ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY (BTCH111)

MODULE 2: Energy Conversion and Storage Batteries

Course Instructors: Dr Aman Sharma, Dr Smrithi S P, Ms Thejaswini D

Contents:
Storage Batteries: Classification of batteries. Components, construction, working, and
applications of modern batteries; Na-ion battery and solid-state battery (Li-polymer battery).
Solar Energy: Introduction, importance of solar PV cell, construction and working of solar
PV cell, advantages and disadvantages.

STORAGE BATTERIES

A battery is an electrochemical device or series of cells that produces an electric current. In

principle, any galvanic cell could be used as a battery. It basically converts chemical energy
into electrical energy through redox reactions. An ideal battery would never run down, produce
an unchanging voltage, and be capable of withstanding environmental extremes of heat and
humidity.

Classification of Batteries

Batteries can be classified based on rechargeability, electrolyte type, and application:

i. Based on Rechargeability:
a. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable): Used once and discarded (e.g., Alkaline,
Zn-MnO2, Lithium coin cells).
b. Secondary batteries (rechargeable): Can be recharged multiple times (e.g.,
Lead-acid, Ni-Cd, NiMH, Lithium-ion, Sodium-ion).
ii. Based on Electrolyte:
a. Aqueous batteries → Lead-acid, Ni-Cd.
b. Non-aqueous/organic electrolyte batteries → Lithium-ion, Sodium-ion, Li-
polymer.
iii. Based on Applications:
a. Portable devices → Lithium-ion, NiMH.
b. Automobiles → Lead-acid, Lithium-ion.
c. Grid/large-scale storage → Flow batteries, Sodium-sulfur.
There is another class of batteries, known as Reserve Batteries, in which one of the key
components, such as the electrolyte, is isolated from the battery to prevent a reaction between
the electrolyte and the cell components. The isolated component will be included prior to usage.
Such batteries are called reserve batteries. These batteries possess high shelf life.

Eg. Mg | saline water | AgCl,Ag; this battery is activated as soon as saline water is added.

Zn | KOH solution | Ag2O,Ag; this battery is activated as soon as KOH solution is added.

Modern Battery (Lithium-ion battery)

Lithium-ion batteries work on a concept associated with metals called electrochemical

potential. Electrochemical potential is the tendency of a metal to lose electrons. In fact, the
very first cell developed by Alessandro Volta more than 200 years ago was based on the concept
of electrochemical potential. Lithium is the metal that has the highest tendency to lose
electrons, and it is used in lithium-ion cells. It has only one electron in its outer shell, and it
always wants to lose this electron. Due to this reason, pure lithium is a highly reactive metal,
and it even reacts with water and air. The trick of a lithium battery operation is the fact that
lithium, in its pure form, is a reactive metal, but when it is a part of a metal oxide, it is quite
stable.

Components/Construction of Modern Battery:

• Anode (negative electrode): oxidation occurs (e.g., graphite, sodium, lithium metal). It
stores Li+ ions when charged and releases them during discharge.
• Cathode (positive electrode): reduction occurs (e.g., LiCoO2, NaFePO4). It accepts Li+
ions during charging and releases them during discharge.
• Electrolyte: Electrolyte components are generally chemical substances used to enhance
or allow the flow of ions (Li+) from the cathode to the anode and from the anode to the
cathode.
• Separator: It is a porous membrane that prevents short circuit while allowing ion flow.
& separates the anode and cathode.
• Current Collectors: conductive materials (Cu for anode, Al for cathode). They collect
and transfer electrons between the external circuit and the electrodes.
• The two most common concepts related to batteries are energy density and power
density. Energy density is measured in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) and is the
amount of energy the battery can store with respect to its mass. Power density is
 measured in watts per kilogram (W/kg) and is the amount of power that can be
generated by the battery per unit mass.

Fig. Charge and discharge operation of a lithium-ion battery.

Principle of Modern Battery:

Discharging: When connected to a device, the battery's anode releases Li+ ions, which
travel through the electrolyte and separator to the cathode. Electrons also move from the
anode through the external circuit to the cathode, creating an electric current that powers
the device.

Charging: When an external electrical source is connected, the process reverses. The
cathode releases Li+ ions, which travel back through the electrolyte and separator to the
anode, where they are stored. Electrons are also transferred from the cathode to the anode,
effectively storing chemical energy for future use.

Mechanism of Lithium-ion Battery:

Step 1: Initial State - Fully Charged Battery

In the fully charged state, the battery has just completed a charge cycle and is now primed
to power a device. At this point:

Lithium ions (Li⁺) are mostly embedded (intercalated) within the anode, which is typically
made of graphite.

The cathode (usually a lithium metal oxide, such as LiCoO₂ or LiFePO₄) has been depleted
of some of its lithium ions, which have migrated to the anode during charging.
The electrolyte maintains a stable environment for ion transport but does not conduct
electrons.

The separator ensures there’s no direct contact between anode and cathode, preventing short
circuits.

In this state, the battery is like a compressed spring, full of potential energy, ready to be
released as electrical power.

Step 2: Discharge Begins - Powering a Device

When the battery is connected to a device (e.g., phone, laptop, EV motor), the discharge
process begins. This is when the battery releases stored chemical energy as usable electrical
energy.

The external circuit is completed when the device is turned on.

Electrons in the anode begin to flow through the external circuit, powering your device.

This electron flow is what actually provides electrical current to your gadgets or motors.

At this moment, the lithium ions are ready to travel in the opposite direction to maintain
the balance of charge.

Step 3: Ion Movement - Anode to Cathode via Electrolyte

As electrons move through the external circuit, lithium ions (Li⁺) simultaneously begin to
migrate from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte.

This movement is essential for maintaining electrical neutrality in the system.

The ions pass through the porous separator, which acts like a sieve, allowing only ions (not
electrons) to pass through.

At the cathode, the lithium ions reintegrate into the cathode’s structure by reacting with the
metal oxide material, typically forming lithium-metal-oxide compounds once again.

This dual flow - electrons through the circuit and lithium ions through the electrolyte —
constitutes the essence of how lithium-ion batteries work during discharge.

Step 4: Electron Flow - Delivering Power

While lithium ions travel internally through the battery, electrons take a different path:
Electrons exit the anode and travel through the external circuit to the cathode.

On their journey, these electrons pass through your device’s internal components —
powering screens, sensors, motors, lights, etc.

At the cathode, the electrons reunite with the lithium ions to complete the electrochemical
reaction.

This coordinated movement of electrons and ions creates a smooth and efficient flow of
electricity that powers everything from a smartwatch to an electric car.

Step 5: Charging - Reversing the Reaction

Once the battery has discharged and the device needs recharging, you connect it to a
lithium-ion battery charger. This charger supplies electrical energy in the reverse direction.

The charger pushes electrons from the cathode back to the anode through the external
circuit.

Simultaneously, lithium ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.

At the anode, the lithium ions embed themselves into the graphite layers again, restoring
the battery to its fully charged state.

This step is essentially the reverse of the discharge process, and it’s why lithium-ion
batteries are rechargeable.

Step 6: Repeat - Ready for the Next Use

After a complete charge, the battery returns to its initial state, with lithium ions stored in
the anode and electrons ready to flow on demand.

The battery is now ready for another discharge cycle.

This cycle of charging and discharging can be repeated hundreds to thousands of times,
depending on the battery chemistry and usage conditions.

This repeatable process - efficient, reversible, and reliable - is what makes lithium-ion
technology so indispensable in modern energy storage systems.
 Types of Li-ion batteries:

Depending on the cathode material, lithium-ion batteries can be categorized into:

i) Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO₂): High energy density, common in

smartphones/laptops.
ii) Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO₄): Safe, thermally stable, used in EVs and solar
applications.
iii) Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn₂O₄): Good thermal stability, used in medical
devices.
iv) Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC): Balanced performance, ideal for
power tools and electric vehicles.
v) Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA): High power, used by Tesla and
other EV manufacturers.

Applications of Modern batteries:

• Modern batteries, especially lithium-ion, power a wide range of applications

including consumer electronics (smartphones, laptops), electric vehicles (cars, e-bikes),
renewable energy storage (solar and wind power integration), medical devices
(pacemakers, glucose monitors), and industrial & defense sectors (drones, robotics,
communication systems). These batteries enable portable technology, sustainable
transportation, a stable power grid, and improved healthcare.
• Industrial & Logistics: Batteries power automated guided vehicles (AGVs), warehouse
robots, and logistics systems, supporting automated and efficient operations.
• Renewable Energy Storage: Batteries store electricity from renewable sources like solar
and wind power, ensuring a consistent energy supply even during peak demand or low
generation.
• Consumer Electronics: Advanced batteries are essential for digital transformation,
powering smartphones, laptops, tablets, smartwatches, digital cameras, and gaming
controllers.
• Electric Mobility: Batteries make electric cars (EVs), hybrid vehicles, e-bikes, and
scooters possible, providing a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.
• Medical Devices: They provide essential power for crucial devices such as pacemakers,
insulin pumps, hearing aids, defibrillators, and blood glucose monitors.
• Aerospace & Defense: Drones, satellites, and communication systems rely on high-
performance batteries for reliable power in demanding environments.
• Grid Management & Smart Technologies: Batteries facilitate smart grids and power the
Internet of Things (IoT) by providing energy for smart meters and remote sensors.

Sodium-ion Batteries

Sodium, being far more abundant and more evenly distributed in the Earth’s crust than
lithium, alleviates concerns over resource scarcity and geopolitical dependencies, while its
lower cost fosters broader adoption in large-scale applications. What is even more enhanced
here is that transitioning from liquid to solid-state configurations also carries the
minimisation of electrolyte amounts and the accompanying safety hazards. The major
challenge is that it has slower kinetics and lower energy density.

Construction:

Anode: Heavy carbon made by exposing coke to 30000 °C is used as an Anode. This heavy
Carbon is neither amorphous nor crystalline and will have high porosity.

Cathode: Sodium transition metal oxide (NaxMO2) is used as a cathode material. where
M= Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu. These sodium metal oxides will have layered structure in which
Na atoms are incorporated either prismatic or an octahedral pattern. Symbolically these
phases are represented by P2, P3, O3 (NaFePO4, NaCoO2)

Electrolyte: sodium salts in organic solvents. Generally, aqueous electrolytes are employed.
Even binary compositions of dimethyl carbonate and ethyl carbonate can be employed.

Separator: Any porous polymer membrane with high ionic conductivity is employed as
separator.

Advantages: abundant, cheap, good for grid-scale.

Challenges: lower energy density, slower kinetics.

Fig. Sodium-ion battery

Working:

Charging:

At the anode, sodium present in the layered structure of metal oxide is oxidised, liberating
electrons & sodium ions. Electrons flow from anode to cathode through the external circuit,
and sodium ions move through the electrolyte and separator to reach the cathode. At
cathode, sodium ions are reduced to sodium atoms and are inserted into the heavy carbon.

At Anode:

At Cathode:

Discharging:

During discharging process Heavy carbon intercalated with sodium acts as anode and
sodium metal oxide acts as cathode. After oxidation of sodium atoms at anode migration of
Na+ ions & electrons towards cathode takes place through electrolyte and external wire
respectively.

At Anode:

At Cathode:
Solid-State Batteries (Li polymer)

Use solid/polymer electrolytes.

- Anode: Li metal/graphite/Li-In alloy

- Cathode: LiFePO₄, layered oxides.

- Electrolyte: polymer/ceramic solid (polyethylene oxide) which acts as both electrolyte

and separator.

Advantages: higher energy density, safer, and flexible.

Challenges: high resistance at the solid-solid interface, costly manufacturing.

Fig. Lithium polymer battery

Working: During discharging, Lithium is oxidised at anode and Lithium ions move from
the anode to the cathode through solid state electrolyte. Electrons flow from anode to
cathode through the external circuit. At the cathode Lithium ions are reduced to lithium
atoms and are inserted into the layered structure of the metal oxide. Opposite reactions take
place during charging process.
SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is radiation from the Sun harnessed as heat or electricity. It is abundant,
renewable, and clean. It is received on Earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with
very low power density 0 to 1 kW/m2. Solar energy received on the ground level is affected
by atmospheric clarity, degree of latitude, etc. For solar energy calculations, the energy is
measured as an hourly or monthly or yearly average and is expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day
or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is expressed in terms of W/m2 or kW/m2.

Photovoltaic Technology

The density of power radiated from the sun (referred to as the ‘‘solar energy constant’’) at
the outer atmosphere is 1.373kW/m2. Part of this energy is absorbed and scattered by the
earth’s atmosphere. The final incident sunlight on earth’s surface has a peak density of
1kW/m2 at noon in the tropics. The technology of photovoltaic (PV) is essentially
concerned with the conversion of this energy into usable electrical form. The basic element
of a PV system is the solar cell.

Solar energy can convert the energy of sunlight directly into electricity. Consumer
appliances used to provide services such as lighting, water pumping, telecommunications,
refrigeration, and television can be run from photovoltaic electricity.

Construction of Solar cell:

Solar cells (also known as a photo-galvanic cell) rely on a quantum-mechanical

phenomenon known as the “photovoltaic effect” to produce electricity. A typical solar cell
consists of a p-n junction formed in a semiconductor material like a diode. The electricity
supplied by a solar cell is DC electricity/current, which is the same as that provided by
batteries, but a little bit different in the sense that the battery is providing a constant voltage.
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the cross-section through a crystalline solar cell. It
consists of a 0.2-0.3mm thick mono-crystalline or polycrystalline silicon wafer having two
layers with different electrical properties formed by ‘‘doping’’ it with other impurities (e.g.,
boron and phosphorus). The crystalline silicon consists of an n-type semiconductor, which
is the first or upper layer known as the emitter layer. The second layer is a p-type
semiconductor layer known as the base layer. Both layers are sandwiched, and hence, there
is a formation of a p-n junction between them. The surface is coated with an anti-reflection
coating to avoid any loss of incident light energy due to reflection. An electric field is
established at the junction between the negatively doped (using phosphorus atoms) and the
positively doped (using boron atoms) silicon layers.

Fig. Solar cell

Working of a Solar cell:

When a solar cell is exposed to sunlight, the energy carried by photons is absorbed by
semiconductor materials. This absorption initiates the photovoltaic effect, which releases
electrons and generates direct current (DC). The DC output is then converted into 240-volt
alternating current (AC) through an inverter, making it suitable for various applications.

Photovoltaic cells are typically made of semiconductors such as silicon. A silicon atom
contains 14 electrons arranged in three shells, with four electrons in its outermost shell.
Since it requires four more electrons to complete this shell, each silicon atom shares
electrons with four neighboring atoms, forming stable covalent bonds.

To enhance conductivity, phosphorus is introduced into silicon. Phosphorus has five

valence electrons, so when it bonds with silicon, one electron remains unpaired. With
sufficient energy input, some of these electrons can break free from their bonds and move
through the crystal lattice. These free-moving electrons, called charge carriers, contribute
to electrical conduction. If light is incident on the solar cell, the energy from the light
(photons) creates free charge carriers, which are separated by the electrical field. An
electrical voltage is generated at the external contacts, so that current can flow when a load
is connected. The photocurrent (Iph), which is internally generated in the solar cell, is
proportional to the radiation intensity.
In pure silicon, the number of free carriers is very limited, reducing its efficiency. However,
when doped with phosphorus atoms, the additional “extra” electrons require much less
energy to be freed since they are not strongly bound to neighboring atoms. This
significantly increases the number of free carriers, producing N-type silicon with improved
electrical performance.

Electron-Hole Formation- Photons are particles of light, and photovoltaic energy

conversion depends on the photons hitting Earth. On a clear day, about 4.4 × 1017 photons
strike each square centimeter per second. Only photons with energy greater than the band
gap generate electricity in solar cells. When such a photon enters a semiconductor, it excites
an electron from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving behind a hole. The
electron and hole together form an electron-hole pair. Hence, when we connect these p and
n layers to an external circuit, the electrons flow from the n to the p layer, hence current is
generated. The electrons that leave the solar cell as current give up their energy to whatever
is connected to the solar cell and then re-enter the solar cell. Once back in the solar cell, the
process begins again to produce more solar energy.

Importance of PV Solar cell:

Solar photovoltaics (PV) is a very modular technology that can be manufactured in large
plants, which creates economies of scale, but can also be deployed in very small quantities
at a time. This allows for a wide range of applications, from small residential rooftop
systems up to utility-scale power generation installations. Despite increases in investment
costs due to rising commodity prices, utility-scale solar PV is the least costly option for
new electricity generation in a significant majority of countries worldwide. Distributed
solar PV, such as rooftop solar on buildings, is also set for faster growth because of higher
retail electricity prices and growing policy support. The importance of solar cells lies in
their ability to generate clean, renewable energy that reduces reliance on fossil fuels and
lowers greenhouse gas emissions. Solar cells enable sustainable power for homes,
industries, and remote locations, helping to lower energy costs and support a greener,
environmentally friendly energy future. Their scalability and simplicity make them
essential for advancing renewable energy and combating climate change.

• Solar is good for the environment

• Solar is a reliable, cost-effective energy source
 • Solar energy saves you money
• Solar creates jobs and spurs economic growth
• Solar power promotes energy independence

Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Solar cell:

A monocrystalline silicon cell is pure, and this type of solar cell has an efficiency of 14-
17%. Polycrystalline solar cells use liquid silicon, and the efficiency of this type of cell is
13-15%. Amorphous silicon cells are made by depositing silicon film on a glass plate
substrate, and this type of solar cell has an efficiency of 5-7%.

Advantages of PV Solar Cells Disadvantages of PV Solar Cells

Renewable and abundant energy source High initial installation cost.
(sunlight is free).
Environmentally friendly - no Efficiency depends on sunlight availability
greenhouse gas emissions during (weather, time of day).
operation.
Low maintenance after installation. Large land/roof area required for significant
power output.
Silent operation - no noise pollution. Energy storage (batteries) adds cost and
complexity.
Modular design - easy to scale up by Limited efficiency (typically 15-22%).
adding more panels.
Reduces dependency on fossil fuels. Manufacturing involves toxic chemicals
(e.g., Cd, Pb, solvents).
Long lifespan (20-30 years). Degradation of panels over time reduces
output.
Technology development Associated with pollution
Can be integrated into buildings (solar Recycling and disposal of used panels is
rooftops, facades). challenging.
Useful in remote/rural areas without Power output fluctuates, requiring backup
grid access. or hybrid systems.
Promotes sustainable energy and Energy payback time (time to generate
reduces carbon footprint. energy equal to manufacturing energy) can
be several years.