gamete production, sex drive
as eggs and sperm), pleasure, and (libido), and tissue function throughout
sometimes the production of a new the body. Made in the gonads and
human. adrenal cortex. Testosterone is the prime
• Activities like gamete production, driver of libido in all humans.
pregnancy, birth, and lactation are • Estrogens: Influence gamete
incredibly energy-intensive. production, enhance sex drive, and
• While not homeostatic for the body, influence tissue function.
these systems undoubtedly contribute to Made in the gonads, adipose tissue,
the human species and often to the and adrenal cortex.
psychological well-being of an • Progesterone: Made by the corpus
individual. luteum, placenta, adrenal cortex, and
testes. Its primary target is the lining of
DEFINING CORE TERMINOLOGY the uterus.
• Sex: Refers to the anatomy, • Inhibin: A hormone made in the gonads
chromosomes, or hormones a person is that acts as part of the feedback system
born with. We use the terms biological to regulate the anterior pituitary.
female and biological male to refer to • Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG):
individuals with prototypical anatomy A hormone made by an embryo. It
and hormone levels. regulates aspects of development and
• Gender (Gender Identity): Reflects who feeds back to the ovaries to encourage
a person knows themselves to be; it may continued secretion of estrogen and
or may not match biological sex and progesterone.
may not fit into two categories.
• Gender Expression: The sum of
characteristics an individual shows the
world, such as clothes or demeanor.
• Sexual Orientation: Describes who an
individual is sexually attracted to, and is
unrelated to the terms above.

ESSENTIAL HORMONES
• All healthy humans have all
reproductive hormones, just in different
amounts.
o Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
(GnRH): Secreted by the
hypothalamus; regulates the secretion
of FSH and LH.
o Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): EARLY DEVELOPMENT AND CHROMOSOMES
Released by the anterior pituitary; • Pregnancy begins with the first day of the
regulates the development of last menstrual cycle, though fertilization
gametes. can occur two to three weeks after that
o Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Released by date.
the anterior pituitary. Promotes egg • Fertilization combines genetic
release (ovulation) in ovaries and information, resulting in a diploid embryo
promotes testosterone synthesis in (XX or XY).
testes.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

• The first seven weeks of embryogenesis THE Y CHROMOSOME SIGNAL

are called the indifferent stage. During • Week 7 is the transition to the
this time, the sexual organs are differentiated stage.
developing internally, and there is no • The SRY region (sex-determining region
difference among any embryos of the Y chromosome) contains genes
regardless of which chromosomes they for the production of testosterone and
carry. Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH).
• In an XY embryo, production of
PRIMODIAL STRUCTURES testosterone and AMH begins in week 7.
• Primordial germ cells (future sperm or
eggs) begin on the yolk sac and MALE INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT (XY)
migrate onto the genital ridge at the • Testosterone signaling is crucial and
posterior of the body around weeks 4-5. follows a positive feedback pattern
Once arrived, they drive gonadal (hCG and testosterone drive interstitial
development. cells, which secrete more testosterone).
• Development comes to a • Testosterone acts as a "go" signal for the
developmental fork in the road, where differentiation of the mesonephric ducts
the same embryonic structures can into structures like the ductus deferens
proceed along different paths based on and seminal vesicles.
hormone signals present at precise • AMH provides a "stop" signal for the
moments. differentiation of the paramesonephric
• By the end of week 7, two sets of ducts ducts.
are present: the mesonephric ducts • Testosterone and AMH also provide
(Wolffian ducts) and the "stop" signals for germ cell mitosis,
paramesonephric ducts (Mullerian meaning germ cell mitosis will not begin
ducts). until puberty.

FEMALE INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT (XX)

• In the absence of SRY and testosterone,
the paramesonephric ducts thrive and
develop into structures like the uterine
tubes and uterus.
• The mesonephric ducts do not continue
developing, shrinking and disappearing
over time.
• Germ cells proliferate and begin meiosis,
leading individuals to be born with all
the oocytes they will ever have in their
lifetimes.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

HOMOLOGUES AND BIPOTENTIALITY

• The genital folds and the small knob of
tissue above them, the genital tubercle,
are bipotential; they can become
external genitalia associated with either
sex.
• The adult structures (e.g., labia and
scrotum, or clitoris and penis are
considered homologues, meaning they
consist of the same tissues and develop
from the same embryonic structures.

DIFFERENTIATION OF EXTERNAL GENITALIA

• Estrogen influence causes the urogenital
sinus to invaginate inward, forming the
lower two-thirds of the vagina, which
then fuses with the upper third. The
ovaries also require estrogen expression
for development. HORMONAL CASCADE OF PUBERTY
o Genital Folds: Can enlarge and • The decreased sensitivity leads to
remain separate to become the increasing levels of LH and FSH, causing
labia. Or they may meet and fuse at the enlargement and maturation of the
the midline, becoming the scrotum. gonads.
o Genital Tubercle: Comprised of • Hypothalamus increases GRH
spongy erectile tissue. Under one set production → Anterior Pituitary releases
of signals, it protrudes to become the FSH and LH → Gonads secrete higher
penis; under a different set of signals, levels of estrogen and testosterone.
the majority of the structure is internal • FSH starts spermatogenesis and
and called the clitoris. folliculogenesis.

SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS

• These are physical changes outside the
reproductive organs that accompany
puberty.
• Estrogen promotes mitosis in breast
tissue, causing breast development, and
impacts ligaments, causing hips to
widen.
• Testosterone drives the growth of pubic,
facial, and body hair, and impacts
muscle development.
• Both sex hormones influence cartilage
growth, affecting the growth of long
bones and the larynx.
• The onset of puberty is linked to nutrition
PUBERTY ONSET AND HORNONE SENSITIVITY and accumulation of adipose tissue,
• Puberty is the stage when individuals suggesting sexual maturity is linked to
become sexually mature. calorie availability, as reproduction is
• The first changes begin in late childhood nutrient-intensive.
(ages 8-10), when LH production
becomes detectable BREAST STRUCTURE
primarily during sleep. • Mammary glands (breasts) are modified
• As puberty approaches, the sweat glands and are present in all
hypothalamus/pituitary Decrease individuals.
sensitivity to negative feedback. • Breast size is primarily determined by the
Simultaneously, the gonads increase amount of adipose tissue stored in the
sensitivity to FSH and LH. mammary region.
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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

• Estrogens promote mitosis in mammary sensation. It is mostly internal,

tissue, which is why biological females composed of horseshoe-shaped
tend to have larger breasts. erectile tissue (homologous to the
• Milk-secreting cells cluster in structures corpus cavernosum of the penis).
called alveoli within glandular lobes. o Greater Vestibular Glands (Bartholin's
• Milk exits through the nipple via glands): Secrete mucus to lubricate
lactiferous ducts leading to lactiferous the vagina and labia.
sinuses.

THE VAGINA
HORMONAL CONTROL OF LACTATION • The vagina is a muscular canal, serving
• Lactation (milk production) is governed as the entrance and exit of the
by positive feedback loops. reproductive tract.
• Prolactin (anterior pituitary hormone) • Its walls contain smooth muscle and
drives milk generation. In mothers who transverse folds called rugae, allowing
breastfeed, prolactin secretion increases expansion for intercourse and childbirth.
after each feeding to drive production • The vagina is home to microorganisms,
for the next one. predominantly Lactobacillus, which
• Oxytocin (posterior pituitary hormone) secrete lactic acid.
causes milk ejection (let-down). Suckling • This bacterial flora maintains an acidic
stimulates oxytocin secretion, which pH (below 4.5), which protects against
causes ejection, and the presence of pathogenic bacteria and yeast.
milk encourages continued suckling.

PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF LACTATION

• Lactation requires other hormones
(cortisol, growth hormone, insulin) to
mobilize necessary nutrients from the
mother's diet or nutrient stores.
• Lactation suppresses the secretion of
estrogen, which helps the uterus shrink
back to its pre-pregnancy size and may
decrease the chance of breast cancer
later in life.

EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA)

• The vulva encompasses the external
genital structures.
o Mons Pubis: Pad of fat over the
pubic bone, covered in pubic hair
after puberty.
o Labia Majora: Larger, outer, hair-
covered skin folds.
o Labia Minora: Hairless inner folds,
serving to protect the urethra and
vagina.
o Clitoris (Glans Clitoris): Abundant
nerves make it important in sexual
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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

OVARIES AND SUPPORTING LIGAMENTS • The cervix produces mucus, which

• Ovaries: Typically two, produce oocytes. changes consistency throughout the
They contain an outer cortex (with cycle to allow easier passage at
follicles and eggs) and an inner medulla particular times.
(with blood vessels, lymph, and nerves).
• Ligaments: Suspended by the broad
ligament (a sheet of connective tissue)
and attached to the uterus by the
ovarian ligament. The round ligament
tethers the uterus anteriorly.

UTERINE WALL LAYERS

• The uterus has three layers:
o Perimetrium: Outermost serous
membrane.
o Myometrium: Thick middle layer of
smooth muscle. Fibers run in multiple
UTERINE TUBES (OVIDUCTS) directions, allowing powerful
• Uterine tubes are the conduit for the egg contractions for birth or
from the ovary to the uterus. Fertilization menstruation.
often occurs in the ampulla. o Endometrium: Innermost layer lining
• The open end flares out into the the lumen. It proliferates in response
infundibulum, with fingerlike fimbriae. to estrogen and contains unique
• The inner mucosa contains ciliated cells spiral arteries.
that beat toward the uterus, creating a
current.
o Oocyte Movement: Since oocytes
lack flagella, they are moved by
muscular contractions of the uterine
tube (induced by high estrogen) and
the coordinated beating of cilia.

THE UTERUS
• The uterus houses the developing
embryo/fetus.
• The three regions are the fundus
(superior), the body (middle), and the
cervix (inferior, projecting into the
vagina).

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

OOGENESIS: LIFETIME SUPPLY

• Oogenesis (egg production) begins in
the fetal period when oogonia (stem
cells) begin meiosis, stopping as primary
oocytes.
• The number of primary oocytes present
at birth is the total number available for
the individual's entire lifetime. This
number declines from approximately 2
million in an infant to zero by the end of
menopause.
• Meiosis I is completed just prior to
ovulation, yielding a large secondary
oocyte and a smaller, disintegrating first
polar body.
• Meiosis Il is completed only if a sperm
fertilizes the secondary oocyte,
producing a diploid zygote.

FOLLICULAR PHASE (ESTROGEN RISES)

FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT • FSH stimulates follicles to grow. As they
• Folliculogenesis is the growth of the mature, they produce estradiol
ovarian follicle surrounding the egg. (estrogen) in response to LH.
• Primordial follicles (single layer of flat • Moderate estrogen causes negative
granulosa cells) develop into primary feedback, reducing FSH/LH, leading to
follicles. atresia in all but one dominant follicle.
• As follicles grow, they become
secondary follicles by adding layers of
granulosa cells and outer thecal cells.
Thecal and granulosa cells work
together to produce estrogens.
• The tertiary follicles (antral follicles) are
characterized by the presence of a
large fluid pool called the antrum.
• Atresia (death of ovarian follicles)
occurs at any stage, acting as a quality
control mechanism, ensuring only the
most viable egg is ovulated.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

OVULATION UTERINE CYCLE PHASES

• It is this large burst of LH (called the LH • The uterine cycle is driven by the
surge) that leads to ovulation of the fluctuating ovarian hormones:
dominant follicle. • Menses Phase (Day 1): The uterine lining
• The LH surge also triggers the release of is shed. This is triggered by the decline in
enzymes that break down structural progesterone as the corpus luteum dies.
proteins in the ovary wall on the surface • Proliferative Phase: Occurs during the
of the bulging dominant follicle. follicular phase. Estrogen promotes
• This degradation of the wall, combined mitosis, causing the endometrium to
with pressure from the large, fluid-filled rapidly thicken.
antrum, results in the expulsion of the • Secretory Phase: Occurs during the
oocyte surrounded by granulosa cells luteal phase. Progesterone stimulates
into the peritoneal cavity. This release is endometrial glands to secrete nutrient-
ovulation. rich mucus for potential embryo
nourishment. Progesterone also inhibits
myometrial contractions.
• If fertilization does not occur, spiral
arteries constrict due to falling
progesterone, causing tissue death and
expulsion of the dead layer.

PENIS EXTERNAL GENITALIA

• Includes the penis and the scrotum.
• Penis: Homologue of the clitoris,
composed of erectile tissue. The shaft
contains three chambers of erectile
THE LUTEAL PHASE tissue: two larger corpora cavernosa
(PROGECTERONE DOMINATES) and the smaller corpus spongiosum
• The LH surge triggers luteinization, (surrounding the urethra).
transforming the leftover follicle into the • Scrotum: Holds the testes (gonads)
endocrine structure called the corpus outside the body to maintain an
luteum ("yellowish body"). • optimal
• The corpus luteum actively secretes temperature (approximately 35 degrees
large amounts of progesterone and Celcius) for sperm production.
estrogen. • Temperature Regulation: The dartos
• Progesterone maintains low GRH, LH, muscle and cremaster muscles contract
and FSH via negative feedback, or relax to elevate or lower the testes
preventing new follicle development. closer to or farther from the body core.
• The corpus luteum persists for 10-12 days
unless an hCG signal from an implanted
embryo causes it to endure for 10-12
weeks. If no hCG is received, it
degrades into the corpus albicans.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

TESTES (GONADS) SPERM PATHWAY AND MATURATION

• Testes produce sperm • Sperm are released from the
(gametes) and androgens seminiferous tubules into the rete testes.
(testosterone). • They move to the epididymis (a coiled
• They are covered by the dense tube hugging the posterior testis), which
connective tissue layer, the tunica serves as a
albuginea, which invaginates to form "sperm nursery" where they mature,
septa that divide the testis into lobules. develop flagella movement, and are
• Each lobule contains long, coiled stored.
seminiferous tubules, the site of sperm • During ejaculation, sperm exit the
production. epididymis and enter the ductus
deferens (vas deferens), which travels
up into the pelvic cavity via the
spermatic cord (bundle of vessels,
nerves, and ductus deferens).
• The ductus deferens eventually forms a
junction with the urethra within the
prostate gland.

ACCESSORY GLANDS AND SEMEN

• Semen is the ejaculated fluid, only 5
percent of which is sperm. The bulk is
produced by accessory glands.
• Seminal Vesicles (60% volume):
Contribute fluid containing fructose
(energy for sperm mitochondria) and is
basic (to neutralize the acidic vagina).
• Prostate Gland (Single): Excretes an
alkaline, milky fluid critical to coagulate
the semen following ejaculation.
• Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's Glands):
Release pre-ejaculate (thick, salty fluid)
that lubricates the urethra/vagina and
cleans urine residues.

SPERM PRODUCTION
• Spermatogenesis (generating haploid
sperm cells) begins at puberty and
continues relatively constantly
throughout the lifespan, taking approx.
64 days for a single cell.
• Diploid spermatogonia divide by mitosis.
The resulting primary spermatocyte
undergoes
Meiosis I and II, yielding four haploid
spermatids.
• Spermiogenesis: Maturation of
spermatids into functional sperm,
involving cytoplasm reduction and
flagellum elongation.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

• The sperm head is covered by the • High testosterone levels feedback to the
acrosome, filled with lysosomal enzymes hypothalamus and anterior pituitary,
for digesting the egg's zona pellucida. inhibiting GnRH, LH, and FSH secretion.
• FSH stimulates nurse cells to release
inhibin, which specifically inhibits further
FSH release.

SEX (COITUS)
• Physiological Changes Grouped into
Three Stages
• Sexual responses, or coitus, involve
physiological changes broadly grouped
into excitement/plateau, orgasm, and
resolution.
o Excitement and Plateau
▪ Characterized by systemic
myotonia (increased muscle
tension), heart rate, breathing
rate, and blood pressure.
▪ Vasocongestion occurs:
Parasympathetic signals cause
SUPPORTING CELLS IN THE TESTES release of nitric oxide (a potent
• Nurse Cells (Sertoli cells): Line the vasodilator). Arteries dilate, while
seminiferous tubule wall. They form tight veins constrict, flooding the
junctions creating the blood-testis corpora tissues (clitoris/labia
barrier, keeping bloodborne substances minora; penis/scrotum) with
and immune cells away from blood.
developing sperm. ▪ The urethra is closed off to
• Interstitial Cells (Leydig cells): Located prevent urination.
between the seminiferous tubules, o Orgasm
produce testosterone. ▪ A brief, intense response (1-15
seconds), dominated by the
sympathetic nervous system.
▪ Characterized by a surge in the
posterior pituitary hormone
oxytocin and rhythmic pelvic
muscle contractions.
▪ Pelvic muscle contraction may
help propel sperm or expel
semen (ejaculation).
o Resolution
▪ The parasympathetic nervous
system becomes dominant,
returning heart rate, breathing,
and blood pressure to resting
levels.
▪ Oxytocin surges throughout this
stage, promoting social bonding
and relaxation.
▪ Biological males experience an
extended refractory period
HORMONAL REGULATION preventing further erection.
• Testosterone production is controlled by
a negative feedback loop:
• LH triggers testosterone release from
interstitial cells.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

VIRAL STIS (LIFELONG INFECTIONS) • Acrosomal Reaction: Upon reaching the

• HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): egg (coated in the zona pellucida and
Causes an initial acute illness (viremia), granulosa cells), the sperm membrane
followed by months/years of ruptures, releasing lysosomal enzymes
asymptomatic infection. It infects and from the acrosome to chip away at the
slowly kills immune cells. Lifelong egg's coating.
infection. • Eventually, one sperm merges its
• HPV (Human Papilloma Virus): Most membrane with the egg's membrane,
common STI in the U.S... Causes warts; pushing its haploid nucleus into the egg
rare strains cause deadly cervical cytoplasm, forming the diploid zygote.
cancer. Preventable with a vaccine.
• HSV (Herpes Simplex Virus): Most
infections are asymptomatic; causes
occasional sores (cold sores, genital
sores). Lifelong infection with no cure

BACTERIAL STIS (CURABLE WITH ANTIBIOTICS)

• Includes chlamydia, gonorrhea, and
syphilis.
• The majority of bacterial STis are
asymptomatic, enabling widespread
transmission unless detected by routine
screening. Untreated syphilis can be THE PLACENTA: FETAL LIFE SUPPORT
deadly. • The placenta is a fetal structure. Cells of
• Any bacterial infection of the the trophoblast (cytotrophoblasts)
reproductive tract can cause Pelvic invade the uterine spiral arteries,
Inflammatory Disease (PID). replacing the endothelium and
PID causes inflammation and scar tissue assuming control over artery diameter.
in the uterine tubes, increasing the risk of • The placenta is a branching structure of
fertility challenges and ectopic fetal capillaries connected to the fetus
pregnancy. by the umbilical cord, designed to
maximize surface area for exchange.
BIRTH CONTROL METHODS • The maternal blood supply must
• Barrier Methods: Condoms, diaphragms, increase by 30 percent (up to two extra
and sponges offer a physical barrier liters of blood) to meet the circulatory
preventing sperm from reaching the demands of the full-term placenta.
egg. Condoms are the most protective • Exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and
as they prevent most STDs. waste occurs across the cytotrophoblast
• IUDs (Intrauterine Devices): Common, surface, but maternal and fetal blood
semi-permanent method inserted by a never mix.
professional.
• Hormonal Pills: Often contain high
concentrations of synthetic estrogen
and progesterone to suppress ovulation.
This works by mimicking the luteal phase
hormonal profile, inhibiting FSH and LH
release.

FERTILIZATION STEPS
• Sperm Capacitation: Sperm take about
10 hours in the female reproductive
tract fluids to become capable of
penetrating the egg. Enzymes in these
fluids remove cholesterol from the sperm
membrane.

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ZHEKIEYA L. RECLOSADO BSN 1-Y1-3

HORMONE SHIFTS DURING FREGNANCY THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD

• hCG: Secreted by the trophoblast • The six weeks following birth are the
immediately after implantation. It keeps postpartum period.
the corpus luteum intact until the • The uterus must shrink back from the size
placenta can take over hormone of a watermelon to a small pear.
synthesis (weeks 10-12). • Uterine cells digest themselves using their
• Estrogens: Circulating levels reach 30 own lysosomal enzymes, a process called
times pre-pregnancy highs. Estrogens autolysis, which eliminates many uterine
promote mitosis (tissue growth in cells.
uterus/breasts) and cause ligaments, • Lactation facilitates this shrinking by
particularly in the pelvis, to loosen. suppressing estrogen secretion (estrogen
• Progesterone: Continually secreted (first promotes mitosis of uterine cells).
by corpus luteum, then by placenta) to
inhibit myometrial contractions and LACTATION
prevent the endometrium from • Prolactin (anterior pituitary) drives milk
shedding. production (synthesis). Prolactin levels
• High estrogen and progesterone inhibit drop after birth unless breastfeeding
the hypothalamus and pituitary from occurs, which drives synthesis for the next
secreting GnRH, LH, and FSH, preventing feeding.
follicle development. • Oxytocin (posterior pituitary) drives milk
ejection (let-down). Suckling stimulates
LABOR (PARTURITION) INITIATION oxytocin release, which promotes
• Random uterine contractions called ejection and maternal-infant bonding.
Braxton-Hicks contractions occur • Lactation suppresses estrogen secretion,
throughout pregnancy. which aids in the uterus shrinking via
• As pregnancy nears full term, the autolysis (self-digestion of uterine cells)
myometrium increases its expression of and may decrease the incidence of
oxytocin receptors. breast cancer.
• Childbirth is driven by a dramatic surge in
oxytocin release, which operates in a
positive feedback loop. The weight of
the fetal head stretches the cervix,
signaling the posterior pituitary to release
more oxytocin, which causes
contractions and pushes the head
further.

THE THREE STAGES OF LABOR

• Dilation Stage: Cervix opens and thins
due to oxytocin-driven uterine
contractions.
Typically the longest stage.
• Expulsion Stage: Involves the expulsion of
the baby, starting when the head passes
the cervix and ending when the baby is
fully out.
• Placental Stage: Oxytocin levels remain
high. Contractions continue, causing the
placenta to collapse and pull away from
the uterine wall. The contractions also
constrict spiral arteries, limiting maternal
blood loss.

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