Department of Chemistry

Chem103
General Chemistry

Chapter-2
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
 The Atom:
- Nucleus: neutrons + protons
- Electrons

Radius of an atom ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

Radius of a nucleus ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

London Olympic Stadium

2
proton (p) is positively charged (+1)

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)

mass of neutron ~ mass of proton = 1.67 x 10-24 g

electron (e) is negatively charged (-1)

3
mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

4
 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different

numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z
X Element Symbol

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 U 238 U 5
92 92
Example 2.1

Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of

the following species:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) carbon-14
Example 2.1
Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass number
(A) and the subscript denotes the atomic number (Z).

Mass number is always greater than atomic number. (The only

exception is H, where the mass number is equal to the atomic
number.)

In a case where no subscript is shown, as in parts (c) and (d),

the atomic number can be deduced from the element symbol or
name.

To determine the number of electrons, remember that because

atoms are electrically neutral, the number of electrons is equal
to the number of protons.
Example 2.1
Solution
(a) The atomic number is 11, so there are 11 protons.
The mass number is 20, so the number of neutrons is
20 − 11 = 9. The number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons; that is, 11.

(b) The atomic number is the same as that in (a), or 11.

The mass number is 22, so the number of neutrons is
22 − 11 = 11. The number of electrons is 11. Note that the
species in (a) and (b) are chemically similar isotopes of sodium.
Example 2.1

(c) The atomic number of O (oxygen) is 8, so there are

8 protons. The mass number is 17, so there are 17 − 8 = 9
neutrons. There are 8 electrons.

(d) Carbon-14 can also be represented as 14C. The atomic

number of carbon is 6, so there are 14 − 6 = 8 neutrons.
The number of electrons is 6.
Exercise questions
Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the
following isotopes:
a) U-235 Ans: 92, 143, 92

b) 238U Ans: 92, 146, 92

c) Cobalt-60 Ans: 27, 33, 27

Ans: 6, 7, 6

13
d) 6
C
10
The Modern Periodic Table

Jump to long description

© McGraw-Hill Education. 2-11

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
12
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
13
A monatomic ion contains only one atom:
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

14
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

15
Formulas and Models

16
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance.

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.
Molecular Empirical
formula formula
H2O H2O
H2O2 HO
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O

N2H4 NH2 17
Example 2.2

Write the molecular formula of methylamine, a colorless gas

used in the production of pharmaceuticals and pesticides, from
its ball-and-stick model, shown below.
(Blue: Nitrogen, Black: Carbon, White: Hydrogen)
Example 2.2

Solution
Refer to the labels (also see back end papers).

There are five H atoms, one C atom, and one N atom.

Therefore, the molecular formula is CH5N.

However, the standard way of writing the molecular formula for

methylamine is CH3NH2 because it shows how the atoms are
joined in the molecule.
Example 2.3

Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:

(a) biborane (B2H6), which is used in rocket propellants

(b) glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood sugar

(c)nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic gas

(“laughing gas”) and as an aerosol propellant for whipped
creams.
Example 2.3

Strategy

Recall that to write the empirical formula, the subscripts in the

molecular formula must be converted to the smallest possible
whole numbers.
Example 2.3
Solution
(a) There are two boron atoms and six hydrogen atoms in
diborane. Dividing the subscripts by 2, we obtain the
empirical formula BH3.

(b) In glucose there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms,

and 6 oxygen atoms. Dividing the subscripts by 6, we
obtain the empirical formula CH2O. Note that if we had
divided the subscripts by 3, we would have obtained the
formula C2H4O2. Although the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen atoms in C2H4O2 is the same as that in C6H12O6
(1:2:1), C2H4O2 is not the simplest formula because its
subscripts are not in the smallest whole-number ratio.
Example 2.3

(c) Because the subscripts in N2O are already the smallest

possible whole numbers, the empirical formula for nitrous
oxide is the same as its molecular formula.
Exercise questions
Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:

b) Benzene C6H6 Ans: CH

c) Naphthalene C10H8 Ans: C5H4

d) Aspirin C9H8O4 Ans: C9H8O4

24
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and anions.
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula.
•The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero.
The ionic compound NaCl

25
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

26
Formulas of Ionic Compounds

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32- 27
Example 2.4

Write the formula of

magnesium nitride, containing
the Mg2+ and N3− ions.

When magnesium burns in air,

it forms both magnesium oxide
and magnesium nitride.
Example 2.4
Strategy Our guide for writing formulas for ionic compounds is
electrical neutrality; that is, the total charge on the cation(s)
must be equal to the total charge on the anion(s).

Because the charges on the Mg2+ and N3− ions are not equal,
we know the formula cannot be MgN.

Instead, we write the formula as MgxNy, where x and y are

subscripts to be determined.
Example 2.4
Solution To satisfy electrical neutrality, the following
relationship must hold:
(+2)x + (−3)y = 0

Solving, we obtain x/y = 3/2. Setting x = 3 and y = 2, we write

Check The subscripts are reduced to the smallest whole-

number ratio of the atoms because the chemical formula of an
ionic compound is usually its empirical formula.
Exercise questions
Write the formula of ionic compounds, containing the ions of:

a) Calcium and oxygen Ans: CaO

b) Lithium and sulfur Ans: Li2S

c) Aluminum and oxygen Ans: Al2O3

d) Barium and iodine Ans: BaI2

31
 Chemical Nomenclature
(Naming of Compounds)
• Ionic Compounds: Cation + Anion
ex: NaCl = Na+ Cl- Na+ Cation, Cl- Anion

– Cation: Always a metal (except NH4+ =ammonium)

• Name of the metallic cation = name of the metal
example: name of Na+ = name of Na : sodium
name of K+ = name of K :potassium
• Add the charge in roman numerals in parenthesis if the
metal is a transition metal

Fe2+ : iron(II)
Fe3+ : iron(III)
Cr2+ : chromium(II)
Cr4+ : chromium (IV)
Ni2+ : nickel(II)
32
– Name of the monoatomic anions:
add “ - ide ”to the stem of element’s name
Cl: Chlorine, Cl- : Chloride
O: Oxygen, O2- : Oxide

33
– Name of the polyatomicanions:
Rules are complicated.
Memorize the names of the following common polyatomic ions:
OH- hydroxide
CO32- carbonate
HCO3- hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate
NO3- nitrate
NO2- nitrite
PO43- phosphate
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
SO42- sulfate
SO32- sulfite
CN- cyanide
SCN- thiocyanate
MnO4- permanganate
Cr2O72- dichromate
34
Name of an ionic compound = name of cation + name of anion

NaCl sodium chloride Mg(NO3)2 magnesium nitrate

K2O potassium oxide FeCl3 iron(III) chloride
NaNO3 sodium nitrate Fe3(PO4)2 iron(II) phosphate
CaO calsium oxide Al2O3 aluminum oxide
CaF2 calsium fluoride Co(MnO4)2 cobalt(II) permanganate
Li2SO4 lithium sulfate Al(NO3)3 aluminum nitrate

Caution: No bi, tri, tetra etc., in naming ions!!!!!

35
36
Example 2.5

Name the following compounds:

(a) Fe(NO3)2

(b) Na2HPO4

(c) (NH4)2SO3
Example 2.5
Strategy Our reference for the names of cations and anions is
Table 2.3.

Keep in mind that if a metal can form cations of different

charges (see Figure 2.10), need to use the Stock system.
Example 2.5
Solution
(a)The nitrate ion (NO3−) bears one negative charge, so the iron
ion must have two positive charges. Because iron forms both
Fe+ and Fe2+ ions, we need to use the Stock system and call
the compound iron(II) nitrate.

(b)The cation is Na+ and the anion is HPO42− (hydrogen

phosphate). Because sodium only forms one type of ion (Na+),
there is no need to use sodium(I) in the name. The compound
is sodium hydrogen phosphate.

(c)The cation is NH4+ (ammonium ion) and the anion is SO32−

(sulfite ion). The compound is ammonium sulfite.
Exercise questions
Name the following compounds:
a) Li3N Ans: Lithium nitride

b) Fe2(SO4)3 Ans: Iron (III) sulfate

c) Ag2CO3 Ans: Silver carbonate

d) BaI2 Ans: Barium iodide

40
Example 2.6

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:

(a) mercury(I) nitrite

(b) cesium sulfide

(c) calcium phosphate

Example 2.6

Strategy
We refer to Table 2.3 for the formulas of cations and anions.

Recall that the Roman numerals in the Stock system provide

useful information about the charges of the cation.
Example 2.6
Solution
(a) The Roman numeral shows that the mercury ion bears a +1
charge. According to Table 2.3, however, the mercury(I) ion
is diatomic (that is, ) and the nitrite ion is .
Therefore, the formula is Hg2(NO2)2.

(b) Each sulfide ion bears two negative charges, and each
cesium ion bears one positive charge (cesium is in Group
1A, as is sodium). Therefore, the formula is Cs2S.
Example 2.6

(c) Each calcium ion (Ca2+) bears two positive charges, and
each phosphate ion ( ) bears three negative charges.

To make the sum of the charges equal zero, we must adjust

the numbers of cations and anions:

3(+2) + 2(−3) = 0

Thus, the formula is Ca3(PO4)2.

Exercise questions
Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:
a) Cobalt (II) hydroxide Ans: Co(OH)2

b) Aluminum nitrate Ans: Al(NO3)3

c) Ammonium sulfide Ans: (NH4)2S

d) Magnesium chromate Ans: MgCrO4

45
• Molecular compounds
− Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
− Common names
− H2O (water), NH3 (ammonia), CH4 (methane)
− Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
− If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each kind
of atom
− Last element name ends in -ide

46
 Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

47
Example 2.7

Name the following molecular compounds:

(a) SiCl4

(b) P4O10
Example 2.7
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.4 for prefixes.

In (a) there is only one Si atom so we do not use the prefix

“mono.”

Solution
(a)Because there are four chlorine atoms present, the
compound is silicon tetrachloride.

(b)There are four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms

present, so the compound is tetraphosphorus decoxide. Note
that the “a”is omitted in “deca.”
Exercise questions
What is the systematic name of the following molecular compounds?
a) Carbon monoxide CO Ans: Carbon oxide

b) Ammonia NH3 Ans: Nitrogen trihydride

c) Laughing gas N2O Ans: Dinitrogen oxide

d) PCl5 Ans: Phosphorus pentachloride

50
Example 2.8

Write chemical formulas for the following molecular

compounds:

(a) carbon disulfide

(b) disilicon hexabromide

Example 2.8
Strategy
Here we need to convert prefixes to numbers of atoms (see
Table 2.4).

Because there is no prefix for carbon in (a), it means that there

is only one carbon atom present.

Solution
(a) Because there are two sulfur atoms and one carbon atom
present, the formula is CS2.

(b) There are two silicon atoms and six bromine atoms present,
so the formula is Si2Br6.
Exercise questions
What is the formula the following molecular compounds?

a) Dihydrogen oxide Ans: H2O

b) Carbon tetrachloride Ans: CCl4

c) Sulfur hexachloride Ans: SCl6

d) Dinitrogen tetrahydride Ans: N2H4

53
54
Exercise questions
What is the systematic name of the following compounds?
a) AlCl3 Ans: Aluminum chloride

b) CO2 Ans: Carbon dioxide

c) C2H6 Ans: Common name: ethane, systematic name: dicarbon hexahydride

d) CrSO4 Ans: Chromium(II) sulfate

e) (NH4)3PO4 Ans: Ammonium phosphate

55
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water

• Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

• Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

hydrochloric acid

Thus:

HCl (g) hydrogen chloride

56
HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid
57
 Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
58
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that
deals with carbon compounds.
Functional Groups:
H H H O

H C OH H C NH2 H C C OH

H H H

methanol methylamine acetic acid

59
60