String Methods for Beginners

String Methods for Beginners is designed for students to receive the essential playing and
teaching skills on all orchestral string instruments. The goal of this textbook is to be truly
methodical in its approach, and to assist the instructor, completely eliminating the need
to do additional research, or reorganization in preparation to teach this class. Students
will gain the basic knowledge and experience to teach bowed stringed instruments in
public schools. String Methods for Beginners covers the necessary topics to learn and teach
the violin, viola, cello, and string bass. It explores the fundamentals of those instruments
and teaching considerations, utilizing a heterogeneous approach.
As the primary resource to any college- and university-level String Techniques, String
Methods, or Instrumental Methods class, this course book fits into a standard semester,
comprised of 25 lessons, which correspond with two hourly classes per week for the term.
It provides the instructor with the tools to teach a classroom of non-majors or string
education majors, or a mixed classroom of both.

FEATURES

• Offers a blueprint for a semester long string methods course.

• For beginning students, and also comprehensive for more in-depth study or for
reference.
• Logical, step-by-step “recipe-like” approach.

Selim Giray is Director of Orchestral Studies at the University of Mississippi.

String Methods for Beginners

Selim Giray
First published 2020
by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 Taylor & Francis
The right of Selim Giray to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Giray, Selim, author.
Title: String methods for beginners / Selim Giray.
Description: [1.] | New York : Routledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019050809 (print) | LCCN 2019050810 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367226831 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367226862 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780429276347 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Bowed stringed instruments–Methods. | Bowed stringed
instruments–Instruction and study.
Classification: LCC MT259 .G54 2020 (print) | LCC MT259 (ebook) |
DDC 787/.193071–dc23
LC record available at [Link]
LC ebook record available at [Link]

ISBN: 978-0-367-22683-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-22686-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-27634-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Baskerville
by Swales & Willis, Exeter, Devon, UK

Visit the eResource: [Link]/9780367226862

Contents

List of Illustrations x
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii

Lesson 1 1
Introduction 1
Address to Non-Majors 2
Address to Majors 2
Some Qualities of an Accomplished String Teacher 3
Fundamentals of String Instruments 3
Building Practice Skills 3
Course Outline 4
Course Requirements 4
Parts of String Instruments 5
External Features 5
Internal Parts 9
Parts of the Bow 10
Motions of the Bow 11
Course Timeline for Bow Application 13
Items to Receive a Quote, and if Necessary, Purchase 13

Lesson 2 15
Theory: Instrument Overview and Care 15
Heterogeneous String Classroom Setup 17
Instrument Assignment 18
A Review of Parts of String Instruments 23
Applied: Posture and Instrument Hold 25
Posture and Instrument Positioning 25
Left Hand and Left Arm Shape 29
Five Steps to Instrument Posture 31
Proper Right-Arm Positioning for Pizzicato 34
vi Contents
Preparatory Bow Exercises 37
German Bow Hold Exercise 41

Lesson 3 46
Applied: Review of Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position 46
Tuning 47
Scholastic Ensemble Tuning Sequence 47
How to Tune 47
“Pendulum” Exercise 49
Preparatory Bow Exercises (Continued) 50
Theory: A Brief History of the String Instruments 51
Emergence of the Modern Violin: the Brescian and Cremonese Schools 54
The Current State of Violin Making 57
Hand-made vs. Factory-made Instruments 58
Tone Production 58

Lesson 4 62
Applied: Review of Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position (Continued) 62
Tune 62
“Pendulum” Exercise (Continued) 62
Preparatory Bow Exercises (Continued) 63
Finger Patterns 66
Tightening the Bow and Rosining 69
The Bow Hold and Arco Playing 69

Lesson 5 74
Preparatory Bow Exercises (Continued) 74
The Bow Hold and Arco Playing 75
Theory: A Brief History of the Bow 75
Tuning Strategies 78
Upper Strings 81
Low Strings 81
Natural-Harmonic Tuning with First through Third Partials 82
Cello 82
Double Bass 83
Upper Strings 84
Low Strings 85
Some Idiosyncrasies of Pegs 85

Lesson 6 87
Applied: Arco Tuning 87
Guided Practice: Bow Exercises 88
Accessories 89
 Contents vii
Shoulder Rest 89
Chinrest 90
Fine Tuner or String Adjuster 91
Tailgut 91
Mute 92
Rosin 92
Wolf Tone Suppressors 92
Endpins 93
Endpin Anchors and Stops 93
Bridges 93
Peg Compound 94

Lesson 7 95
Applied: Arco Tuning 95
Bow Exercises 95
Arco Playing 96
String Ensemble Playing Traditions 97

Lesson 8 100
Videotaping of First Playing Test 100

Lesson 9 105
Guided Practice: A Bow Placement Exercise 105
Bow Management and String Crossings 106
Selection and Maintenance of String Instruments, Bows, and Strings 106
Bow Rehairing Frequency 107
Rosining and Maintenance of Bow Hair 107
String Maintenance and Replacement Frequency 108
String Replacement 108
Peg Maintenance 109
Chinrest Tightening 109
Bridge Care 110
Bow Selection and Care 111
Humidifiers 111
Endpin Rods 112
Planing a Fingerboard 112
Sound Post Adjustment 112

Lesson 10 113
Conducting Strings: Error Detection and Rehearsal Techniques 113
Incorporating Good Teaching Habits in Strings: the Teaching Cycle 115
Musical Rehearsal Planning Parallels with the Teaching Cycle 116
viii Contents
Lesson 11 117
Collé Bowing Exercise 117
Adjustment of Collé for the Low Strings 121
Exercises on the Instrument 121
Classroom and String Orchestra Setup 123

Lesson 12 128
Left-Hand Techniques 128
Performance Practices Specific to Orchestra 135

Lesson 13 138
Principal Schools of Bow: German, Franco-Belgian, and Russian; French vs. German Bass
Bow Holds 138
Bow Strokes and Expressions 139

Lesson 14 147
Common Technical Problems and Their Remedies 147
Common Faults Associated with Vibrato 153

Lesson 15 156
Videotaping of Second Playing Test 156

Lesson 16 161
Studio Teaching 161
Teaching the Violin 166
Teaching the Viola 169
Teaching the Cello 172
Teaching the Bass 176

Lesson 17 180
Pedagogical Understanding of String Teaching 180
Moving Students between Instruments 182
Preparation of Secondary-School String Program Observation 184

Lesson 18 186
A Presentation and a Discussion on the Secondary-School String Program Visit 186
Legato Playing, and Its Exercises 186

Lesson 19 190
Shifting, Vibrato, and Trill Exercises 190
 Contents ix
Lesson 20 196
Videotaping of Third Playing Test 196

Lesson 21 201
Extended Left-Hand and Bow Techniques 201
A Discussion on Heterogeneous String Class Method Books 205
Method Books 205
Technical Books 206
A Repertoire Book 206

Lesson 22 208
Selection of Repertoire: A Discussion on Graded Orchestra Repertoire 208
How to Avoid the Dreaded Over-Programming 210
Spiccato Exercises 211

Lesson 23 215
A Brief Discussion on First Year of Teaching and Contest Preparation 215
Writing a Lesson Plan for Individual and Classroom Teaching 216

Lesson 24 218
Videotaping of Fourth Playing Test 218

Lesson 25 223
Videotaping of Individual Lesson and Classroom Teaching 223

Conclusion 229

Appendix A 231
Instrument Sizing Chart 231

Appendix B 233
One and Two Octave Scales in D Major, G Major, and C Major for a String Ensemble 233

Bibliography 237
Index 239
Illustrations

1.1 The violin, front 6

1.2 The violin, bottom 6
1.3 The bow 10
1.4 The bow, frog detail 10
1.5 The playing partitions of bow 11
1.6 Down bow indication 12
1.7 Up bow indication 12
1.8 Frog, down bow indication superimposed 12
1.9 Tip, up bow indication superimposed 13
1.10 The left-hand finger numbers 14
2.1 Carrying a cello up the stairs in a soft case 17
2.2 Carrying a bass up the stairs 18
2.3 Carrying a bass down the stairs 19
2.4 Upper strings sizing: left hand placed on scroll 20
2.5 Upper strings sizing: left fingers placed on tapes 20
2.6 Cello sizing: C peg relative height behind student’s left ear 21
2.7 Cello sizing: left fingers placed on tapes 22
2.8 Bass sizing: first finger is at eye level when placed on first tape 22
2.9 Bass sizing: left fingers placed on tapes 23
2.10 Instrument Rental and Check-Out Contract 24
2.11 Correct upper strings setup 26
2.12 Correct upper strings instrument hold and posture 27
2.13 Balancing a ball between G and D strings on a violin 28
2.14 Upper strings left thumb’s proper height 30
2.15 Upper strings left index finger and thumb alignment 30
2.16 Upper strings proper space under neck between left index finger and thumb 31
2.17 Cello: proper left arm slope with left hand in first position 32
2.18 Bass: proper left arm slope with left hand in first position 32
2.19 Five Steps to Instrument Posture 34
2.20 Upper strings pizzicato with a bow 35
2.21 Upper strings pizzicato without a bow 35
2.22 Cello pizzicato with a bow 36
2.23 Low strings thumb chord strum 36
2.24 Bass pizzicato with a French bow 37
2.25 Bass pizzicato with a German bow 38
2.26 Low strings pizzicato without a bow 38
 Illustrations xi
2.27 The Basis for Upper-Strings Bow Hold 39
2.28 Two-Finger Pencil Bow Hold 39
2.29 Low-Strings Pencil Bow Hold 40
2.30 Upper-Strings Pencil Bow Hold 40
2.31 Pencil Bow Hold Rotated 41
2.32 Basis for the German Bow Hold 42
2.33 Pencil German Bow Hold, the “Chop-Stick Hold” 42
2.34 Incorrectly Straightened Pinky in Pencil Bow Hold 43
2.35 Incorrectly Straightened Thumb in Pencil Bow Hold 44
2.36 Incorrectly Positioned Thumb in Pencil Bow Hold 44
3.1 Upper strings tuning with fine tuners using left hand 48
3.2 Upper strings tuning with fine tuners using right hand 48
3.3 Cello tuning with fine tuners using right hand 49
3.4 Bass pizzicato tuning using left hand 50
3.5 “Pendulum” exercise 51
3.6 Swimming Octopus exercise 52
3.7 Kemangeh a’gouz (Turkish) 53
3.8 Viol of the 10th century 53
3.9 Gigue or rebec of 11th century 54
3.10 Crwth of 13th century from Worcester Cathedral 55
3.11 Two kits from Syntagma musicum 2/1619 55
3.12 Amati violin (ca. 1559), National Music Museum, The University of South
Dakota, Byron Pillow, Photographer 56
3.13 Stradivari violin “the Harrison” (1693), National Music Museum, The
University of South Dakota, Bill Willroth, Sr., Photographer 57
4.1 Opening and Closing the Imaginary File Cabinet exercise 64
4.2 Paper towel roll exercise while holding the roll 64
4.3 Paper towel roll exercise no. 1 65
4.4 Paper towel roll installed on a violin 65
4.5 Paper towel roll exercise with upper strings 66
4.6 Upper strings first finger pattern 67
4.7 Upper strings first finger pattern on the instrument 67
4.8 Cello left-hand finger placement on the instrument 68
4.9 Bass left-hand finger placement on the instrument 68
4.10 Rosining the bow 69
4.11 Weighing right arm 70
4.12 Finding the balance point of bow 71
4.13 Correct thumb position on bow 72
4.14 Correct bow placement on the instrument 72
4.15 D string arco exercise no. 1 73
5.1 Air Drawing exercise 76
5.2 Balancing the bow with three fingers 76
5.3 D string arco exercise no. 2 77
5.4 A string arco exercise 77
5.5 G string arco exercise 77
5.6 E and C string arco exercise 78
5.7 Natural harmonics of the violin family 80
5.8 Finding midpoint of string for a first-partial harmonic on upper strings 81
xii Illustrations
5.9 Finding midpoint of string for a first-partial harmonic on low strings 82
5.10 Low strings tuning with natural harmonics 83
5.11 Upper strings tuning on bass side of pegbox 84
5.12 Upper strings tuning on treble side of pegbox 85
5.13 Peg grip for cello tuning 86
6.1 Paper towel roll exercise no. 2 88
6.2 String-crossing exercise no. 1 88
6.3 A homemade shoulder rest 90
6.4 Spohr’s chinrest, as depicted in Violinschule 91
7.1 Paper towel roll exercise no. 3 96
7.2 String-crossing exercise no. 2 96
9.1 Correct winding of strings in the pegbox 109
9.2 Straightening the bridge of a violin 110
10.1 Manuscript detail of Bach Brandenburg Concerto in D Major, No. 5, BWV
1050, movement 1, Allegro 114
10.2 A string ensemble warm-up exercise based on Bach Brandenburg Concerto in
D Major, No. 5, BWV 1050, movement 1, Allegro 115
11.1 Forearm rotated counterclockwise to a 45° angle 118
11.2 Right hand with a restricted movement 118
11.3 Right hand extension of fingers (opened) 119
11.4 Right hand flexion of fingers (closed) 119
11.5 Isolated wrist with a rubber ball 120
11.6 Extension of the wrist (opened) 120
11.7 Flexion of the wrist (closed) 121
11.8 The collé action extension of wrist and flexion of fingers 122
11.9 The collé action flexion of wrist and extension of fingers 122
11.10 First collé action exercise 123
11.11 Collé action one-octave D major scale exercise 124
11.12 American Seating 125
11.13 An Alternate American Seating 125
11.14 European (or German) Seating 126
11.15 An Alternate European (or German) Seating 126
12.1 Simple and compound shifts 129
12.2 An exposed shift 129
12.3 Upward portamento 131
12.4 Downward portamento 131
12.5 Guide-finger portamento (from first to fifth position), Spohr, Violinschule 131
12.6 Rimsky–Korsakov, Sheherazade, movement 3, mm 1–5, first and second violin
sulla corda 132
12.7 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 5, Fandango asturiano, rehearsal
V, first- and second-partial natural harmonics 133
12.8 Ševčík, Preparatory Exercises in Double-Stopping, Op. 9 (1901), p 3 133
12.9 Executing a broken quadruple-stop chord 134
12.10 Executing a broken triple-stop chord 134
12.11 Executing a rolled quadruple-stop chord 134
12.12 Executing a rolled triple-stop chord 134
12.13 Chord divisions for quadruple- and triple-stop chords 135
12.14 Beethoven Symphony No. 1, opening measures 135
 Illustrations xiii
12.15 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 5, Fandango asturiano, mm 38–43,
guitar-like pizzicato chords 136
12.16 Orchestral notation shorthand samples 136
13.1 Paganini Caprice Op. 1, No. 7, mm 50–51, up and down bow flying staccatos 141
13.2 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 4, Scena e canto gitano, rehearsal L,
first and second violins, ricochet bowing 141
13.3 Mozart Symphony in E-flat Major, No. 39, movement 4, Allegro, second violin
section’s opening measures, an ondeggiando passage 142
13.4 Bach Violin Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1041, movement 3, Allegro assai, mm
105–108, first four measures of the bariolage passage 142
13.5 Paganini Caprice, Op. 1, No. 1, opening, ricochet arpeggiando bow stroke 142
13.6 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 1, Alborada, mm 33–36, first
and second violins, down-bow retakes 143
13.7 Hooked bowing 143
13.8 Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, Op. 14, movement 5, A witches’ sabbath, opening
measures, upper strings, tremolo 144
13.9 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 2, Variazioni, mm 73–75, first
and second violins, down-bow retakes 145
13.10 Prokofiev Third Piano Concerto in C Major, Op. 26, II. Tema con variazioni:
Andantino, first two measures, violins, violas and cellos, up-bow retakes 145
14.1 Correct first finger height on upper strings 149
14.2 Incorrect first finger height on upper strings 150
16.1 Back of violin for a body length measurement 162
16.2 Front of violin for a string length measurement 163
16.3 Upper strings fingerboard tape placement 164
16.4 Cello fingerboard tape placement 164
16.5 Bass fingerboard tape placement 165
16.6 Rubber band and corn cushion placements on the bow 165
16.7 Violin’s treble clef and open strings 166
16.8 Violin fingering chart for half and first positions 167
16.9 Violin stretches 167
16.10 Violin fingering chart from second through fourth positions 168
16.11 Viola’s alto clef and open strings 170
16.12 Viola’s alto and treble clef comparison 170
16.13 Viola fingering chart for half and first positions 171
16.14 Viola fingering chart from second through fourth positions 171
16.15 Cello’s bass clef and open strings 172
16.16 Cello’s common bass, tenor, and treble clef registers 172
16.17 Dvořák Carnival Overture, Op. 92, mm 270–71, cello treble clef as written and
sounding pitch in tenor clef 173
16.18 Cello fingering chart for half and first positions, backward and forward
extensions 174
16.19 Cello extensions 174
16.20 Cello fingering chart from second through fourth positions 175
16.21 Cello thumb position on A string in treble and tenor clefs 175
16.22 Double bass’s bass clef and open strings 176
16.23 Double bass’s common bass, tenor, and treble clef registers 176
16.24 Franz Simandl’s Bass fingering chart from half through fourth positions 177
xiv Illustrations
16.25 Edouard Nanny’s Bass fingering chart from half through fourth positions 178
16.26 Nanny’s C-sharp to D-flat one comma difference 178
16.27 Bass shift from fifth to thumb position on G string 179
18.1 “Down bow” Finger Dragging exercise 187
18.2 “Up bow” Finger Dragging exercise 188
18.3 Finger Dragging exercise 188
18.4 Holding the rubber band on down bow 188
18.5 Holding the rubber band on up bow 189
19.1 Shifting with paper on upper strings 191
19.2 Shifting with paper on low strings 191
19.3 A homemade vibrato exercise device 192
19.4 Heterogeneous shifting exercises 193
19.5 A heterogeneous first-finger vibrato exercise 194
19.6 A heterogeneous first-and-second-finger trill exercise 195
21.1 Glazunov Symphony No. 4, movement 2, Scherzo, rehearsal 31, first violins,
artificial harmonics 202
21.2 Verdi Aida, Act 3, mm 3–4, cellos, artificial harmonics 202
21.3 Saint–Saëns Danse Macabre, Op. 40, mm 25–32, first violin solo, scordatura 202
21.4 Double bass solo tuning 203
21.5 Bartók String Quartet No. 4, Sz. 91, movement 4, Allegretto pizzicato, m 119,
snap pizzicato 203
21.6 Paganini Caprice Op. 1, No. 24, variation no. 9, left-hand pizzicato 204
21.7 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 1, Alborada, mm 15–18, first
and second violins, an alternating right- and left-hand pizzicato passage 204
21.8 Mozart Violin Concerto in A Major, No. 5, K 219, “Turkish,” movement 3,
mm 227–31, low strings, col legno passage 204
21.9 Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, Op. 14, movement 5, A witches’ sabbath, rehearsal
number 83, upper strings, col legno 205
22.1 Upper strings bow drop 211
22.2 Low strings bow drop 212
22.3 A spiccato exercise 212
22.4 A slow spiccato one-octave D major scale 213
A.1 Instrument Sizing Chart 231
B.1 One octave D major scale for a string ensemble 233
B.2 One octave G major scale for a string ensemble 234
B.3 One octave C major scale for a string ensemble 234
B.4 Two octave D major scale for a string ensemble 235
B.5 Two octave G major scale for a string ensemble 235
B.6 Two octave C major scale for a string ensemble 236
Preface

Music teachers are often assigned to teach string instruments in their workplace. To assure
competence in this area, college and university-level String Techniques, String Methods, or
Instrumental Methods classes are an essential component of Bachelor of Music Education
degrees and satisfy course requirements of a course in a NASM accredited music program.
String Methods for Beginners is designed to serve as a primary text and resource book. It presents
25 lessons that correspond with two hourly classes per week for a semester and can be used in
full without any chapter omission. String Methods for Beginners and its accompanying supple­
mental materials are designed for the instructor to achieve an efficient and readily organized
class. Music students, majors, non-majors, or a class of both string majors and non-majors are
taught essential, fundamental playing and teaching skills on all orchestral string instruments.
This course has been prepared with 20 years of string orchestra, techniques, methods, and
pedagogy experience at the secondary and higher education levels, and was used in class at
University of Mississippi before it was published. This book provides the instructor with the
tools and aids required to face all eventualities of the student body: from a classroom of non-
majors to string education majors.

Notes for the Instructor

You may use any string method book or graded repertoire to accompany this textbook. As
you prepare the student instruments for this class, please mark all of your classroom
instruments with tape. You may affix four strips of 1/16 inch white striping tape on
fingerboards for this class (upper strings: whole, whole, 1/2, whole; cello: whole, whole, 1/2;
bass: whole, whole, whole, 1/2). For the violin and viola thumb alignment, you may place a
hole punch reinforcement label on the side of the neck. Lastly, behind the neck, you may
place a hole punch reinforcement label to help position the thumb for all low strings (for
detailed instructions on taping, please refer to Chapter 17).
Prepare the bows with white striping tape by marking the stick with two tapes roughly 8
inches apart at its middle 1/3 section, effectively partitioning the bow into three equal playing
sections. This reference gives students an exact visual cue in picturing the middle-third
portion, which is the first section of bow they will learn to play.
This textbook and its lessons have been planned to rotate among tasks to allow students to
build their stamina without causing tension or possible injury. Theoretical and practical aspects of
the course and rotating tasks between left-hand and right-hand techniques are arranged with that
interest in mind. Since playing string instruments involves breathing and uses the entire body, it is
highly recommended to begin classes with breathing and stretching exercises (see Instructor’s
Packet for specifics), as it is helpful for students to stand up and stretch to alleviate any possible
xvi Preface
tension during the rotation of tasks. In addition to those exercises, the Instructor’s Packet
(available at [Link]/9780367226862), provides additional resources as guided in-
class exercises, exams and quizzes, and a sample course schedule.

Notes for the Student

Be determined yet patient with your own progress in this course. After all, this is a survey
course that covers all four orchestral string instruments within a semester. Your instructor will
present this course much like it is in secondary-school teaching. Therefore, both the
terminology and choice of words are reasonably applicable to the age groups that you will
likely teach. For that reason, you need to start contemplating how to translate the knowledge
and activities we cover in this class to a specific age group. Toward that end, imagine and
treat your classmates as your future class, and start building your peer-teaching and
presentation language accordingly.
It is expected that in the earlier stages of this class you may not have much endurance in
holding and playing a string instrument. In this class you will acquire the necessary stamina
and comfort level to play for a prolonged period of time. Be observant of your body and
communicate with the instructor if you notice any discomfort with holding or playing an
instrument during class or outside of class. Lack of tension is of the utmost priority of this text
to introduce string instruments.
Acknowledgements

My special thanks go to my editor, Constance Ditzel, and editorial assistant Pete Sheehy;
production editor Lauren Ellis; project manager Natalie Thompson, and copy editor Emma
Lockley; for her help at National Music Museum, Ms Arian Sheets, for the help with excerpt
copyrights, Erin Dickenson; Dr Rodney Schmidt, Susan Gaston for their invaluable editorial
help; Senior Catalog Librarian Prof John Leslie, for his expert help with the index; Prof
Amanda Johnston for her encouragement and inspiration throughout the process; Dr Robert
Riggs and Prof Nancy Maria Balach Schuesselin, for their unwavering administrative support;
Master Luthiers Anton Krutz, Dustin Williams and Yücel Açın, for sharing their wisdom; and
Dr Mark Foley, Dr Jacob Dakon, Dr Kasia Bugaj, Frances Oare, Dr Steve Oare, Starkey
Morgan, Dr Christine Kralik, Dr Andrew Paney, Dr Ayşegül Giray, and Necati Giray for
making this book possible. I would like to express my gratitude to my former violin professors
Fritz Gearhart and Eliot Chapo for their encouragement, inspiration, and mentorship in
realizing this project. I thank my wife Wendy C. Giray and daughter Sara Pelin Giray for
their support and help through the long process of research and writing, and for realizing the
photography.
Lesson 1

Contents
Introduction 1
Address to Non-Majors 2
Address to Majors 2
Some Qualities of an Accomplished String Teacher 3
Fundamentals of String Instruments 3
Building Practice Skills 3
Course Outline 4
Course Requirements 4
Parts of String Instruments 5
External Features 5
Internal Parts 9
Parts of the Bow 10
Motions of the Bow 11
Course Timeline for Bow Application 13
Items to Receive a Quote, and if Necessary, Purchase 13

The first lesson will introduce the following:

• The discipline of string instruments.

• Some qualities of a string teacher.
• A quick overview of string teaching fundamentals.
• How to build string practice skills.
• A course outline and its requirements.
• A detailed list of string-instrument parts and the bow.
• Items to research and possibly purchase.

Introduction
Welcome! This class will cover topics necessary for teaching and learning string instru­
ments: the violin, viola, cello, and double bass—also known as the violin family. This is
a survey course exploring the fundamentals of those instruments and teaching considera­
tions, using a heterogeneous approach. This course will prepare students with the funda­
mental knowledge and experience to teach bowed stringed instruments in secondary
2 Lesson 1
schools. The students will gain an understanding and ability to play string instruments at
a rudimentary proficiency level, teaching string instruments in a heterogeneous setting in
a secondary school, learning pedagogical strategies to address common mistakes at this
level, and learning to produce good tone and left- and right-hand techniques on string
instruments. Because these lessons will encompass multiple string instruments at various
proficiency levels, some techniques covered may be above the student’s current playing
capabilities, nevertheless, students will have an understanding of how to teach and what
strategies to follow for those necessary techniques.
It is necessary to use string instruments in a variety of settings, such as recruiting, building school
and community support for the music program, and collaborating with the band and choral
programs. Whether in due course students will assume the role of a string teacher at a secondary
school or not, a good understanding of string instruments is essential for any well-rounded musician.
The skills presented in this class must be practiced daily regardless of previous experience. It
is an expectation of this course for students to practice their assigned instruments outside class,
in addition to their major instruments or voice. The goal of this class is to provide students with
pedagogical strategies to gain new string-related experiences, and therefore increase their
comfort level as string teachers. The students may, however, incorporate prior experiences
from their disciplines in the daily string practice regimen.
When it comes to string-specific issues, students may not have an understanding and an
appreciation for the complexities they will face in recruiting for their future program.
Generally speaking, both choir and band programs are more numerous and more readily
accepted than strings, therefore, promoting strings is more challenging. Even though strings
make up the majority of a full orchestra, which is a familiar sounding ensemble, only 8.8% of
US adults have attended a classical music concert.
In addition to traditional methods, some secondary-school teachers foster their string
programs by seeking answers in alternative styles such as strolling strings, rock, and non-
Western genres. Through our course we will study the issue of recruiting, promoting for
strings, and consider possible solutions for those challenges.

Address to Non-Majors
If you think this is just another routine methods or techniques course, I urge you to consider the
following: even though your current primary career goals might be completely different, there is
a real possibility you will become a string teacher at a secondary school. Those of you with a non-
string background make up anywhere from 25% to 30% of public school string teachers in the
US. “How so?” you may ask. It just might be that the path to your dream job of Director of Bands
or Director of Choirs at such-and-such high school comes with the caveat of 50% string teaching.
It is the reality and distinct possibility that your efforts this semester may very well make up the
contents of your toolbox, and be the first steps toward string teaching. Furthermore, it may very
well lead to a change in your career goals, and you might become a string teacher!

Address to Majors
Regardless of your major instrument, your instructor may call upon your skills as a string
major, where you will be expected to help with peer-teaching. The initial, or the setup phase
is the time where most hands-on teaching is necessary. Therefore, your instructor may ask for
your help in physically molding your classmates into the perfect stance, and instrument hold.
Furthermore, your instructor may ask for you to share your earliest experiences as a string
 Lesson 1 3
student—as in reservations, fears, and memorable discoveries—and why those memories
made a lasting impression on you.

Some Qualities of an Accomplished String Teacher

A gifted string player, and an accomplished string teacher are not necessarily one and the same.
With talent, education, and much practice, one can acquire the knowledge and facilities of
a superlative string performer. Although it is a major accomplishment and arguably an
advantage, performance ability alone does not spontaneously make said performer a competent
teacher. Furthermore, as we have discussed earlier, some of the finest string teachers are of non-
string background. Among the required qualities of a string teacher are: a discriminating ear and
unrelenting demand for intonation and tone quality, a thorough understanding of—and
instantaneous solutions to—the technical demands of all string instruments, an in-depth knowl­
edge of the string repertoire, and an inexorable enthusiasm for music and teaching.

Fundamentals of String Instruments

In this course, we will accomplish the following list of fundamental elements of string
instrument playing, strategies in teaching those rudiments in the secondary-school setting,
and all relevant competencies required of a string teacher:

1. Instrument hold.
2. Bow hold.
3. Sound production: bow weight, speed, and placement (contact point).
4. Left-hand and bow-arm techniques.
5. Music reading skills and rhythm exercises.
6. Common technical problems and their remedies.
7. Teaching individual instruments: violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
8. Discussion on various teaching approaches.
9. Instrument selection and maintenance.
10. Developing knowledge of string library and graded repertoire.
11. Programming appropriate repertoire for a string ensemble.

Building Practice Skills

As music students understand and appreciate the necessity of continuous practice on any
major instrument, each string instrument requires the same dedication to daily practice.
Furthermore, it is imperative to learn how to practice these particular string instruments. The
ability to play string instruments requires two separate and seemingly unrelated activities: the
left hand, and the bow arm. It takes perseverance and focused practice to undertake both
techniques separately, and eventually combine them. If students devote the required outside-
class time, their comfort level will allow the required attention during class, and they will be
able to focus on other essential elements. Also, performing in front of the class on a string
instrument might be an uncomfortable prospect—given that students of this class are
accomplished performers in their major area. Therefore, a regular and attentive practice
regimen is the only way for students to acquire the ability to perform on all members of the
string family.
4 Lesson 1
Course Outline
Reading, theory, and applied approaches to string instrument teaching will be discussed
during class. Students do not possess much stamina at the earliest stages of string playing
regardless of age. Correct playing position cannot be sustained for a prolonged time. During
class we will switch between tasks to build endurance. All string instruments will be taught
concurrently for maximum learning opportunities through observing other instruments in
action.
Students will gain the knowledge and ability to demonstrate the items below:

1. Awareness of diverse string class teaching strategies.

2. Knowledge of the history and development of string instruments.
3. Parts of the instruments.
4. Care, maintenance, and recognition of quality brands.
5. The importance of working with local violin shops for lease, purchase, and repair needs.
6. Demonstrate correct posture, instrument hold, and bow hold.
7. Gain an understanding of, and ability to perform with desirable tone production and
intonation.
8. Ability to perform at Grades I to II.
9. Ability to recognize and fix common bad habits in beginning-level string students.
10. Gain knowledge of the basic finger patterns on all four string instruments and play scales
and arpeggios in D major, G major, and C major from one to two octaves.
11. A thorough understanding of first position and shifting to higher positions, playing ability
in first position.
12. Ability to demonstrate the basic bow strokes détaché, martelé, staccato, and spiccato, and
their appropriate application to basic period styles. In addition, gain an understanding of
bowings and bow distribution.
13. The student will be able to demonstrate and teach vibrato on the assigned instrument
and will have an understanding of particular vibrato approaches on all string instruments.
The student will have knowledge of those teaching strategies of vibrato as well as
common vibrato problems and appropriate solutions.
14. The student will know the knowledge base for Grades I through to VI, and published
recommended lists for school orchestra music.
15. Good recruitment and retention strategies for string classes and knowledge of successful
string and orchestra scheduling in schools.

Course Requirements
1. Attendance.
2. Completing the assignments at the end of each lesson.
3. Reviewing the previous lesson.
4. Reading the following lesson prior to class.
5. Active involvement in class is expected, and furthermore, you will assist the instructor in
actual teaching when called upon and demonstrate good peer teaching habits throughout
the class.
6. All string instruments demand daily practice. Students are expected to practice every day
of the week, throughout the semester. There is no other way to acquire the necessary
 Lesson 1 5
motor skills required by those instruments. Thirty minutes of practice a day is the
preferred method, but not three hours of practice crammed into one weekend.
7. Visit an area secondary school: the instructor will modify this component by the local
access to a competent string program, and availability of participating string teacher(s).
8. Four playing tests: the student will receive a grade on proper posture, and instrument
hold. Correct left- and right-hand positions, intonation, tone production, correct style
and bowing, and overall facility (please see Playing Test Rubric for the exact criteria).
9. Written work: write a report on a secondary-school string or orchestra class visit at the
discretion of the instructor.
10. Midterm, written exam, final exam.

Parts of String Instruments

All four instruments in the violin family are bowed chordophones, featuring a wooden
resonator or soundbox, and a neck. The members of the violin family, violin, viola, cello,
and double bass, are purpose-built instruments for their acoustical properties: the strings
under tension are excited and engage the bridge, which rocks back and forth on top of the
bass bar and sound post. The sound post is what engages the back plate, which behaves like
a trampoline to move up and down. This pulls air in and out of the f-holes, thereby
producing an amplified sound. All orchestral string instruments use three different kinds of
wood selected for the density, flexibility, and resonance ability required for that particular
portion of the instrument.
Most commonly used wood are:

1. Maple: the hardwood used to make the back, neck, ribs, and bridge.
2. Spruce: the softwood used to make the rest of the instrument. Specifically, the top plate,
bass bar, sound post, linings, corner blocks, neck block, and end block.
3. Ebony: a dense wood used to make the pegs, string nut, fingerboard, saddle, and end
button. It is black, or very dark brown in color. Ebony is always used for the fingerboard.
Rosewood or boxwood may be used instead of ebony for other areas. The ebony, or its
substitutes, are not varnished but left in their natural state.

Let’s identify parts of string instruments students will need to know at this point. All must
memorize these parts, as the instructor will refer to them for all of the following class activities
(Figures 1.1 and 1.2):

External Features
1. Scroll: the scroll at the top of all string instruments is an ornate yoke. Some earlier
instruments would have carvings of a human head, a lion head, etc. Some contemporary
makers and factories leave out the ornamentation and terminate the top of the pegbox
without a scroll. However, the student instruments will exclusively have the scroll, giving
the player reliability in weight and length reference points.
2. Pegbox: this is the carved portion of the yoke with four pegs holes drilled, two on each
side. In some older instruments, there may be signs of repair on the peg holes due to
wear over time.
3. Pegs or Tuning Pegs: the four pegs are made of ebony, boxwood, or rosewood. They
are conical in shape, and are only held in place by friction. The pegs are fitted by
Figure 1.1 The violin, front

Figure 1.2 The violin, bottom

 Lesson 1 7
shaping the pegbox with a peg reamer, shaping the pegs with a peg shaper, cutting the
ends with a hand saw to eliminate the extra overhang, and by drilling holes on the peg
for the string to go through. The two pegs of the lower strings are attached on the
corresponding side, and the two upper string pegs on the opposite side. The outmost
string peg is always located on the bottom on each side. Roth-Caspari mechanical pegs
are discussed in Lesson 9.
4. Machine Head: the double bass is furnished with a machine head or individual
machine head pegs to ease tuning. A machine head is a set of streamlined metal gears
located on a plate, allowing the player to tune with great precision and little effort, and
individual machine heads perform the same function without the need of a plate.
5. C-String Extension: on the double bass, this is an option for the low E string (E1) to
be extended down to a C-natural (C1). It is a requirement for an orchestral bassist, and
only an advanced student would need this option.
6. Nut or String Nut: the ebony string nut is at the beginning of the fingerboard and the
resonating portion of the string. The length of the string nut is aligned with the neck and
fingerboard, but it is cut slightly higher than the fingerboard to allow the string to
resonate freely. The string nut has four rounded corresponding channels to allow the
individual strings to be routed, and be able to slide back-and-forth during tuning without
causing any chafing.
7. Fingerboard: most well-made instruments use a fingerboard made of ebony.
8. Neck: carved of maple matching the back and ribs. It is secured onto the instrument by
gluing it to the neck block. Neck thickness, width, and smoothness are all essential
elements for ease of playing. Traditionally, the length of neck is not treated with colored
varnish.
9. Back or Back Plate: the back is cut in the book-matched fashion, and those two pieces
of spruce are glued in the center, known as a two-piece back plate (found in student-
grade instruments), or is made of single cut maple, known as one-piece.
10. Ribs or Sides: made of maple, ribs are six pieces of grain-matching wood, curved to
the instrument mold and glued to the internal blocks. Also, internally, they are fortified
by linings. The violin maker soaks the pre-cut and planed pieces of ribs then uses
a bending iron to bend those pieces to match the instrument mold.
11. Top Plate or Belly: this portion of the instrument is spruce, cut in the book-matched
fashion and glued at the center. It is either a two-piece top plate (found in student-grade
instruments) or a single-cut spruce one-piece top plate.
12. F-holes: the two mirroring soundholes or f-holes are positioned both on the bass and
treble side of the bridge and are shaped like a lower-case script letter f. They allow
resonant air to escape the resonator or soundbox. This enhances the amplitude and tone
quality of the instrument. The inside notch of the letter F marks the alignment of the
bridge. The label may be seen through the f-hole on the bass side. Furthermore, these
soundholes allow the installing and adjusting of the sound post, among other luthierie
functions, as mundane as removing dust balls, called “dust bunny”.
13. Bridge: an unvarnished cut of maple. The ornate cut of the bridge is mostly standard,
however, some subtle differences from maker to maker can be observed. Its two feet on
the treble and bass sides—or treble foot or bass foot—are fitted to the particular shape of
each instrument. Also, the crown must follow a template and it should match the profile
of the fingerboard. The bridge must be fitted within perfect measurements, what is called
a shop setup. A quick guide for bridge placement is that the inner notches of the f-hole
line up with the top of the bridge. However, on older instruments, this practice may not
8 Lesson 1
produce the desired standard measurement. Therefore, it is best to measure the top of
the bridge from the string nut, ensuring perfect resonating string length.
14. Purfling: predominantly a decorative item, is three sandwiched pieces of pearwood with
two outer layers dyed in black, inlaid into a channel carved near the edges of the top and
back plates. Aside from pearwood, other types and combinations of wood or even other
materials may be used to make purfling. Those include: maple, poplar, ebony, boxwood,
and plastic or synthetic materials. Some inexpensive instruments are painted to look like
purfling. However, those instruments lack the function of purfling: to stop cracks or
knocks at corners and bouts (especially the C-bout where unintentional bow contact may
occur) from advancing further. This line of defense is especially helpful for the top plate
that is made of softwood, in contrast of the hardwood back.
15. Tailpiece: usually a piece of ebony, it supports four holes with a wedged end atop, one
for each string, or a fine tuner (or string adjuster) to be installed. On its bottom, tapered
end are two holes, where the tailgut is attached. Some tailpieces come with four built-in
fine tuners. A few makers for tailpieces are Wittner, Thomastik-Infeld, and GEWA.
Tailpieces may be wood (ebony, boxwood, rosewood, or pernambuco), composite
graphite, plastic, aluminum alloy, or carbon fiber.
16. Tailgut: historically catgut, or twisted cattle intestine, has been used until the invention
of nylon tailgut. Fernando Sacconi’s (1895–1973) adjustable nylon with brass adjusters,
known as Sacconi tailpiece adjuster, revolutionized tailgut with its safety, reliability, and
for being impervious to all weather and barometric pressure changes. Recently, the
Kevlar tail cord came to the market as a viable option or aircraft-rated steel wire rope
assembly for a double bass. Student instruments often use a nylon tailgut, or Sacconi­
style tailpiece adjuster, although it is possible to come across a catgut on an older
instrument, or a solid wire hanger on a double bass.
17. Saddle: the ebony piece that fits at the end of the top plate, where the tailgut rests and
bends at a 90˚ angle before looping onto endpin or end button.
18. Strings: historically, strings have been made with gut or silk. Currently, the violin family
instruments use synthetic, wound, or steel strings. Strings need to be evenly strung onto
the fingerboard, properly shop adjusted to resonate freely without buzzing when plucked
or played with the bow. The bridge should not raise the strings too high for comfort
when playing.
19. End button: located at the tailpiece end of the violin or viola. It is a peg inserted
through a hole into the rib and the end block and secures the strings onto the instrument.
It must withstand pressures in excess of 55 pounds on a violin.
20. Endpin or spike: located at the bottom of the cello or double bass, the endpin is
a retractable metal rod inserted into a conical ebony plug (or fitting). It is secured and
adjusted by a metal sleeve and a tightening screw. Some performers insert a non­
adjustable endpin, made of ebony, rosewood, or boxwood, but all student instruments
are furnished with adjustable endpins.
21. Varnish: one of the violin maker’s signs of mastery and personalization, varnish has
been subject to extensive discussions. For our purposes, we will mention that there are
two varnish bases: oil and alcohol (spirit). Violin makers apply multiple coats of varnish,
both colored and clear, depending on the type of varnish, and the vision of end product.
Some mass-produced student instruments, however, may not have any sealer ground
applied before the varnish, or a spray varnish may be applied, or paint in some cases.
22. Chinrest: most likely made of a piece of ebony grooved to fit the violin or viola player’s
jawbone or underneath the side of the mandible. There are two holes where the chinrest
 Lesson 1 9
clamp screws are attached. Some chinrests attach to the left of the tailpiece, some rest
across it. Most inexpensive student instruments have a plastic chinrest. The chinrest must
fit the student without the clenching of teeth or other signs of tension. Companies do
make adjustable chinrests that can fit an individual player, leaving the left hand free to
move without the weight of the instrument.
23. Shoulder Rest: the shoulder rest is an accessory attached below the lower bout of the
instrument, where it is placed roughly below the chinrest and rests on top of the
collarbone (or the clavicle) of the player. Shoulder rests vary in shape, size, and material.
Shoulder rests can be a thin piece of fabric or foam, suede, metal, wood, or carbon fiber.
Students should be fitted with a properly sized chinrest and shoulder rest or pad.

Internal Parts
1. Bass bar: is a piece of spruce, cut, fitted, and glued underneath the top plate. It is on
the lower pitched side of the instrument just inside the f-hole and below the bass foot of
the bridge. It is approximately 3/4 the length of the top plate and it tapers at both ends.
The thickest point is the middle conforming to the inside curvature of the top plate.
Some student instruments may not have a separate bass bar, but it may be formed
during the shaping of the top plate.
2. Sound post: is a spruce dowel, cut, fitted, and friction wedged with a sound post setter
on the treble side of the instrument just beyond the treble foot of the bridge. To avoid
the sound post moving or falling, the instrument cannot be subjected to forceful knocks
or jolts. Also, when changing strings, a single string should be replaced at a time, in order
not to take a chance with the sound post falling.
3. Blocks: made of spruce, the neck, end, and corner blocks are glued and shaped into the
mold, and after the mold is removed, remain as structural stiffeners, and foothold points
of string instruments.
4. Linings: these are thinly cut edge pieces of spruce—much like the ribs—bent into shape
with an iron, and glued on both top and back edges of the ribs. They help with the
structure of the instrument, and extend the gluing surface of both the top and back of the
instrument.
5. Glue: a water-soluble bone and hide glue, traditionally from horses, known as “cologne”
glue is used in making and repairing string instruments. The beige-colored glue pearls
are melted in a double-boiler, and applied while warm. The gluing surfaces are cured
under pressure by way of clamping overnight, or up to 24 hours for larger surfaces. The
use of proper water-soluble glue allows for the instrument to be maintained and repaired,
allowing the top plate or any other part to be removed without damage. Student-grade
instruments may make this practice impossible by using permanent, furniture-grade
wood glue in the manufacturing process.
6. Label: affixed inside of the instrument on the bass side of back plate, the label identifies
the maker, year, and city. Historically it is written in Latin, regardless of the country of
origin, indicating fecit, the maker, (or faciebat, he made) and anno year. More-or-less this
tradition continues to date. In student instruments the label specifies which instrument
was modeled after in production of the instrument, along with its manufacturing specifics
as model and serial numbers. The label in an older instrument is never to be taken at
face value by a layperson, as fake, unreliable, and missing labels are commonplace.
10 Lesson 1
Parts of the Bow
Let’s look at the bow and its parts and how these parts function (Figures 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5).

• The Stick: the bow shaft, called the stick, is made of dense wood such as pernambuco,
brazilwood,1 rosewood, or snakewood—mostly on Baroque or gamba bows. Pernambuco
(caesalpinia echinata) comes from the eastern pacific-coast region of Brazil—the country’s
namesake—has been the most desirable material for finest bows, and is currently an
endangered species. There are, however, synthetic materials which respond much like
their biological counterparts. Most student bows are made of fiberglass, and select carbon
fiber bows are becoming more accepted among professional string players.
• Frog: made of ebony (sometimes ivory, tortoiseshell, or plastic), the frog anchors the
hair. Sometimes a completely decorative inlaid mother of pearl dot adorns either side of
the frog, and can be used for pedagogical reasons, as to placement of the middle or the
ring finger. Sometimes another decorative shape such as a flower embellishes the frog, or
this inlaid dot is omitted altogether.

Figure 1.3 The bow

Figure 1.4 The bow, frog detail

 Lesson 1 11

Figure 1.5 The playing partitions of bow

• Button or Adjuster: on top of the frog and inside the shaft mortise, the button, or
adjuster is a threaded brass piece offering a shank and an adjustable eyelet, which
accommodates the tightening screw.
• Bow Hair or Hair: bow hair is perhaps among the most important elements of sound
production. With the help of applied rosin, which creates friction, the bundle of bow hair
makes the string vibrate. The horse hair comes from the tail of a male cold climate horse such
as a Siberian or Mongolian. For most string instruments, white horse hair is used, however,
bass bows may use a “peppered” black-and-white combination, or all black horse hair for the
coarse qualities of the black hair, arguably allowing for a better “bite”. Inexpensive student
bows, however, may have synthetic hair, which is inferior to real horse hair.
• Tightening Screw: the tightening screw is inserted into the shaft right above the frog
and attaches onto the button or adjuster.
• Slide: a decorative piece of mother of pearl is attached onto the bottom of the frog,
which disguises the hair, where it is anchored onto the frog with a maple tenon (or plastic
in the case of inexpensive student bows), called a frog plug.
• Ferrule: [/‘fɛrəl/] a metal piece attached onto the frog by friction with the help of
a spread wedge, keeps the slide in place, shaped with a rounded top and flat bottom
perfectly fitted to the contours of the frog.
• Grip: the grip is a piece of leather that wraps onto the stick, adjacent to the frog.
• Winding: a Silver wire wound onto the stick where the index finger rests, placed right at
the end of the grip. Sometimes winding is omitted—as in the case of some student bows.
• Tip: the terminating end of the bow, referred to as the “head” within the context of bow
making, is shaped like a hatchet in which the hair is secured. The hair bundle is wedged
into the mortise cavity and secured with a tapering piece of maple tenon (or plastic in the
case of inexpensive student bows), called a tip plug. Under the hatchet is an ivory piece,
which extends further than the shaft, protecting it from knocks, or drops.

Motions of the Bow

Playing with the bow, referred to as arco playing, will require the down-bow and up-bow
motions (Figures 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9). The down bow direction is from frog to tip, and
12 Lesson 1

Figure 1.6 Down bow indication

Figure 1.7 Up bow indication

Figure 1.8 Frog, down bow indication superimposed

conversely, up bow from tip to frog. Down and up bow, however, merely refer to the bow
direction only, but not its placement. For instance, it does not necessarily mean for the bow to
be placed at the frog for down bow motion to take place, for it can occur anywhere in the
bow. Generally speaking, down bow occurs on strong beats, and up bow on weak beats. The
reason for this preference is the weight distribution of the bow and the natural arm
movement for starting every bow stroke.
 Lesson 1 13

Figure 1.9 Tip, up bow indication superimposed

Course Timeline for Bow Application

In this course, we will learn fundamentals of string playing as separate components before
combining them all. As far as the bow technique is concerned, we will first:

• Become familiar with the bow hold.

• Learn preparatory bow exercises.
• Learn all motions associated with the bow.
• Apply the above to open strings.
• Lastly, combine the fingered playing with the bow (Figure 1.10).

Items to Receive a Quote, and if Necessary, Purchase

• A complete string instrument outfit: 4/4-size violin, 15 1/2”–16” viola, 4/4 cello, and
3/4-size double bass.
• Shoulder rest for upper strings.
• Endpin stop for low strings.
• Rosin.
• Mute.
• Dust towel.
• A set of student-grade strings such as D’Addario Prelude.

Although the assigned string instrument should come with all furnishings, it is prudent to
receive a quote on every replaceable and personalized item. A shoulder rest or an endpin stop
14 Lesson 1

Figure 1.10 The left-hand finger numbers

for a string player is akin to a mouthpiece or a reed for a wind player. If feasible, students
should go to a local specialized violin shop, rather than a general music shop.

Assignment

1) Purchase the textbook and other items as requested by the instructor.

2) Prepare the quote list for the assigned instrument, and be ready to share it with the class.
3) Prepare a typed, one-page, double-spaced essay that answers the following questions, to
be turned in at next class:
• Why did you enroll in this course?
• What do you hope to learn in this course?
• What secondary instrumental experiences do you have, if any?
• What string experience do you have, if any?
• Which particular string instrument interests you, and why?
• Do you have any pre-existing condition that the course instructor should be aware
of when assigning your instrument?
• In a perfect world, what ensemble and grade-level would you teach?
4) As per the syllabus mark the videotaping and playing dates in your calendar.
5) Fill out the student’s portion of the Instrument Rental and Check-Out Contract (see Lesson 2).
6) Memorize parts of string instruments and the bow.
7) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 2.

Note
1 Sometimes used interchangeably with pernambuco, here it encompasses all subspecies of this family
of trees.
Lesson 2

Contents
Theory: Instrument Overview and Care 15
Heterogeneous String Classroom Setup 17
Instrument Assignment 18
A Review of Parts of String Instruments 23
Applied: Posture and Instrument Hold 25
Posture and Instrument Positioning 25
Left Hand and Left Arm Shape 29
Five Steps to Instrument Posture 31
Proper Right-Arm Positioning for Pizzicato 34
Preparatory Bow Exercises 37
German Bow Hold Exercise 41

This lesson’s objectives are:

• Learn how to care for the assigned string instrument.
• Become familiar with seating arrangements in a heterogeneous string class.
• Learn the string instrument assignment process.
• Become familiar with, and be able to point to parts of the newly-assigned string
instrument.
• Learn string playing posture and how to hold the instrument.
• Learn to play pizzicato.
• Learn preparatory bow exercises.

Theory: Instrument Overview and Care

Before we discuss playing and teaching we must first address instrument precaution and
protection considerations. It is most likely that the instructor has assigned mass-produced
student-grade instruments in this class, which are known to be durable and rather forgiving.
However, no student instrument can be expected to survive when it is stepped on. Thus, it is
best to learn how to respect instruments and treat them as best as we can and set a good
example for our future students. Toward that end it is imperative that we establish
a classroom procedure for each task and abide by that routine. Many successful string
teachers have strict rules and expectations for every routine task in their classes.
16 Lesson 2
While under our care we should never expose any of the string instruments to the following
situations:

• Extreme heat or cold.

• Direct sunlight.
• Close to a heat source.
• In a wet and damp environment.
• To be dropped, jarred, or shaken.

The following maintenance rules apply to the bow:

• The bow hair must be loosened after each playing session, otherwise constant tension will
cause the bow to warp.
• Never touch the bow hair, since oil from your hand will impede the bow’s ability to
retain rosin, and will cause gunk to build.

The students may already be familiar with carrying an instrument case, however, string
instruments may require a bit more care due to their construction materials and their
particular structure, as we briefly discussed in Lesson 1. For instance, all members of the
violin family contain a dowel made of spruce, called a sound post. This custom-cut piece of
wood is not glued, but is held in place by snugly fitting it with a sound post setter, and is
further secured by string tension on the instrument—more on this as we discuss changing
strings. The bridge is also held in place by string tension, and is the highest point on top of all
string instruments, therefore, it should be guarded against all knocks, furthermore, it may not
be well protected in the case, if the instrument is not tied down to the case by any internal
ligature. Hard cases provide an exceedingly wide range of protection. Where a well-made
case can take the greatest torment imagined by commercial airline carriers, another may
suddenly open when one least expects it and drop the instrument. However unlikely, metal
strap clips (lobster claw hooks, clasps, or snap hooks), and their plastic cousins are known to
fail, and the instrument may fall onto the floor from as high as the shoulder height. At the
time of instrument assignment, it is advisable to become familiar with the instrument case.

How to Carry an Upper-Strings Hard Instrument Case

• Upper string cases should be carried with the top bulge away from the person carrying
the case.
• The case may be placed on its side, or flat, but not on its bulged top, as it will put weight
onto the bridge.

How to Carry a Low-Strings Soft Instrument Case:

• Cello soft cases do not protect the bridge of the instrument so use caution when passing other
objects and moving through doorways, or carrying it up and down the stairs (see Figure 2.1).
• The same concern pertains to the double bass scroll while carrying inside its soft case, and
without it. The person carrying the instrument must beware of the height of the doorjamb,
and be cautious that the retracted endpin will not get caught over a threshold, and remain
clear and behind the carrying person while carrying the bass up or down the stairs (see
Figures 2.2 and 2.3).
 Lesson 2 17

Figure 2.1 Carrying a cello up the stairs in a soft case

How to Open and Close an Upper-strings Instrument Case

Place the hard case on a chair where it is secure and open it. Momentarily, for example,
while rosining the bow, the violin or viola may be placed in the case while the case is open.
Once out of its case, never place an upper-string instrument on the floor, or on a chair!
Similarly, never hang an instrument on a music stand by its scroll. Such careless practices must
be avoided at all times. When putting an instrument away, remove the shoulder rest or
shoulder pad, wipe off any rosin from the belly of the instrument and strings by the bridge
and the bow stick with a dust towel and loosen the bow hair.

How to Open and Close a Low-strings Soft Case

First, remove the bow from the soft case’s front pocket, and place the soft case on its side on
the floor. Unzip the case from the bottom, hold the instrument by the neck, and remove from
the case. Conversely, when putting instrument away, reverse the entire process and place the
bow in the case as the last item.

Heterogeneous String Classroom Setup

The instructor of this class most likely follows a seating system most consistent with
the particular classroom and class setting that allows quick access to each student.
18 Lesson 2

Figure 2.2 Carrying a bass up the stairs

Therefore, it is imperative that all belongings, including backpacks and instrument cases, be
placed well away from the playing area of the classroom. Once the assigned seating is
established per the instructor’s directions, it is the responsibility of students to follow this
established procedure to maintain a safe and functional classroom setup. A well-organized
string classroom is imperative to teach effectively and maintain a safe environment.

Instrument Assignment
The instructor will be assigning instruments by fitting them as they are assigned. Generic
features of hands best fitted for particular instruments are as follows:
Violin: medium-size hands with equal spacing between fingers.
Viola: medium-size hands with longer fingers and equal spacing between fingers.
Cello: larger and stronger hands with wide spacing between fingers.
Bass: larger, stronger, and stout hands with wide spacing between first and second,
and second and fourth fingers1.
These rather generalized preferences must be broached with care and discussed with
students during instrument assignment, providing a logical justification why it is best to
start with a particular instrument based on the student’s physical features. The
 Lesson 2 19

Figure 2.3 Carrying a bass down the stairs

assignment may be a tender subject and some students may have their hearts set on an
instrument in advance. It is imperative that the teacher takes care to explain in detail
and exercise judgment in this process. At the time of recruitment it is best to have
a small ensemble to present a musical selection for prospective students to hear each
instrument. It is likely that this is the first time they will have heard a string instrument
played live.
First, all students should get their arm measurements from the side of the neck to mid-
palm: extend the arm straight out, palm up, and measure. See Appendices for further
measurement information. To determine each student’s correct size, the instructor will
place the violin or viola in the playing position on the collarbone, and the student will
reach around the scroll with their left hand (Figure 2.4). If the hand cannot reach the
scroll comfortably with a relaxed elbow, the instrument size is too large. If the scroll can
be reached with a relaxed elbow, the instructor will help the student place their
first, second, third, and fourth fingers on the first position tapes that are marked on the
neck, and keep the thumb aligned with first finger (Figure 2.5). It is imperative for
a teacher never to assign an instrument too large for a student, as playing on an ill-fitted
instrument may cause intonation, technical, and most importantly, permanent physical
issues.
Figure 2.4 Upper strings sizing: left hand placed on scroll

Figure 2.5 Upper strings sizing: left fingers placed on tapes

 Lesson 2 21
For the cello, the instrument size can be determined with the following method: student’s
overall height vs the instrument scroll, C peg behind student’s left ear (Figure 2.6), and left-
hand fingers placed on proper tapes on the fingerboard without having to over extend. To
fit the cello, locate an orchestral chair at the proper height for each student: heels should
make full contact with the floor, and knees should be at a 90° angle. If students need to find
a different chair, they must do so before attempting to fit the cello. To fit the left hand,
place the first, third, and fourth fingers on the first position tapes that are marked, and keep
the thumb opposing the second finger under the neck. The fingers should be in the proper
left-hand position (C shape) to remain rounded while they reach proper placement, and
should not be straightened (Figure 2.7).
To fit the double bass, adjust the endpin length to bring the first tape of the fingerboard
to the eye-level of the student (Figure 2.8). To fit the left hand, place the first, second, and
fourth fingers on the tapes that are marked on the neck, and keep the thumb behind
the second finger. Just like the cello, the fingers should be in the proper left-hand position
(K shape) to remain rounded while they reach proper placement, and should not be
straightened (Figure 2.9). Once the students have fitted for the proper size and been
assigned an instrument, all students need to fill out the proper sections and return the
Instrument Rental and Check-Out Contract to the instructor (Figure 2.10). The necessary
information for the instrument is either in the label inside the instrument by the maker or
the factory, outside the instrument affixed by a particular institution (e.g. the university),
or occasionally, both.

Figure 2.6 Cello sizing: C peg relative height behind student’s left ear
Figure 2.7 Cello sizing: left fingers placed on tapes

Figure 2.8 Bass sizing: first finger is at eye level when placed on first tape
 Lesson 2 23

Figure 2.9 Bass sizing: left fingers placed on tapes

A Review of Parts of String Instruments

Now that students have been assigned their new string instruments, we will go over the parts
of string instruments that were introduced in Lesson 1, by touching each part named by the
instructor, and name the kind of wood or material used to make that particular item.

1. Scroll
2. Pegbox
3. Pegs or Tuning Pegs: touch the pegs one by one from the lowest to the highest tuning
(violin: G, D, A, E; viola: C, G, D, A; cello: C, G, D, A; double bass: E, A, D, G).
4. Nut or String Nut
5. Fingerboard
6. Neck
7. Back or Back Plate
8. Ribs or Sides
9. Top Plate or Belly
10. F-holes
11. Bridge
12. Purfling
13. Tailpiece
14. Tailgut
15. Saddle
 Sample Instrument Rental and Check-Out Contract

This institution hereby makes a loan and grants temporary custody of the musical instrument listed
below to ___________________________________________, hereinafter “the Student”.
(PRINT full name)

1. If Student notices that repair is needed, he/she must notify his/her area director immediately.
2. The Student shall replace or repair the instrument if lost or damaged.
3. The instrument listed below shall be returned to the School of Music by the last day of finals of the
semester for which it is checked out. Failure to return instrument by deadline will result in
student being placed on Academic Hold with the University, a report will be made to the University
Police Dept., and appropriate legal action will be taken as necessary.

Instrument Shared with:______________________

Instrument Brand Name Student ID No

Serial No. Equipment/
Accessories

Case No

Instrument to be used in which class, ensemble: MUS _________ Ensemble___________

In signing this contract, the student agrees to all of the above conditions and acknowledges receipt of the
above instrument with any equipment and accessories listed.

______________________________ _______________

Student Signature Date

Student Information
My Student ID: __________________
Local Address: ___________________________________ Local Phone: _____________________
Home Address: ___________________________________ Home Phone: _____________________
Email Address: ___________________________________ Cell Phone: _____________________

Office Use Only

Person Issuing Instrument: ________________________ Date Instrument Issued: _______________

Person Checking Instrument In: ____________________ Date Instrument Returned: ____________
Copy of Driver’s License/State ID Card attached: __ Copy of Student ID Card attached: __

Figure 2.10 Instrument Rental and Check-Out Contract

 Lesson 2 25
16. Strings: touch the strings one by one from the lowest to the highest, naming the
string you are touching (violin: G, D, A, E; viola: C, G, D, A; cello: C, G, D, A; double
bass: E, A, D, G).
17. End button
18. Endpin or spike
19. Chinrest
20. Shoulder Rest

Point at the exact spot on your instrument as the instructor names the internal part, and
name the sort of wood used to make it:

1. Bass bar
2. Sound post
3. Neck Block
4. End Block
5. Corner Blocks
6. Linings
7. Label

Applied: Posture and Instrument Hold

When it comes to an instrument hold there are multiple schools of thought, and below is
one way of teaching proper posture on all string instruments. Chinrest and shoulder rest
height decisions with the upper strings, and height and angle decisions with the low
strings are among those varying choices. If the student has an established posture and
setup, whether it follows the below guidelines perfectly or not, it does not need to be
changed. However, if the student demonstrates engrained bad habits, evident by tension
and other visible signs, it is necessary to intervene and address those posture and setup
issues.
Eminent pedagogue Rolland prefers well-balanced weight shifting between both feet,
Suzuki favors the left foot,2 as does Joachim,3 while Havas prefers the “third leg” theory,
where the balance is maintained at the base of the spine.4 When it comes to the sitting
position both Rolland and Havas promote a well-balanced weight distribution, complete with
the “third leg” expression of Havas, while Suzuki promotes a forward-sitting position and left-
leg preferred balance.

Posture and Instrument Positioning

Upper Strings Standing Position

The definition of good posture for the upper strings is standing tall, shoulders back (never
raised), feet shoulder-width apart, in a straight line to allow one heel to come off the floor,
allowing a sway motion. A good analogy for this posture is as follows: the student must
stand much like riding in public transportation, as in a bus, subway car, etc. Therefore, the
upper strings students can keep their balance and will be able to sway without feeling
“boxed in”.5
Once proper posture is achieved, upper string students turn their heads 45° to the left and
place the violin or viola on the collarbone. The instrument should be at a slight angle to its
26 Lesson 2
right, but not too steep. Also, the positioning on collarbone should not allow the instrument
to droop onto the chest, or be raised onto the shoulder. It is impossible to overstress how
critical it is not to tilt the head onto the instrument, or clinch the jaw. The scroll will be high
enough to allow the strings to be perfectly horizontal, or parallel to the floor, and “nose,
scroll, elbow, toe” adage is helpful in remembering this positioning (Figures 2.11 and 2.12).
Additionally, Rolland’s Balancing a Ball exercise (or Holding Game) is an effective way to
keep the instrument from drooping: place a ping pong ball or rubber ball in-between the low
two strings between the bridge and the end of the finger board, and keep it from rolling away
from the bridge (ensuring proper instrument height), and falling off from the side (ensuring
proper instrument angle) (Figure 2.13).6 Upper strings instruments that are properly fitted to
the student with shoulder rest and chinrest, should be held in place without the help of the
left hand. In other words, lifting or keeping the instrument in place is never the left hand’s
job: the sole responsibility of the left hand is to play. At this early stage it is common for
students to experience the instrument to droop onto chest, or struggle with other issues in
holding the instrument, therefore, constant attentiveness is necessary. The instructor may
have to make adjustments with the shoulder rest or chinrest, until a comfortable and reliable
instrument hold is attained.

Upper Strings Sitting Position

In this class we will sit tall in the front four inches of the chair (never leaning back), shoulders back
(never raised), feet shoulder-width apart, with the left heel planted and the right knee low enough to

Figure 2.11 Correct upper strings setup

 Lesson 2 27

Figure 2.12 Correct upper strings instrument hold and posture

allow free bowing. While sitting down in an ensemble, upper string players must maintain the
exact healthy foundation for their instrument as they have established while standing. This
involves balancing the weight between the hips and feet and sitting straight but not rigid. The
instrument positioning should remain exactly the same as the standing position.

Cello Sitting Position

The cello player sits tall (never leaning forward, or torso rotated), shoulders back (never raised), using
only the front four inches of the chair with their feet open at shoulder-width apart. The cello will be
placed in front of the body and endpin placement should create a triangle between the feet and the
endpin. The following reference points will decide the cello’s tilt angle: the student will extend the
endpin to about 6 inch by placing the cello in the guitar position (longer endpin length for a taller
28 Lesson 2

Figure 2.13 Balancing a ball between G and D strings on a violin

student, and shorter one for the opposite), scroll pointing left, left hand holding the neck. Once the
endpin is extended, points of the backside lower bout will be in contact just in front of, and slightly
above the knee bone, the top of the upper rib (or upper edge behind the neck) will be right on top of
the breastbone, C peg behind the left ear, and the neck is one fist-width above the left shoulder. The
cello will be slightly tilted toward the left knee, but will not poke into the side of either knee and the
right knee should remain low enough to allow free bowing. The fingerboard and endpin should be
aligned with the student’s centerline and the instrument should not be crooked. Lastly, the left hand
should be able to reach the entire span of the fingerboard, and the left fingers will be able to stretch
on the corresponding tapes or notes (on D string: first finger on E-natural, third finger on F-sharp,
and fourth finger on G-natural) in their proper position, and without any discomfort. “Hugging” the
instrument is a good way for proper instrument angle and endpin length to be confirmed.

Double Bass Sitting Position

The string-bass players may use a 24-inch metal shop stool, or a 24-inch wooden bar stool.
Depending on the student’s height, some adjustment may be needed with the stool selection. The
student will extend the endpin to about 6 inch. The player will sit tall (never leaning forward or
torso rotated), shoulders back (never raised), the instrument will be slightly leaning back with the
right corner of the instrument in front of the sternum, the instrument should be positioned
diagonally in front of the player (the student should not sit on the side or behind the instrument)
with f-holes facing the conductor. The left knee will be behind the double bass, while the right
 Lesson 2 29
foot should be planted firmly on the floor. The first finger will be at eye level when placed on the
first tape (A-natural on the G string). The right-hand palm must be able to make contact with the
bridge without leaning forward. If the bridge is too low to make contact with the palm, extend the
endpin, even though the first finger of the left hand will be above eye level.

Double Bass Standing Position

The student will extend the endpin to about 6 inches. The player will stand tall (never leaning
forward or torso rotated), shoulders back, feet shoulder-width apart. The right corner of the
instrument will be in front of the sternum, the instrument should be positioned diagonally in front
of the player (the student should not stand on the side or behind the instrument) with f-holes
facing the conductor. The instrument will lean slightly into the player, and be balanced without
any weight on the left hand. Remember, the left hand’s responsibility is to never carry the
instrument, but to play. Just like in the sitting position, the first finger will be at eye level when
placed on the first tape (A-natural on the G string). The right-hand palm should be able to make
contact with the bridge without leaning forward. If the bridge is too low to make contact with the
palm, extend the endpin, even if the first finger of the left hand is above eye level.

Left Hand and Left Arm Shape

The left hand and arm must be free of tension and completely pliable so that the student may play
comfortably, remain free of injury, and so that solid technique can be built upon it. To
accomplish a tension-free foundation, relax the shoulder and the entire left arm. In the initial
phase of learning string instruments, it is crucial to rotate between tasks (as in left arm, bow hold,
bow arm, and instrument hold), so that students do not get tense while building their stamina.

Upper Strings
The left hand will be positioned on the right side of the neck, the third crease of the index finger
(right above index knuckle) forming an imaginary line following the natural curve of the finger­
board. The base of the thumb nail should be about across the third index crease (Figures 2.14 and
2.15). Left thumb naturally opposes the rest of the hand on the left of the neck, touching lightly
but never clamping down on it. The height of the thumb depends of the individual, however, the
neck should never rest on the bottom of this first interdigital space (between thumb and index),
but there must be enough space to push a pencil under the neck (Figure 2.16). Thumb should be
able to move back and forth and be removed from the neck at will. If not, the thumb is too tight.
The upper arm will be supinated slightly to allow the tips of curved four fingers to hover right
above their assigned tapes and the elbow would be under the instrument, pointing at the floor but
never pointing behind the student. It is imperative this rounded position for left fingers remains
so, even when playing open strings: do not allow the left fingers to pop up but keep them in their
curved position. The wrist will be straight from all angles but not collapsed, flexed, or radially
deviated at the beginning-level of playing covered in this course. It is expected that students will
reinforce these good habits throughout the open-string stage.7

Cello
Left hand will be positioned on the left side of neck with a C-shaped hand allowing the first,
third, and fourth fingers to hover right above their assigned first position tapes. Place the
Figure 2.14 Upper strings left thumb’s proper height

Figure 2.15 Upper strings left index finger and thumb alignment
 Lesson 2 31

Figure 2.16 Upper strings proper space under neck between left index finger and thumb

rounded thumb opposite the second finger under the neck, letting only the tip of the thumb
make light contact with it. The wrist must be perfectly straight, not collapsed, or radially
deviated. The arm will have a natural slope where the arm is raised at about 30° to 45° with
the shoulder in its ordinary position, but not raised (Figure 2.17).

Double Bass
Left hand will be positioned on the left side of neck with a K-shaped hand allowing the
first, second, and fourth fingers to hover right above their assigned first position tapes. Place
the rounded thumb opposite the second finger under the neck, letting only the tip of the
thumb make light contact with it. The wrist must be perfectly straight but not collapsed, or
radially deviated. The arm will have a natural slope where the arm is raised at about 30° to
45° with the shoulder in its ordinary position, but not raised (Figure 2.18).

Five Steps to Instrument Posture

As the optimum posture and instrument hold have been discussed, the below is a pedagogical
strategy to achieve the same in a secondary-school classroom. In this course the following
Five Steps to Instrument Posture will be employed to consolidate the foundations of posture
and instrument hold, however, students are encouraged to start pondering their own class­
room friendly terminology (Figure 2.19).8
Figure 2.17 Cello: proper left arm slope with left hand in first position

Figure 2.18 Bass: proper left arm slope with left hand in first position
 Violin/viola Cello Bass

Preparation Shoulder rest on Endpin out Endpin out

1 Stand, feet in “V” posi­ Stand four inches in front of Stand, left hand holding the
tion, instrument in rest chair, left hand holding the bass by its neck with the
position, arms by your cello by its neck with the instrument on your left side.
side. instrument placed on your left
side.
2 Move left foot slightly Sit on front four inches of Take one step back and
out, to 9 o’clock position, chair and place feet in open slightly to the side with the left
place left hand on position. Cello remains sup­ foot, so that you are now just
shoulder of instrument ported by left hand on your behind the left upper bout of
(underneath the neck) left side. instrument.
with thumb on backside
of instrument.
3 Move instrument with Move cello in front of body. Twist bass slightly so that the
left hand in front of your Endpin placement should right back upper bout is
stomach with the arm create a triangle between feet angled towards your stomach.
stretched out, bring right and endpin.
hand index finger to the
end button.
4 Lift violin/viola with Tilt cello back towards body. Tilt bass back towards body,
both hands directly Points of backside lower bout corner of back upper right
overhead. contact just inside knee bone, bout rests between hip bone
top of upper rib contacts and stomach. Endpin height is
breast bone, C peg behind correct if knuckles of extended
ear, neck is one fist width bow arm contact bridge.
above your shoulder. You will
have to play with the angle of
the instrument and endpin
height to fit to individual
student.
5 Bring instrument down to Wrap arms around cello neck Wrap arms around bass neck
left shoulder and turn to “hug” without lifting to “hug” without lifting
head to the left (45°), with­ shoulders. shoulders.
out tilting it, place jawbone
inside chinrest making
sure tip of jawbone con­
tacts chinrest. Left elbow
should be able to come
under instrument and be
over left toe.

Common Errors

Violin/viola not high enough on shoulder Reposition

Neck of cello too low on shoulder. Check angle of instrument to body and endpin
Cello not high enough on chest. length.
Cello held inside legs. Lengthen strap and endpin.
Violin/viola: chin in chinrest instead of jaw. Touch jaw bone, check height of instrument on
shoulder, have student look straight at you, then
turn head to look down fingerboard.
34 Lesson 2
Left-Hand Position

Violin/viola Cello/bass

1 Instrument in playing position. Instrument in playing position, drop relaxed left

Left hand on shoulder, thumb under. hand by side.
2 Make a “stop sign” (thumb at first tape, aligned Reach straight out to left to hold onto an ima­
with the first finger), point thumb at ceiling, neck of ginary soda can.
instrument rests just above first finger’s knuckle and
at first joint of thumb.
3 Walk fingers down on tapes “one, two, and three”. Reach across neck of instrument to your right
shoulder, then slowly slide back to the
fingerboard.
4 Align your nose with scroll, and elbow with toes, Place fingers at tapes, check thumb position.
reciting the following reminder: “nose, scroll,
elbow, toe”.
5 Correct positioning will allow fingers to contact Maintain “C” shape of hand—thumb directly
string from above string at tip of finger. Finger nails behind second finger, curved on neck—do not
pointing down at an angle. The angle will be flatter allow to collapse. Bass place second finger equal
from the first to the fourth fingers. distance between first and fourth finger.

Common left-hand errors: Remedy

Collapsed wrist. Concentrate on pointing thumb to ceiling—make sure it is not

too high above fingerboard.
Physically move students’ hands, and have them wiggle the wrist
to relax, and come to a rest at straight position.
Squeezing with first finger. Do pre-shifting and vibrato exercises.
Sirens, polishing strings and keeping the squirrel hole with the left
thumb.
Fingers collapsing as you cross string. Walking finger exercise.
Upper string elbow too far to left. Pinky strums: focus on finger angle to string.
Bass/cello thumb position: thumb Pad or sticker at back of neck, or tape line.
comes too far around neck.
Bass/cello elbow collapse. Remind daily that there is an invisible beach ball under left
elbow.

Figure 2.19 Five Steps to Instrument Posture

Proper Right-Arm Positioning for Pizzicato

The right-arm position for pizzicato is essentially the same as the regular bow-hold position.
The proper right arm slope must be maintained throughout pizzicato playing for the
particular string. To play pizzicato notes the player will forego the bow hold and grasp the
frog in the hand, allowing a particular finger to pluck the string. Exact thumb anchoring and
plucking finger angles vary depending on the individual instrument, however, the regular
plucking point is three to four inches inward on the fingerboard.
Much like with the bow, tonal adjustment while playing pizzicato is possible by way of
contact point and the point in which the finger plucks the strings. The closer to the bridge,
 Lesson 2 35
the more metallic and present the sound, the further onto the fingerboard the more subtle.
Similarly, the more pulpous portion of the first joint, the fuller, the further to the tip of the
first joint, the more metallic the tone quality of note.9

Upper Strings
The tip of the right thumb will be anchored at the right bottom corner of the finger­
board. Bow will be secured in the hand by the middle, ring, and pinky fingers, and will
be pointing up. The first joint of the index finger will pluck the string (Figures 2.20 and
2.21). When playing a pizzicato chord, the index finger will strum from the lowest string
to the highest.

Figure 2.20 Upper strings pizzicato with a bow

Figure 2.21 Upper strings pizzicato without a bow

36 Lesson 2
Cello
The tip of the right thumb will be anchored on the side, at the last three to four inches of the
fingerboard. Bow will be secured in the hand by the middle, ring, and pinky fingers, and will be
pointing up. The first joint of the index finger will pluck the string at an angle (Figure 2.22). When
playing a pizzicato chord, the thumb will strum from the lowest string to the highest (Figure 2.23).

Figure 2.22 Cello pizzicato with a bow

Figure 2.23 Low strings thumb chord strum

 Lesson 2 37
Double Bass
The tip of the right thumb will be anchored on the side, at the last three to four inches of the
fingerboard. Bow will be secured in the hand by the middle, ring, and pinky fingers, and will
be pointing up if French, pointing down if German (Figures 2.24, 2.25 and 2.26). The first
joint of the index finger will pluck the string at an angle. When playing a pizzicato chord, the
thumb will strum from the lowest string to the highest.

Preparatory Bow Exercises

In order to produce a reliable and pleasing tone, the bow hold must be free of tension,
and the arm movement associated with bowing should be fluid. The combined use of
weight of the bow arm, and fluid motion of the bow make up the foundation of tone
production.

Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-String Pencil Bow Holds

This is the preliminary introduction to the bow grip, which we will accomplish later. The
reason for the pencil exercise is to learn the bow hold without having to carry the weight of
a bow, which can cause tension. Initially, we will use a regular hexagonal pencil to describe
a bow hold, or bow grip, in five steps:

Figure 2.24 Bass pizzicato with a French bow

Figure 2.25 Bass pizzicato with a German bow

Figure 2.26 Low strings pizzicato without a bow

 Lesson 2 39
Step one: the basis of upper- and low-string bow holds is unified, tip of right thumb’s first
joint has a natural inward curl at about a 120° obtuse angle, and its tip touches the first-
joint of the middle finger (Figure 2.27).
Step two: the pencil will be captured in-between the tip of the thumb and behind the first
joint of the middle finger (Figure 2.28).

Figure 2.27 The Basis for Upper-Strings Bow Hold

Figure 2.28 Two-Finger Pencil Bow Hold

40 Lesson 2
Step three: allow the index, ring and pinky fingers to rest on the pencil (Figure 2.29). We
now have the low-string bow hold.
Step four: place the tip of the pinky on top of the pencil. We now have the upper-strings
bow hold (Figure 2.30). Lastly, rotate the bow hold to double-check on thumb, so that it
remains slightly bent (Figure 2.31).

Figure 2.29 Low-Strings Pencil Bow Hold

Figure 2.30 Upper-Strings Pencil Bow Hold

 Lesson 2 41

Figure 2.31 Pencil Bow Hold Rotated

Ultimately, all bow holds will have the middle finger resting on the ferrule. On the upper-
string bow hold, the tip of the finger will make contact with the ferrule, where, with the low
strings, the finger will extend below it. The ring finger, however, may rest on the ferrule in
the French double bass bow hold due to school of bowing. The thumb positioning may also
be different (bow holds will be discussed again in Lesson 13).

German Bow Hold Exercise

In the case of the German double bass bow hold, the pencil exercise is different. This is
a bow grip that resembles a chop-stick hold.

Step one: the basis is the thumb, index and middle fingers are joined at the tips
(Figure 2.32).
Step two: the pencil will be captured in-between the tip of the thumb, middle and ring
fingers (Figure 2.33).
The ring and pinky fingers float, and are not pasted onto the middle finger. Ultimately, the
ring finger will support the grip underneath the ferrule.

All through these exercises, it is absolutely critical to keep the thumb slightly bent and not
allow it to collapse, keep all other fingers rounded, and do not raise your knuckles. The bow
grip must remain pliable and relaxed, and never become rigid and tense (Figure 2.34). Unlike
the straightened pinky and elevated knuckles, the straightened thumb is unobservable from
the student’s point of view, therefore, it is a good idea to rotate the bow hold to observe the
Figure 2.32 Basis for the German Bow Hold

Figure 2.33 Pencil German Bow Hold, the “Chop-Stick Hold”

 Lesson 2 43

Figure 2.34 Incorrectly Straightened Pinky in Pencil Bow Hold

straightened first joint (Figure 2.35), or incorrectly positioned thumb (Figure 2.36). Repeat
this exercise and get comfortable with it. At this stage it is common that students start with
a perfect bow grip, and lose it subsequently. Therefore, it is imperative to stay determined,
yet patient with oneself and join the instructor in offering constant encouragement and help
to classmates.

Assignment
1) Write a typed, one-page, double-spaced essay that answers the following, to be turned in
at next class:
• How, where, and when did the standardization of the violin family take place?
• What are some differences between the viol and violin families?

2) Listen to 16th century consort music, provide the name of the work and its
instrumentation.
3) Notate the open strings of all four members of the violin family on staff paper in the
correct clef and pitch.
4) Repeat Five Steps to Instrument Hold, Left Hand Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step
Upper-String Pencil Bow Hold exercises.
5) Practice pizzicato exercises.
6) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 3.
Figure 2.35 Incorrectly Straightened Thumb in Pencil Bow Hold

Figure 2.36 Incorrectly Positioned Thumb in Pencil Bow Hold

 Lesson 2 45
Notes
1 Dillon-Krass and Straub, Establishing a String and Orchestra Program, 20.
2 Shin’ichi Suzuki (1898–1998) was a Japanese string pedagogue, and founder of the Suzuki method.
3 Joseph Joachim (1831–1907) was an influential Austro-Hungarian violinist and pedagogue.
4 Kató Havas OBE (1920–2018) was British violinist and pedagogue of Hungarian birth known for her
work in injury prevention and stage fright.
5 It is preferable to teach upper strings in the standing position during the first stages of string playing.
Likewise in this class until good posture is achieved, the instructor will always require the upper
strings students to play in standing position.
6 Rolland and Mutschler, The Teaching of Action in String Playing: Developmental and Remedial Techniques [for]
Violin and Viola, 71.
7 Playing in higher positions, as the 5th, 6th and up, the wrist will bend slightly forward to allow left
hand’s reach.
8 Five Steps to Instrument Posture follows variations of Paul Rolland’s feet positioning and “Statue of
Liberty” (Rolland and Mutschler, The Teaching of Action in String Playing: Developmental and Remedial
Techniques [for] Violin and Viola, 70.), and is based on Frances Oare’s same-titled list with minor
changes.
9 The extended techniques of snap pizzicato and left-hand pizzicato will be discussed later.
Lesson 3

Contents
Applied: Review of Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position 46
Tuning 47
Scholastic Ensemble Tuning Sequence 47
How to Tune 47
“Pendulum” Exercise 49
Preparatory Bow Exercises (continued) 50
Theory: A Brief History of the String Instruments 51
Emergence of the Modern Violin: the Brescian and Cremonese Schools 54
The Current State of Violin Making 57
Hand-made vs. Factory-made Instruments 58
Tone Production 58

This lesson will introduce:

• A quick review of the Five Steps of Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position.
• Tuning.
• Pizzicato: “Pendulum” exercise.
• Preparatory bow exercises.
• A historical overview of string instruments.
• A discussion of tone production.

Applied: Review of Five Steps to Instrument Posture

and Left-Hand Position
We will go over the Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position procedures
until those skills become second nature. At this juncture, it is necessary for the instructor to
take a hands-on approach. Any advanced members of the class, and if available, assistants will
help the instructor by physically correcting any posture and setup issues. This phase may be
characterized as the “molding period”, where it shapes the fundamental setup and determines
the ultimate technical ability on the instrument. It is difficult to overstate the significance of
good setup and the necessity for tension-free playing. After this lesson students are expected
to memorize these steps on their assigned instruments.
 Lesson 3 47
Tuning
Efficient and proper tuning of string instruments is a formidable challenge for any string
teacher, as the task and quality control of tuning falls squarely on the shoulders of the
teacher. There are numerous successful strategies for tuning and it is the string teacher’s
responsibility to decide which strategy to employ to achieve a desirable accuracy. Proper
tuning of instruments is critical to allow students to play in tune, promote conscientious
approach to intonation, and help improve their aural skills.
In professional orchestras the standard concert a’ is given (with the help of an electronic tuner)
from the first oboist to the Concertmaster, then it is moved onto the string, woodwind, and brass
sections of the ensemble. The number of times an A is played to tune different sections, the order in
which those sections are tuned, and how many sub-sections of the ensemble are tuned separately
depends on the particular ensemble. Even the exact Hertz (or cycle per second) an orchestra tunes
depends on variables such as the ensemble’s artistic choice and established traditions.
In a string ensemble the Concertmaster plays concert a’ to which all sections are tuned.
Those sections can be tuned separately by members of the violin family to ensure that healthy
tuning occurs: violins, violas, cellos, and double basses. Contingent on the number and playing
level of students in each section, this division may be altered at the discretion of the teacher.
This course will examine tuning in three different segments:

1) Scholastic ensemble tuning sequence.

2) Tuning by way of adjacent strings.
3) Tuning by way of natural harmonics.

Scholastic Ensemble Tuning Sequence

In this lesson we will discuss scholastic ensemble tuning sequences preferred by many secondary
string teachers: A, D, G, C, and E. To accomplish this method of tuning, at first, the standard A (A
or A2, a or A3, and a’ or A4) is produced and sustained by a tuner, CD player, or an instrument.
The drone pitch should be at an amplitude that allows students to hear their instruments in
meticulous tuning of their strings. Then the same procedure is repeated on the following pitches on
corresponding octaves for each open string: D, G, C, E. Only one pitch at a time is tuned, albeit
multiple octaves may be tuned concurrently if tuning multiple sections at once.

How to Tune
In the beginning stages students require the teacher’s help in tuning their instruments, however, they
must become self-sufficient without delay. Tuning is a significant part of every string player’s
education, as it is a fundamental proficiency to develop. The ability to tune impeccably is vital; not
only for the ensemble’s intonation, but also for student’s unimpeded development in aural skills. To
attain tuning experience rapidly, students will first start using fine tuners (tuning with pegs will be
introduced later in Lesson 5). The following pizzicato tuning method is not ideal as far as pitch
accuracy is concerned, nonetheless, it will let students gain valuable tuning experience with fine
tuners at this early stage of instruction.

1) Upper Strings: proceed through the Five Steps to Instrument Posture. Once in position,
reach for the A-string fine tuner with your left index finger and thumb and pluck the string
continuously with your right index finger to tune it. This is an excellent way of getting used
to tuning with the left hand in preparation to arco tuning (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). Fine tuners
Figure 3.1 Upper strings tuning with fine tuners using left hand

Figure 3.2 Upper strings tuning with fine tuners using right hand
 Lesson 3 49
are manufactured to tighten clockwise for a higher pitch “righty tighty” and loosen
anticlockwise for a lower pitch “lefty loosey”.
2) Cello: proceed through the Five Steps to Instrument Posture. Once in position, reach
around the cello for the A-string fine tuner with your right index finger and thumb and
pluck the A-string continuously with your left third finger to tune it (Figure 3.3). Fine
tuners are manufactured to tighten clockwise for a higher pitch “righty tighty” and
loosen anticlockwise for a lower pitch “lefty loosey”.
3) Double Bass: proceed through the Five Steps to Instrument Posture. Once in position,
reach for the A-string metal peg with your left index finger and thumb and pluck the
A-string continuously with your right index finger to tune it (Figure 3.4). Machine heads
are manufactured to tighten clockwise for a higher pitch “righty tighty” and loosen
anticlockwise for a lower pitch “lefty loosey”.

“Pendulum” Exercise
Follow the Left-Hand Position procedure. Once in position, move your left arm from the
lowest to the highest string hovering position, and repeat it back and forth. Once comfortable
with this motion, play the following “Pendulum” exercise with the guidance of the instructor.
The fourth finger will pizz. all four strings, starting from the lowest to the highest. To
accomplish the exercise’s intended goal, students must keep their wrists straight from all
angles but not allow them to collapse, flex, or radially deviate. It is imperative that the entire

Figure 3.3 Cello tuning with fine tuners using right hand
50 Lesson 3

Figure 3.4 Bass pizzicato tuning using left hand

arm moves with a pendulum motion to pluck the strings, but not the finger and the wrist
(Figure 3.5).

Preparatory Bow Exercises (Continued)

First, repeat Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-String Pencil Bow Hold exercises,
all the while making sure to keep the thumb bent at a natural angle (roughly 120° obtuse
angle) and not allowing it to collapse, keeping all other fingers rounded, and not raising the
knuckles.
Second, we will start the Air Drawing exercises by wiggling our fingers to draw imaginary
shapes as circles, horizontal and vertical straight lines, and crosses in the air with our pencil,
all the while not losing the basis of bow grip. In other words, students will never allow the
pencil to roll between the tip of the thumb and first joint of the middle finger while
performing these exercises, and allow the first joint of thumb to collapse but always keep its
natural inward curl.
Third, the Swimming Octopus exercise will be imitating the bow motion in air. The
forearm and wrist will be pronated, and both wrist and all five fingers will act as the
swimming octopus as graceful and smooth as the animal itself (Figure 3.6).
 Lesson 3 51

Figure 3.5 “Pendulum” exercise

Theory: A Brief History of the String Instruments

Early History of Bowed String Instruments

All four instruments of the violin family can be classified as composite chordophone,1 a variant of
bowed lute, featuring a wooden resonator, or soundbox, and a neck. It is believed that bowed
chordophones originated in Central Asia, and by the 10th century it was common throughout
Islam and the Byzantine Empire. The Mongolian and Turkic spike fiddles of ikil, huur, khuur,
qobuz, or hugur, and their Chinese counterpart huqin—“barbarian string instrument”—is said to
have become common in China in the mid-8th century, however, it is believed to have arrived
from Mongolia centuries earlier.2 Mongolian traditions label and shape parts of instruments with
equine references as morin khuur (khuur with a horse head), as well as mare or stallion horse hair
used in bows, and two horse hairs for strings, one thin nariin and one thick büdüün.3 Most likely the
first chordophones, spike fiddles share the common dowel shaped long yoke that goes through
52 Lesson 3

Figure 3.6 Swimming Octopus exercise

the sound resonator, and as the name ikil indicates, the instrument has two strings. It is likely that
the table, or the top resonator is made of stretched membrane, such as snakeskin. The earliest
depiction of a bowed string instrument, between the 9th and 10th centuries, was on a wall
painting of a rubāb in the Palace of the governor of Khulbuk, located in the Kurban Shaid
settlement of the Vose region, in southern Tajikistan. In the 10th and 11th centuries, there have
been Byzantine depictions of bowed string instruments. The mention of rabāb, a common name
for a bowed lute, is made in medieval texts in Arabic, dating back to the 9th and 10th centuries,
and slight variations of the same instrument are found in North Africa, the Middle East, Central
Asia, and throughout Asia. In literature, however, al-Fârâbī’s indication of drawing [bow] strings
over the instrument’s strings is the first mention of a bowed chordophone. (The word for bow hair
and instrument string has been used interchangeably.)
European rebec, originated from rabāb and Byzantine lūrā, appeared in the continent in the
late 10th to 11th centuries. One of two of the earliest common shapes of rebec were the pair-
shaped version as the Greek lira (or Greek kemençe), and the more narrow version with a top
resonator made of stretched skin. In addition to the copious variations of lyra and rebec,
other instruments as gigue, fiddle, Welsh crwth, and viol have all helped make the rich and
varied tapestry of bowed string traditions throughout the following centuries—both in term
and in instrument shape—before the advent of the modern violin. The instrument shape of
rebab and rebec is exceedingly close. One significant difference between the playing positions
of the two instruments is the European tradition of placing the instrument on the arm, where
Figure 3.7 Kemangeh a’gouz (Turkish)
Illustration by Edward Heron-Allen (1884)

Figure 3.8 Viol of the 10th century

Illustration by Edward Heron-Allen (1884)
54 Lesson 3

Figure 3.9 Gigue or rebec of 11th century

Illustration by Edward Heron-Allen (1884)

Far Eastern, Central Asian, Middle and Near Eastern instruments are vertically placed,
whether on the ground, in front of the torso or placed on the knee (Figures 3.7–3.11).
When we discuss viols, as in viola da gamba [leg viol], lira da braccio [arm lyre] and viola
da braccio [arm viol], all refer to instruments labeled so by virtue of their playing position
and range.

Emergence of the Modern Violin: the Brescian and Cremonese Schools

Before the emergence of the modern violin, much of the range distribution, number of
strings and their tuning, among many other aspects of the abundance of string instru­
ments were not standard. Depending on region, country, and musical traditions, an
array of string instruments were abound. By the 16th century, several prominent
makers, or luthiers, were perfecting and standardizing the modern violin, and its
family members. In northern Italy, Brescia was a leading school in early violins. The
earliest violin maker with surviving instruments of the Brescian school is Zanetto da
Figure 3.10 Crwth of 13th century from Worcester Cathedral
Illustration by Edward Heron-Allen (1884)

Figure 3.11 Two kits from Syntagma musicum 2/1619

56 Lesson 3
Montichiaro (1489/90–1560/61). Zanetto’s son Peregrino, and grandsons were all violin
makers—as the violin-making tradition was founded upon apprenticeship practices and
family shops. Another early, and among the best representatives of the Brescian school
is Gasparo da Salò (1540–1609). Gasparo was also born to a family of musicians and
makers, and is known particularly for his violas. Gasparo passed his craft onto his son
and pupils, among whom is Gio[vanni] Paolo Maggini (1580–1630/31?). Maggini was
specially known for his more than 60 violins and is said to be a source of inspiration for
notable luthiers as Guarneri and Stradivari.
The founder of the Cremona school of violin makers was Andrea Amati (b before
1511–1577) (Figure 3.12). Credited as not only the patriarch of the Amati family of
makers, but of the modern violin, his form of the instrument is widely accepted as
standard to date. Andrea Guarneri has apprenticed with the grandson Nicolò Amati
(1596–1684), with whom he learned the Amati’s style of violin making. His grandson,
Giuseppe “del Gesù” (1698–1744),4 however, is considered one of the two most influential
violin makers in the history of the instrument. Italian virtuoso violinist and composer
Nicolò Paganini’s (1782–1840) favorite violin, the fabled 1742 “del Gesù”, he nicknamed
Il Cannone, is one of many fine examples of existing instruments of Giuseppe “del Gesù”.5

Figure 3.12 Amati violin (ca. 1559), National Music Museum, The University of South Dakota, Byron
Pillow, Photographer
 Lesson 3 57

Figure 3.13 Stradivari violin “the Harrison” (1693), National Music Museum, The University of South
Dakota, Bill Willroth, Sr., Photographer

Undoubtedly, the most awe-inspiring name in violin making is Antonio Stradivari

(1644/9–1737) (Figure 3.13). Not much is known of his education, however, his possible
apprenticeship with Amati may be deduced from a label, dated 1666, where he signed as “pupil
of Nicolò Amati”. In addition to the aforementioned, there have been numerous noteworthy
Italian makers and families: Bergonzi, Gagliano, Guadagnini, and Rugeri to name a few.
Throughout Europe, there have been many international makers of historical prominence who
produced notable instruments, such as Jacob Stainer (1617–1683) in Austria, Mathias Klotz
(1653–1743) and the Klotz family in Germany,6 and Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume (1798–1875) in
Mirecourt, France.

The Current State of Violin Making

Although the great influence of the 17th- to 18th-century Italian violin makers continues to
date, many international makers have been experimenting new techniques of all aspects of
violin making to great success, and have arguably surpassed the work of old masters.78
Changing taste and contemporary demands placed on string instruments may all have played
a role in this gradual but deliberate transformation. Today’s playing field in the string
instrument making is level, where makers from Southeast Asia, to Russia, to the Americas,
all have equal say in the future of violin making, in hand with technological advancements,
changing playing styles, and audiences.
58 Lesson 3
Hand-made vs. Factory-made Instruments
It is almost certain that all assigned string instruments in this class are “factory-made”, or
more precisely, have been mass produced. This in itself is not a sign of a lesser instrument,
but a more appropriate one, given the demands of the job it will have to endure in the hands
of young students. The purpose-built student string instruments are expected to endure some
physical challenges a two-hundred-year-old instrument may not withstand. It is also impor­
tant to take into account, that overall value of instrument vs. cost of repair is the deciding
factor when making a decision on any major repair, not part of routine maintenance. For
instance, a broken neck may be the end of a cello; since the cost of repair is greater than the
instrument’s current value, and greater than the acquisition cost a new outfit.
“Factory-made” or mass produced instruments are widely available through string instru­
ment vendors, and are critical in continuation of string programs in the US and around the
world. The demand for mass production of student-grade string instruments were met in
Mirecourt, France, Markneukirchen and Mittenwald Germany in the 19th century. Today, in
addition to Eastern European instruments, China has become perhaps the strongest provider
of factory-made student instruments.
The mechanized stage in production of instruments, however, must not be mistaken for
lesser quality and lack of care in the hands of master luthiers. The best analogy of modern
mechanization can be made with early known violin shops’ use of less experienced craftsmen,
as that of Amati’s, and their work in preparing and shaping the wood in preparation for the
master’s finer work. Similarly, today’s master luthiers’ practice of employing such production
methods cannot take away from the final product. The level of attention and time the master
luthier devotes to each instrument determines the final success and value of the instrument.
Even though the members of the violin family instruments are wooden soundboxes with
synthetic strings, they produce sound extremely close to the human voice.

Tone Production
The discussion of tone production of string instruments may be likened to that of wind
instruments—or any instrument for which the student has formed an understanding. On all
string instruments, we must be able to produce a well-supported and rounded tone.
Furthermore, we must begin each tone with a proper attack, and sustain it without wavering
or diminishing. What embouchure and breath support are to winds, and what breath
management is to vocal technique, bow control and bow management are to string players.
Good tone production on all string instruments is a direct result of an understanding of
their construction and function. Personal taste and school of bow technique, however, play
a substantial role in what constitutes “good tone production”, and may differ significantly
from one string teacher to another. This personal ideal of tone production will have an
influence on a variety of decisions a string teacher makes, from instrument and string
selection, to fingering choices. Most importantly, the greatest influence will always be
attaining and maintaining a solid technique for all students and modeling it in achieving
good tone production habits. Successful string teachers frequently encourage their students,
and make constant corrections to maintain a good setup and produce a consistently sub­
stantive and pure tone.
Laws of physics dictate how sound is produced on string instruments and are the decisive
factor in the pedagogical approach to the bow technique. Performers and teachers are
instinctively aware of these laws and abide by them. There are certain key acoustical terms
 Lesson 3 59
relating to tone production that need to be clarified before we discuss pedagogy of tone
production. The first term is stick-and-slip cycle. It refers to the perpetual action of rosined
hair pulling the string (stick), and letting it go (slip). It is also called Helmholtz motion, in
respect to German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894). The stick-and-slip cycle
can only occur with the resistance of the hair—created by the application of rosin—weight of
the bow as in the pressure applied by the player, and the bow movement on the string. Those
variables attributed to the bowing have an influence on this cycle. In the acoustical scientific
literature, bow speed is referred to as “velocity”, and bow weight as “bow force”. Another
scientific term is “slipping attacks”. This term refers to the inadequate attack at the beginning
of a bow stroke—as opposed to a “clean attack”. Also, there may be different concurrent
“stick” tendencies across the entire width, or the cross section of bow hair, as in “secondary
backward slips” and “secondary backward partial slips”. These tendencies become much
more pronounced as the string circumference is increased. For instance, the highest and
lowest strings in the violin family, the violin’s E string, versus the double bass’s E string are
completely different in the way they respond to input from the player. The violin’s highest
string is much more forgiving to a player’s faulty inputs and is not prone to slipping, in
contrast the double bass requires each bow stroke to start with a clean “bite”, or a “clean
attack” to draw solid tone free from slipping.
Bow distance from the bridge must remain constant in order to produce a reliable and
solid tone. Similarly, bow weight distribution requires continuous adjustments for tone to
remain constant—both in amplitude and color. The bow weighs the most at the frog, and the
further toward the tip the bow is drawn, progressively more and more index-finger weight
must be applied to compensate this differential. Conversely, the player will have to apply
counter weight with the right pinky finger to allow the bow to produce a piano dynamic at
the frog. This combination is expressed as the “recipe”, or “WS&P recipe” by Fritz
Gearhart.9 “WS&P” stands for weight, speed, and placement (contact point) of bow and
“recipe” denotes the ever-changing percentages of each constituent to draw constant tone.
The listener must remain blissfully unaware of this smooth and continuous process of
a balancing act. Moreover, sound production is not comprised of just these three fundamental
components but there are secondary elements, also critical in producing a solid and reliable
tone. Among those parameters are the amount of bow tilt, bow hair tightness, total bow
weight and its distribution, and degree of concave curvature of the stick.
In his treatise titled Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing (1934), among the 20th
century’s most influential violin pedagogues, Carl Flesch (1873–1944) summarizes the
teacher’s responsibility in tone production as follows:

Faulty sound conditions are created, first of all, through a mechanism based upon
incorrect fundamental principles of tone production. It is the teacher’s duty to
explain clearly the apparent reasons for tonal shortcomings to the pupil and to find
the remedy for their removal.
Flesch, Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing, 6

Flesch expresses how easy it is to determine the left-hand related issues, i.e. intonation problems
that are caused by simply a “finger touch[ing] the string at too high or too low a point.” He
contends that tonal issues, along with ancillary noises, are wrongly attributed to such elements as
weather phenomena, strings, bow hair, and rosin. He further conveys: “In reality tone-production
is governed by equally restricted, though infinitely more complicated mechanical laws, than those
of pitch, in which a mathematically established number of vibrations constitutes the only deciding
60 Lesson 3
fact.” In Flesch’s description, main flaws in tone are caused “when a physiologically wrong
method of guiding or holding the bow is accompanied by a defective point of contact between bow
and string.” He further lists backward tilt of bow, excessively tilted bow, deficiencies in bow
changes, and improper pressure of the bow or bow arm as the main causes of unsatisfactory tone
production. He offers the conclusion that the contact point (or point of contact) is more directly
responsible for tone production than bow technique itself.
The scope of this textbook and associated efforts of the instructor will first establish
a reliable instrument hold that allows for a solid platform, on which the bowing can take
place. A proper bridge alignment in relation to the bow is a critical step in accomplishing the
straight bow motion. For instance, a misaligned low string instrument or drooping upper
string instrument will make it impossible for a bow to remain parallel to the bridge.
A drooping upper string instrument will cause the strings to slope away from the player,
therefore, keeping the bow close to the bridge is a constant struggle. Particularly on upper
strings, a vertically unstable platform will take away from the continuous bow weight,
therefore, making sound production uneven.
The bow hold and right arm functions will be initially established by way of pre-bowing
exercises, then applied with the bow on the instrument. The complexity of bow technique
necessitates that this process be taken with circumspection. Rushing into a haphazard bow hold
for the sake of achieving quick results is unadvisable, as it will result in long-lasting deficiencies in
the student’s bow technique. The teacher must implement the pre-bowing exercises separately in
a several-week-long process and must continue those along with bowing exercises after the left
hand and bow arm are merged. Bow technique encompasses both the ability to produce a long
sustained tone and a multitude of different strokes (for a complete list, please refer to Lesson 13).
In summary, tone production solely relates to the bow hand and bow arm, while vibrato,
provided by the left hand only offers an aesthetical aspect to the perceived quality of tone, but
accomplishes nothing for the sound production itself. After all, the entire bow technique is
a means to an end of physically providing the proper combination of weight, speed, and
placement (contact point) of the bow, in the pursuit of pure and reliable tone production.

Assignment
1) Write a typed, one-page, double-spaced essay that answers the following, to be turned in
at the next class: discuss tone production fundamentals of string instruments and compare
those with other musical instruments, including voice.
2) Memorize Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position, and practice
applying those steps on the assigned instrument.
3) Practice pizzicato tuning in the scholastic ensemble tuning sequence.
4) Practice “Pendulum” exercise.
5) Practice pizzicato exercises.
6) Practice Preparatory Bow exercises.
7) Bring an empty paper towel roll for next lesson’s preparatory bowing exercises.
8) Review today’s lesson, and read Lesson 4.

Notes
1 Hornbostel-Sachs system.
2 Although derogatorily translated as “barbarian,” in Chinese “Hu” refers to Mongolic peoples and
numerous Chinese spike fiddles with the derivative of the same word: as in jinghu, erhu, and gaohu.
 Lesson 3 61
3 Horses had great influence in inception of the earliest chordophones in Central Asia, as every part of
the animal was commonly used by nomadic peoples.
4 Giuseppe is known as “of Jesus” due to his “IHS” inscription below a cross he drew on his labels.
5 Paganini nicknamed his beloved “del Gesù” “the cannon” because of its powerful tone.
6 Most prominent in the 18th century, credited as founders of Mittenwald school of violin making in
Bavaria, Germany.
7 [Link]/blind-tested-soloists-unable-to-tell-stradivarius-violins-from-modern-instruments/
[Link] (accessed February 2, 2020).
8 [Link]/sections/health-shots/2017/05/08/527057108/is-a-stradivarius-violin-easier-to-hear­
science-says-nope (accessed February 2, 2020).
9 Gearhart, “The Use of ‘Tartini Tones’ in Teaching,” 33.
Lesson 4

Contents
Applied: Review of Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position
(Continued) 62
Tune 62
“Pendulum” Exercise (continued) 62
Preparatory Bow Exercises (continued) 63
Finger Patterns 66
Tightening the Bow and Rosining 69
The Bow Hold and Arco Playing 69

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A quick review of the five steps of instrument posture and left-hand position.
• Continued work on pizzicato: “Pendulum” exercise.
• Continued preparation of our right hand and arm for the bow.
• An introduction of left-hand finger patterns.
• A discussion of bow hold and arco playing.

Applied: Review of Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand

Position (Continued)
As the class remains in the “molding period” we will continue to go over the Five Steps to
Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position procedures until it becomes second nature. It is
expected that the class is able to go through these procedures by memory. The instructor may
still need to take a hands-on approach, however, at this point mostly if not all verbal
corrections will be used. The advanced members of the class may help the instructor.

Tune
As discussed in Lesson 3, tune by way of pizzicato with the scholastic ensemble tuning
sequence that your instructor follows.

“Pendulum” Exercise (Continued)

As discussed in Lesson 3, students will play the “Pendulum” exercise. The fourth finger will
pizz. all four strings, starting from the lowest to the highest. Students will remember to keep
 Lesson 4 63
their wrists straight from all angles but not allow them to collapse, flex, or radially deviate,
while the entire arm moves as a unit to pluck the strings.

Preparatory Bow Exercises (Continued)

First, repeat Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-String Pencil Bow Hold exercises,
all the while making sure to keep the thumb bent at roughly 120° obtuse angle and not
allowing it to collapse, keeping all other fingers rounded, and not raising the knuckles.
Second, we will start wiggling our fingers to draw imaginary shapes as circles, horizontal
and vertical straight lines, and crosses in the air with our pencil, all the while not losing the
basis of the bow grip. In other words, students will never allow the pencil to roll between the
tip of the thumb and first joint of the middle finger while performing these exercises (refer
back to pencil exercises in Lesson 2).
Third, we will commence the Swimming Octopus motion: raise right hand in the air with
the forearm slightly pronated, motion the wrist as an octopus and get the fingers to act like its
tentacles while swimming. This motion mimics the down-bow and up-bow motions. In string
playing, before the bow change occurs, forearm, wrist, and fingers anticipate the bow change.
The anticipated motion is a more subdued version of this Swimming Octopus motion. Once
comfortable with the Swimming Octopus exercises in the air, we will apply it to the pencil
bow hold. We will expand the bow motion exercises to the entire arm. This exercise is called
the Opening and Closing the Imaginary File Cabinet. To do this exercise, all students in class
will pair up with a partner facing each other an arm’s length apart, placing their right palms
flat against one another’s, and motion their arms back-and-forth, all the while, not losing full
palm contact (Figure 4.1). This is the full motion of the bow: down bow, hand moving away
from the player, up bow, hand moving toward the player.
Fourth, we will add a new exercise with an empty paper towel roll. We will first hold the
cardboard paper towel roll with the left hand placed at the same angle and height as the
imaginary bridge of the assigned instrument, and start the following exercise with the paper
towel roll (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Once comfortable, install the roll on the instrument with
a rubber band, insert the bow into the roll and repeat the following exercise in the middle
1/3 section of the bow (Figures 4.4 and 4.5). After each repetition stop to check the bow
grip, making sure that it is not collapsed. If collapsed, correct it and continue with the
exercise.1
Fifth, pick up the assigned instruments and a pencil as a stand-in for the bow. The
class will air bow, or pretend to bow in air, with pencils providing bow grip. First go to
the D string and place the pencil on the string perfectly parallel to bridge, and halfway
in-between bridge and end of fingerboard. Notice the natural arm slope with the right
wrist being the highest point, or holding the arm up in the air as if by an invisible string.
This is the D-string height for the bow arm. The overall slope within the hand and arm
will remain the same regardless of the string. Once comfortable, lower the entire arm
without changing the angles within the arm, as if there is an invisible cast to keep all
parts of the arm and hand in perfect position. Next step is to lift the arm for the lower-
string positions. It is imperative to keep the entire arm as a single unit when moving from
one string elevation to another. Remember: never allow the right shoulder to lift when
elevating the arm for lower strings.
When comfortable with the arm elevation for all four strings, repeat the paper towel roll
exercise with the pencil: draw the pencil silently on the string with the exercise’s rhythm.
Figure 4.1 Opening and Closing the Imaginary File Cabinet exercise

Figure 4.2 Paper towel roll exercise while holding the roll
 Lesson 4 65

Figure 4.3 Paper towel roll exercise no. 1

Figure 4.4 Paper towel roll installed on a violin

• Repeat it on the highest string (I), then the second string (II), third string (III), and the
lowest string (IV), all the while keeping the pencil parallel to the bridge.
• Reverse the order, and repeat it on the lowest string (IV), then the third string
(III), second string (II), and the highest string (I). Make sure to keep your shoulder from
lifting when moving your arm from the lowest to the highest string elevation.

Lastly, set aside pencils and instruments and assume a good sitting or standing position.
Place your left hand on your right shoulder and repeat the bowing exercises with air bowing.
Make sure not to allow the shoulder to lift as arm elevation is raised for low strings. This
exercise is to ensure tension-free playing for the right shoulder.
66 Lesson 4

Figure 4.5 Paper towel roll exercise with upper strings

Finger Patterns
As the violin family does not feature frets, it is up to the player to locate the correct pitches
for all stopped notes on the fingerboard. Left-hand finger patterns are the building blocks of
different keys in string instruments, thus we can liken those to tetrachords that makeup scales
in the eight-note diatonic system. Regardless of which classroom method book a string
teacher uses (Strictly Strings, Essential Elements, Sound Innovations, et al.), all method books
introduce specific elements of finger patterns in a logical system—notwithstanding relatively
minor differences in their variable procedures.
In teaching these finger patterns, we will start with the D major scale. Since we are in
a heterogeneous classroom, D major is the best scale for this setting. We will start with the
D tetrachord: D–E–F-sharp–G. For the upper strings, the second and third fingers are close, and
the first and fourth are separated (Figures 4.6 and 4.7). This is the first finger pattern we will learn in
this class. The thumb will be lined up with the first finger, as in “A-OK!” For the cello, four
separated fingers with enough room to allow each finger to fit the opposite hand’s fingers in-
between, and finger numbers are 1–3–4 (with the thumb behind the second finger) (Figure 4.8).
Lastly, for the double bass, the first finger pointing up, and the first to second and second and fourth
fingers are equidistant, the finger numbers are 1–4 (with the thumb behind the second finger)
(Figure 4.9). On all four string instruments, the first finger placement from the string nut is
a major second (or whole step), and all instruments start from an open D string. Much like the bow
hand, the thumb and all other fingers will be slightly curved, as straightened fingers are a clear sign of
tension.
Figure 4.6 Upper strings first finger pattern

Figure 4.7 Upper strings first finger pattern on the instrument

Figure 4.8 Cello left-hand finger placement on the instrument

Figure 4.9 Bass left-hand finger placement on the instrument

 Lesson 4 69
Tightening the Bow and Rosining
Among the first questions a student may have is “how tight does the bow need to be?” There
is not a single right answer. Since some players like to tighten their bows more than others,
and due to permutations involved as the natural curvature of the bow, overall tightness and
shape of the bow may vary. In any case we can clearly discern if a bow is under- or over­
tightened. An under-tightened bow will cause the stick to make contact with the string,
particularly in the middle section of the bow, resulting in scraping noises and rendering
springing bowings becoming difficult, if not impossible. Conversely an over-tightened bow
will wobble and shake uncontrollably.
To be able to rosin a bow without taking a chance of breaking or chipping the rosin cake, it is
necessary to acquire good habits for this routine procedure. Hold the bow at frog with your
right hand, place your thumb under the ferrule, overlapping it slightly so that the rosin cannot
hit it (Figure 4.10). Start applying rosin onto the hair with short and quick back-and-forth
motions. Gradually start drifting away from the frog with this continuous motion, making sure
that the entire bow, including the upper third and tip, get an equal amount of rosin.

The Bow Hold and Arco Playing

The “WS&P” Recipe

As was mentioned in the Tone Production section of Lesson 3, Fritz Gearhart’s “WS&P”
recipe weight, speed, and placement (contact point) of bow accounts for this ever-changing
weight, speed and contact point system for an even tone.

Figure 4.10 Rosining the bow

70 Lesson 4
• To address the weight portion of the equation, index-finger weight must be used to draw
an even tone. If no index finger weight is applied, the loudness will simply dissipate as the
bow moves away from the frog in down bow, and it will increase as the bow approaches
the frog on an up bow. Therefore, for a consistent dynamic, index finger weight is
incrementally added from frog to tip, and it is incrementally decreased from tip to frog.
As opposed to the index finger’s weight, the pinky finger accounts for the counterweight.
In other words, when a piano dynamic level is required, the pinky finger provides the
required counterweight to lessen the combined weight of the bow and bow arm—which
is maximum at frog and minimum at tip.
• At the early stages of string instruction speed is not altered significantly, as it is
a complicated element of the recipe. At first only two simple bow speeds will be used
(slow and fast) and as a variation of dynamics, note values and uneven slurs are introduced,
multiple speeds of bow and acceleration and deceleration will be further studied.
• At the beginning stages only a constant contact point of halfway between the end of the
fingerboard and bridge will be used and the third portion of the “WS&P” recipe will be
fully addressed later.

To appreciate the right arm weight that is available for use of the bow, let’s weigh our right
arm by holding the right forearm with the left hand, and letting the right arm be completely
lifeless, as if it were numb. This exercise illustrates that the arm has considerable weight that
we often fail to appreciate. In fact, a person’s arm weight is about from 5% to 6% of the total
body weight (Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11 Weighing right arm

 Lesson 4 71
We will now transfer our preparatory bow hold onto the bow itself. First of all, we will hold
the bow at its balance point, so that our newly-achieved bow grip will not collapse due to the
weight. This is the point where the bow can be balanced, and it will be somewhere in the
lower-third of the bow. To find the balance point, place the stick onto the left index finger
and adjust if necessary (Figure 4.12). Hold the bow just as we have been practicing with the
pencil. Notice the weight difference between the pencil and the bow. We will do our Air
Drawing exercises by drawing imaginary shapes in the air: pluses, circles, any geometric
shape or letter one can imagine. As with the pencil, watch not to lose the grip and do not
allow the bow to roll. Remember: first joint of the thumb should never collapse, but keep its
natural inward curl during these exercises. Lastly, we will do our Swimming Octopus
exercises with the pencil.
Once comfortable with the preparatory bowing exercises, we will pick up the bow from its
midpoint with the left hand, and place the thumb between the grip and the frog on the
exposed portion of the stick (Figure 4.13). Place the bow on the D string at an equal distance
from the end of the fingerboard and the bridge, perfectly parallel to both (Figure 4.14). Play
the following exercise arco, in the middle third, with a constant contact point of bow and flat
hair on the string (Figure 4.15). Make sure not to stop the bow between down and up bows,
but play with a connected articulation.
Once comfortable with this short exercise, apply the paper towel roll exercises on the
D string (refer back to Figure 4.3). Make sure to connect all notes and do not allow them to
decay. After each repetition, stop and check yourself for bow grip, bow alignment, and
instrument hold.

Figure 4.12 Finding the balance point of bow

Figure 4.13 Correct thumb position on bow

Figure 4.14 Correct bow placement on the instrument

 Lesson 4 73

Figure 4.15 D string arco exercise no. 1

Assignment
1) Write a typed, one-page, double-spaced essay that answers the following, to be turned in
at next class: discuss the repertoire of the violin family in the 16th century.
2) Continue to repeat Five Steps to Instrument Posture and Left-Hand Position and practice
applying those steps on the assigned instrument.
3) Practice pizzicato tuning in the scholastic ensemble tuning sequence.
4) Practice “Pendulum” exercise.
5) Practice pizzicato exercises.
6) Practice Preparatory Bow Exercises.
7) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 5.

Note
1 It is also possible to apply this exercise on a spring tension window curtain rod (7/16” diameter, 18”).
Lesson 5

Contents
Preparatory Bow Exercises (continued) 74
The Bow Hold and Arco Playing 75
Theory: A Brief History of the Bow 75
Tuning Strategies 78
Upper Strings 81
Low Strings 81
Natural-Harmonic Tuning with First through Third Partials 82
Cello 82
Double Bass 83
Upper Strings 84
Low Strings 85
Some Idiosyncrasies of Pegs 85

This lesson’s objectives are:

• Continued work on preparatory bow exercises.
• Continued work on the bow hold and arco playing.
• A historical overview of the bow.
• A discussion on tuning strategies.
• Work on use of pegs in tuning.

Preparatory Bow Exercises (Continued)

First, repeat Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-String Pencil Bow Hold exercises,
all the while making sure to keep the thumb bent at a natural angle (roughly 120° obtuse
angle) and not allowing it to collapse, keeping all other fingers rounded, and not raising the
knuckles. Second, we will start the Air Drawing exercises by wiggling our fingers to draw
imaginary shapes as circles, horizontal and vertical straight lines, and crosses in the air with
our pencil, all the while not losing the basis of the bow grip. In other words, students will never
allow the pencil to roll between the tip of the thumb and first joint of the middle finger while
performing these exercises, and allow the first joint of the thumb to collapse but always keep
 Lesson 5 75
its natural inward curl (Figure 5.1). Third, the Swimming Octopus exercise will be imitating
the bow motion in air. The forearm and wrist will be pronated, and both the wrist and five
fingers will act as the swimming octopus, as graceful and smooth as the animal itself.
After the bow hold is established, practice a three-finger bow balance exercise with the
middle, ring, and pinky fingers: hold the bow in front of the body and balance it by way of
wrapping the middle finger around the stick, place your ring finger next to it, and counter­
balance it with the pinky finger (Figure 5.2). This exercise makes an effective point of how
light the bow is (from two to three ounces) and with a well-balanced bow hold there is no
possibility of tension.

The Bow Hold and Arco Playing

Hold the bow at its balance point just like with the pencil. Perform the Air Drawing exercises
by drawing imaginary shapes in the air: pluses, circles, any geometric shape or letter one can
imagine. As with the pencil, watch not to lose the grip and do not allow the bow to roll.
Remember: first joint of the thumb should never collapse, but keep its natural inward curl
during these exercises. Lastly, we will do our Swimming Octopus exercises with the pencil.
Once comfortable with the preparatory bowing exercises, pick up the bow from its
midpoint with the left hand, and place your thumb between the grip and the frog on the
exposed portion of the stick. Place the bow on the D string at an equal distance from the end
of the fingerboard and the bridge, perfectly parallel to both. Play the following exercise arco,
in the middle third of the bow, with a constant contact point and flat hair on the string. Make
sure to check your posture, instrument hold, and bow hold at the end of each two-measure
figure (Figure 5.3). Once comfortable move onto the A string and repeat the same exercise
(Figure 5.4). As students move onto other strings, the same arm angle and arm slope must be
preserved. Once comfortable move onto the G string and repeat it (Figure 5.5), and lastly
move onto the E and C string exercise (Figure 5.6).

Theory: A Brief History of the Bow

The bow’s roots go back to pre-8th century Mongolia. Both equine and archery being an
intricate part of the nomadic Mongol way of life, it is only natural to conceive to produce
sound from a spike fiddle with the use of a bow. Later, we find references to bowed
chordophones, in Arabic literature of philosophers Al-Fârâbî and Ibn Sînâ, among others.
The bow’s earliest known illustration is on a mural in a palace located in Kurban Shaid,
Tajikistan, tracing it back to the 9th and 10th centuries (Lesson 3). The bow arrived in
Europe in the 11th century through two points of entry: Byzantium with rebec and Moorish
Spain with rabāb. We may describe these instruments as bowed lutes, as in Byzantine lūrā
(derivative of the lyre family). The earliest bows were about one third of the size of modern
bows (about 8 inch hair length), convex, with a pike head.
We will, however, discuss both the bow and bowings in relation to the modern bow’s inventor,
“Stradivari of the bow” François Xavier Tourte [le jeune, the young] (1747–1835). François
Xavier belonged to a family of bowmakers (archetiers). His father Pierre Tourte’s [père, the
father] violin (luthierie) and bow making shop was a place for the apprenticeship-style education
both brothers Nicolas Léonard and François Xavier received, much like the violin makers.
François Xavier Tourte is credited for making the first example of the modern bow circa 1785 in
Paris, featuring a heavier hatchet head—as opposed to pike. In his 1832 violin treatise, titled
Violinschule, influential German violinist, composer, and educator Louis Spohr (1784–1859)
Figure 5.1 Air Drawing exercise

Figure 5.2 Balancing the bow with three fingers

Figure 5.3 D string arco exercise no. 2

Figure 5.4 A string arco exercise

Figure 5.5 G string arco exercise

78 Lesson 5

Figure 5.6 E and C string arco exercise

extolled Tourte’s bows for their elasticity, light weight, for their exacting “beautiful, uniform
bending”, of concave shape “by which the nearest approach to the hair is exactly in the middle”.
Tourte’s violin bows are two to four centimeters longer than their contemporaries (at 74 to
75 cm), octagonal or round sticks, weighing around 56 grams and balanced in a manner that
allows players to execute bow strokes which were previously impossible. To compensate the
heavier hatchet head complete with a mother-of-pearl plate, at frog is a metal ferrule—made
of silver or gold in better examples—and a mother-of-pearl slide. Tourte and other bow-
makers have also used tortoiseshell for the frog, as opposed to the more common ebony.
Another early bowmaker known as the “English Tourte” is John (Kew) Dodd (1752–1839) of
the Dodd family of bowmakers, whose bows were exemplary, though, not just at quite the
same level as of Tourte’s.
There are two versions of double bass bows: French (also known as Bottesini), and German
(also known as Simandl or Butler). Both versions feature hatchet heads, concave stick shapes,
and similar stick lengths—German stick’s concave curvature is more pronounced because of
a taller frog, and an overall bow length is greater due to a longer tightening screw. The taller
German frog requires a viol-like underhand bow grip. The French bow, on the other hand, is
shaped and held overhand much like the cello bow. Furthermore, the playing styles of both
versions of bows are influenced due to the bow hold and bow shape, because of this variance,
bass sections of orchestras around the world may prefer certain holds over the other to fit into
the established version of the ensemble.

Tuning Strategies
In Lesson 3 we discussed a scholastic ensemble tuning sequence. In an educational setting in
the early stages of study, tuning single strings is the preferred method. As the student becomes
more proficient it is possible to start tuning by way of adjacent strings for all instruments, and
natural harmonics for the low strings. To describe tuning we must first describe sound waves
and the way those waves interact with one other.
 Lesson 5 79
When we play an a’ (A4) at 440 Hz, each complete sound wave occurs 440 cycles
per second (CPS). This is called wave frequency. If we play A an octave below it, a (A3), it
will have 220 Hz, or cycles per second, at a ratio of 1/2. Each simple sound wave, also
known as simple sine wave comprises a peak (crest) and valley (trough). When the two notes
are played together, one of the sound waves occurs twice the speed of the other, or
coincidentally at perfectly twice the speed and we hear a perfect octave. When we play two
perfectly matching A pitches at the same octave as in 440 Hz, both wave frequencies occur
simultaneously and we hear a perfect unison. However, if we play one A at 440 Hz and the
other at 445 Hz, the five hertz fluctuation between two pitches will cause a wobble,
a phenomenon known as a beat (440 vs. 445=5 beats per second). Therefore, the further
apart the two pitches the more beats we will hear (440 vs. 450=10 beats per second). By this
calculation the closer the two pitches, the fewer the beats, and in tuning it is our goal to
eliminate those wobbles completely.

A) Bowing Principles for Tuning Considerations: For tuning purposes the same
bowing principles apply to all strings: place the bow at the upper 1/3, and continually
bow at a piano dynamic level as if floating on the string without any break between bow
changes. As excessive bow pressure on strings causes fluctuations in pitch, this is the most
assured approach to tuning. Furthermore, piano bowing allows all students to hear
themselves and be able to tune promptly without frustration.
B) Adjacent String Tuning: All string instruments are tuned to perfect fifths (violin, viola,
and cello) and perfect fourths (double bass). To tune to adjacent strings, the student will
follow the same order as the scholastic ensemble tuning sequence: A, D, G, C/E. Always
tune A first, then tune D to A, and G to D. In the case of viola and cello, tune C to G, and
in the case of violin and double bass, tune E to [Link] it is in tuning in unison, eliminating
the wobbles or beats is the main goal in tuning by way of playing two adjacent strings. To
realize that objective the student must be able to play two strings with equal weight and
with constant bow speed without any imperfections, so that reliable pitch is heard without
any differences caused by bowing faults. Also, the student must become familiar with the
way perfect fifth and perfect fourth intervals ring. A perfect unison is 1/1, a perfect octave
is 2/1, a perfect fifth interval is 3/2 and a perfect fourth is 4/3 ratio. For instance if a’ is
440 Hz, an octave below a is 220 Hz (2/1), a fourth below e’ is 330 Hz (3/4), and a fifth
below d’ is 294 (3/2). Once the student becomes proficient in tuning in unison, the perfect
fifth, and in the case of double bass, perfect fourth tuning is rather uncomplicated.
Eliminating beats in adjacent string tuning is the exact same procedure as tuning in
unison, it is also an effective introduction to double-stop playing.
C) Natural Harmonic Tuning: Each open string is considered the fundamental of its
harmonic series. Therefore, we can compare each open string to the lowest note on
a woodwind or a brass instrument.1 The complete series of natural harmonics can be heard
if a player travels throughout the string lightly touching it. The most commonly played
harmonics are the first partial, although through the fourth partials natural harmonics are
used. First partial is an octave above the fundamental [a perfect 8th] (a” on a’ string), then
a fifth above it [a perfect 12th, or a compound fifth], and the second octave [a perfect 15th,
or a double octave] (Figure 5.7). Natural harmonics are played by way of lightly touching the
string at the placement shown in figure 5.7. The first partial occurs at the midpoint of the
playable portion of string and it sounds the same as the stopped note, indicated by a perfect
circle above it. However, starting from second partial, all subsequent partials can be played
on either below or above the midpoint of the string as depicted in figure 5.7. The “played”
80 Lesson 5

Figure 5.7 Natural harmonics of the violin family

location of those notes are indicated with a diamond notehead, and sounding notes, also
playable, are with a regular notehead. Since the first partial sounds the same as the notated
pitch, a regular notehead is used to notate it.
D) Tuning with the First Partial: There are several ways of tuning with natural harmonics
and they are most commonly employed by the low string players. Since lower pitches are
more difficult to distinguish, natural harmonics substitute those notes with more suitable
ranges for the human ear. Also, in the case of receiving only one a’ (A4) to tune, both cellists
and bassists can produce a perfect unison on their [Link] is the first step for
students to discover the natural harmonics on four strings, by locating the midpoint
 Lesson 5 81
between the bridge and the string nut on the instrument. Both pizzicato and arco will
produce the first partial, although arco will produce a better-speaking sustained note.
It cannot be overstated how lightly the left-finger touch needs to be. If there is any
excessive finger pressure on the string, or any other finger makes contact with it,
natural harmonics will not speak. Conversely the bow should make good contact and
students may play natural harmonics at the forte dynamic range. Once the students
locate the midpoint of the playable or resonating portion of the string, they lightly
touch it with their third fingers on the cello, and fourth fingers on the bass. Once
confident with the third and fourth fingers, respectively, students can replace those
fingers with the thumb, as first-partial tuning is a perfect opportunity to get comfor­
table with the thumb position.

Upper Strings
Find the midpoint on the A string. Lightly touch it at a flatter-than-normal playing angle with
the pulpous portion of your fourth finger. The first joint of thumb will wrap around the corner
of the neck and no other part of the left hand will make contact with the string or fingerboard
(Figure 5.8). Student will play arco at a regular weight of bow as a regular stopped note.

Low Strings
Find the midpoint on the A string. Lightly touch it at a flatter-than-normal playing angle with
the pulpous portion of your third or fourth finger. The thumb will hover right above and no

Figure 5.8 Finding midpoint of string for a first-partial harmonic on upper strings
82 Lesson 5
other part of the left hand will make contact with the string or neck (Figure 5.9). Student will
play arco at a regular weight of bow as a regular stopped note. Once the A string is tuned,
adjacent strings may be tuned by way of tuning the neighboring string to perfect fifth in the
case of the cello, and to perfect fourth in the case of the double bass.

Natural-Harmonic Tuning with First through Third Partials

Once comfortable with the first partial, we will move onto the second and third partials that
the low strings may be tuned with those matching unison tones. First through third partial
tuning is essential for accuracy and efficiency for the low strings. For tuning purposes, most
commonly the double bass employs second and third partials and cello first and second
partials. Tuning by way of harmonics allows the low strings players to tune their instruments
by using a general A (440 Hz). Since general A is in unison with the A strings of the violin
and viola, natural-harmonic tuning is not necessary for upper strings, therefore will not be
discussed in this section.2

Cello
Find the midpoint on the A string with the third finger and lightly touch it. It will be a’, or the
first partial. Tune the A string to the tone generator’s a’ (440 Hz). Then, with the first finger,
find the second partial on the D string, which is unison a’ (this finger placement is the fourth
position). Tune the D string to the A string by matching the unison pitch. Once in tune, move
onto the first partial on the D string d’ with the third finger and its matching unison second

Figure 5.9 Finding midpoint of string for a first-partial harmonic on low strings
 Lesson 5 83

Figure 5.10 Low strings tuning with natural harmonics

partial on the G string. Tune it to the D string by matching this unison. Once in tune, move
onto the first partial on the G string, g with third finger and its matching unison on the
C string, and tune it to the G string (Figure 5.10). Once in tune, it is a good idea to double-
check the overall tuning by placing the third finger across the first partials of adjacent strings
and hear ringing of perfect fifths.

Double Bass
On the D string find the A with the fourth finger, which is a perfect fifth above the open string
(third position) and lightly touch it. It will sound a (220 Hz) or the second partial. Tune the
D string by matching this partial to the tone generator’s a’ (440 Hz). Then with the first finger,
find the third partial A on the A string, which is in unison. Tune the A string to the D string by
matching this unison pitch. Once in tune move onto the second partial on the A string, which is
E (165 Hz) with fourth finger and its matching unison third partial on the E string. Tune the
E string to the A string by matching this unison. Once in tune, move onto third partial on the
D string with first finger, or d’ (294 Hz) and its matching unison on the G string, and tune it to
the D string (refer back to Figure 5.10). Once in tune, it is a good idea to double-check the
overall tuning by placing the fourth finger across the first partials of adjacent strings and hear
ringing of the perfect fourths.

E) Tuning with Pegs: Tuning with pegs is not a highly difficult process, however, in the
beginning stages of playing it may first appear daunting. Similarly, for a string teacher
charged to teach a class of young beginner students, it is a relatively time-consuming
process and it takes up a considerable portion of valuable class time. If students are
primarily dependent on fine tuners, it is the teacher’s job to help with tuning and loosen
the fine tuners that have been wound to their limit. To be able to tune with pegs,
students must know the assigned pitch of each peg. The tensile strength of each string
has been determined with the assigned pitch of the string. If a student tries to tune
a string more than a major second above it, there is a good chance for it to break. The
higher above pitch, the higher the likelihood of the string breaking, and for an inexper­
ienced student to break a string may cause injury. To understand the process of tuning
84 Lesson 5
with pegs, students must understand how they are constructed and how they
function. Pegs are made to fit within a peg hole at a two-degree taper and are held
in place only by friction. For a simple friction device as a peg to function properly, it
needs to fit into the peg hole perfectly. To accomplish that violin makers use a peg
shaper (or peg shaver) to fit the peg into the peg hole, which has been shaped with
a peg hole reamer. Due to the two-degree taper, pegs should be pushed into the peg
hole as turning to adjust tuning. Both the peg and peg hole need to be well
maintained to function properly, allowing the peg to move smoothly and hold the
string perfectly in pitch.
The students must learn how to tune their instruments only with the left hand while
bowing to achieve efficiency in their tuning. For the left-handed tuning the student must
have acquired independent bowing ability and sufficient ear training to know the
assigned pitch of each four strings.

Upper Strings
For two pegs on the bass side of the instrument (G and D pegs for violin, C and G pegs for
viola), hold the peg between your index finger and thumb, push in from the opposite side of
the pegbox with your middle, ring, and pinky fingers (Figure 5.11). For two pegs on the treble
side of the instrument (A and E pegs for violin, D and A pegs for viola), hold the peg with
your middle finger and thumb, push in from the opposite side of the pegbox with your index
finger (Figure 5.12).

Figure 5.11 Upper strings tuning on bass side of pegbox

 Lesson 5 85

Figure 5.12 Upper strings tuning on treble side of pegbox

Low Strings
Cello is the largest instrument with wooden pegs in the violin family and it takes more
strength to tune than both the violin and viola. For this reason it is critical for pegs to be in
perfect working condition and for the cello students to be well prepared for the task.
Furthermore, it is not possible to push in pegs with the same ease as upper strings while
turning them. Therefore, the instrument must be well secured while tuning and it is necessary
to push the peg into the peg hole while turning. To accomplish that, fully grip the peg in your
palm and rotate while pushing it into the peg hole (Figure 5.13).

Some Idiosyncrasies of Pegs

As students will discover, pegs may not always move easily due to excessive resistance in the
peg hole. Consequently, in order to tune up a string, the pitch needs to be lowered first,
essentially breaking the peg’s frictional resistance, and then bought back up to the desired
pitch. This pitch fluctuation may be on the order of a minor second (or half step). The
practice of lowering pitch and bringing it back up may also be necessary to tune without the
assistance of a fine tuner. As pegs stick rather imprecisely, as far as the exact pitch is
concerned, this process may need to be repeated until the desired pitch is obtained. In the
case of double bass, machine heads may have some play between screw threads (or worm)
and actual gears, and those metal pegs may also need to be lowered and brought back up to
pitch.
86 Lesson 5

Figure 5.13 Peg grip for cello tuning

Assignment
1) Write a typed, one-page, double-spaced essay that answers the following, to be turned in
at next class: how do modern bows differ from their earlier counterparts before 1780s?
2) Practice pizzicato exercises.
3) Practice Preparatory Bow Exercises and the bow hold.
4) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 6.

Notes
1 As tone holes of a woodwind or valves of a brass instrument shorten the column of air, stopped notes
on strings shorten the overall length of the playable or vibrating portion of the string (from string nut
to bridge). Therefore, whenever a fingered note is played, the fundamental changes and for every
fingered note, or string length, there is a series of natural harmonics.
2 Natural harmonics will be discussed more in depth in Lesson 12.
Lesson 6

Contents
Applied: Arco Tuning 87
Guided Practice: Bow Exercises 88
Accessories 89
Shoulder Rest 89
Chinrest 90
Fine Tuner or String Adjuster 91
Tailgut 91
Mute 92
Rosin 92
Wolf Tone Suppressors 92
Endpins 93
Endpins Anchors and Stops 93
Bridges 93
Peg Compound 94

This lesson’s objectives are:

• Work on arco tuning.
• Practice bow exercises.
• A discussion on necessary accessories.

Applied: Arco Tuning

So far we have discussed the scholastic ensemble tuning sequence, pizzicato tuning, and arco
tuning (tuning to adjacent strings, tuning with natural harmonics, and tuning with pegs). With
our readily improving ability to play arco, in this class we will start tuning with sustained
tones. The class will be tuning to an A produced by a tone generator and once in tune, move
through the scholastic ensemble tuning sequence of A, D, G, C, and E. At the instructor’s
discretion, pegs may be used, although mostly fine tuners will be employed to tune.
Remember to tune at a piano dynamic and bow continuously in the upper 1/3, and play
only the string being tuned.
88 Lesson 6
Guided Practice: Bow Exercises
First, repeat Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-String Pencil Bow Hold exercises
with drawing of imaginary shapes. Continue onto the Swimming Octopus motion and apply it to
the pencil bow hold, and repeat the Opening and Closing the Imaginary File Cabinet exercise.
Next “play” the following exercise with the paper towel roll. Make decisive and quick
forearm movements with the bow. Use short and equal-length motions for all note values. After
each repetition stop to check the bow grip, making sure that it is not collapsed. If collapsed,
correct it and continue with the exercise. Once comfortable, apply the exercise to all strings on
respective instruments. Perform the figure on each string, starting from lowest to highest. Make
sure to pause in-between each string, check the bow grip and correct it if necessary (Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1 Paper towel roll exercise no. 2

Figure 6.2 String-crossing exercise no. 1

 Lesson 6 89
After completing the paper towel roll exercise, pick up instruments and pencils and air bow
the following exercise. First, stop in-between each measure to adjust arm elevation for the
following measure, then play the entire exercise seamlessly (Figure 6.2).

Accessories
In this section we will discuss accessories as they apply to string pedagogy and instrument,
bow, and string purchases will be discussed in Lesson 9. As accessories needed to play string
instruments evolve over time, it is desirable to remain well-informed of the latest technologies
and improvement in products. The decision to include or omit any of the following items is
a string educator’s prerogative, however, one can make sound choices only if knowledgeable.
The selection criteria for accessories comprise practical, acoustical, and philosophical ratio­
nale. Density of material, weight, durability, access, and cost are also valid factors that play
a significant role in making those decisions.

Shoulder Rest
Among the most contentious matters in upper string instruction, a shoulder rest is an item
that carries significant impact on the instrument hold both for violin and viola. Instrument
angle, setup solidity, and player’s comfort level are greatly affected by the selection of a well-
made and well-fitting shoulder rest. As each student’s physical attributes to fit a particular
instrument are different, there is not one cookie-cutter solution. Although upper string
teachers may have preconceived opinions when it comes to shoulder rest selection, it is the
author’s firm opinion that shoulder rest selection must be done with an open mind that allows
for students to try as many makes and models as possible. Much like shoe shopping, there is
no substitute for trying a shoulder rest personally. Towards that end if there is a close by
violin shop, students and teachers should consider taking a field trip to try as many shoulder
rests as possible.
The question is “what makes a good shoulder rest?” Even though preferences are
incredibly personal and varied, a well-chosen and well-made shoulder rest works in conjunc­
tion with the chinrest, in keeping the instrument supported at a proper angle without any
extra effort needed to keep it in place. If the shoulder rest is structured, legs with adjustable
height allow for proper angling and heightening of the instrument to conform to the unique
physique of the student and shape of the instrument’s lower bout. Furthermore, legs should
be sturdy and immovable throughout performances and must be made of durable rubber.
Too many instruments have been scratched by exposed metal or hard plastic legs of shoulder
rests due to worn rubber fittings.
If for some reason the student does not require a shoulder rest, or the private teacher is
altogether against the idea of using a shoulder rest, a material such as a chamois leather or
beaded non-adhesive shelf liner provides reliable friction to keep instrument in place. If the
student needs more structure, half cut pool noodle can be rolled with the shelf liner (Figure
6.3). Most, if not all violin virtuosos of the early- to mid-20th century did not use shoulder
rests, therefore, some notable professors still prefer this practice by choice, and argue that
there is no need for a shoulder rest if the student can properly hold instrument without it. For
beginners on upper string instruments properly fit shoulder rests, along with properly fit
chinrests, provide a secure foundation and work extremely well in avoiding injury. The
preference of shoulder-rest use, may be a worthy discussion for much later in years of practice,
well after the instrument setup is solidified for the student.
90 Lesson 6

Figure 6.3 A homemade shoulder rest

Foam shoulder pads provide an inexpensive and quick solution for a large class of young
students. Smaller and lighter student instruments particularly work well with foam shoulder
pads, as those pads are often shaped to fit the collarbone, afford a dependable support, and
can easily accommodate any smaller instrument including a 1/32 violin.
In the case of structured shoulder rests (Everest, Kun, et al.), stable body and solid
rubber legs that provide reliable grip on ribs are preferred features. The shoulder rest
must be light, yet strong enough to deliver the required stability where it does not tilt, flex
or move throughout extended performances and nowadays carbon fiber and composite
materials offer excellent solutions. If the student’s neck height requires further accommo­
dation, many brands offer extended legs for their shoulder rests. In such exceptional cases
the instrument might become unwieldy, therefore, part of the lengthening should be done
by the chinrest.

Chinrest
Not nearly as contentious as shoulder-rest use, all educators agree on chinrest’s necessity—only
Baroque instruments do not feature chinrests. Perhaps this categorical acceptance is partially
due to the fact that its inventor is none other than Louis Spohr, who depicted a center-mounted
chinrest in his 1832 treatise Violinschule as “violin-holder” (Figure 6.4).1
There are numerous variables with chinrests as its placement (bass-side or center mounted),
material (rosewood, boxwood, plastic, or composite), height, tilt and overall shape. Much like the
selection of shoulder rests, nowadays there is an abundant variety of relatively inexpensive
chinrests capable of accommodating any body type. Established brands as Wittner produce
height and tilt adjustable chinrests made of composite materials, in addition to the conventional
ebony, rosewood, boxwood, or plastic. Composite chinrests not only provide height and tilt
variations, but also eliminate any potential skin irritation due to nickel allergy (contact dermatitis,
 Lesson 6 91

Figure 6.4 Spohr’s chinrest, as depicted in Violinschule

or contact eczema) caused by metal chinrest clamps. Both with nickel allergy, or if chinrest
material itself is causing a skin irritation, a cotton handkerchief may be used to address it.
In summary, a good chinrest must provide secure contact of the jawbone without
causing teeth to clench, head to tilt, or instigate any other symptom of tension. Both the
groove and bulbous portion of chinrest must fit the student perfectly without any
discomfort. While it is impractical to attempt to personalize all school-owned instruments,
string teachers must strive to match and assign well-fitted instruments to students and if
necessary, update older chin rests with excessively shallow grooves or sharp edges known
to cause discomfort and setup deficiencies.

Fine Tuner or String Adjuster

It is likely that most of the classroom instruments have tailpieces with built-in fine tuners or string
adjusters—with the exception of double bass, because machine heads do not need fine tuners.
There is a chance that some instruments may not be fitted with fine tuners on all strings, a choice
many professionals make on their instruments. Indeed, solo instrumentalists may choose to use only
one fine tuner on the highest string with exacting aesthetic or acoustical rationales. However, tasked
to keep multiple instruments in tune, a string teacher’s motivation for fitting fine tuners on all strings
of violins, violas, and cellos is well justified. Tailpieces with pre-fitted fine tuners may be made of
aluminum alloy, composite graphite, plastic, wood, or carbon fiber. If the instrument is not fitted
with four fine tuners, separate string adjusters are relatively inexpensive and easy to install.

Tailgut
A Sacconi-style tailpiece adjuster is likely the tailgut fitted on student instruments, and it is
a safe, reliable and climate-proof component. If an older instrument is fitted with catgut, it is
best to replace it with a nylon tailpiece adjuster. If a double bass is fitted with a coat wire
hanger, it would be advisable to replace it with an aircraft-rated stainless steel cable assembly,
or seek a similarly healthy solution.
92 Lesson 6
Mute
Historically, mutes evolved as pronged clamps that fit directly on the bridge to dampen the
tone for a veiled, translucent quality. In an educational setting it is most sensible to choose
a practical slide-on mute, however, the mute should remain on the instrument without any
concern of buzzing. Similarly, removable wooden mutes (now mostly-obsolete) take too much
time to apply and remove to be practical, not to mention the discoloration they cause on the
bridge. Aside from slide-on wire mutes, the simplest and most appealing answer might be
rubber mutes. Most ubiquitous orchestra mutes are Tourte-style, which come in two shapes:
single hole and two hole. Two-hole mutes are prone to buzzing and so are the single-hole
ones if not pushed into the string. For that reason Super-Sensitive brand Spector violin mute
is a superior solution to Tourte, as it eliminates all buzzes and rattles. An altogether different
alternative to manufactured options, any standard vinyl aquarium airline tube (3/16 inch
inner diameter) may be cut to bridge-length, weaved onto strings and used as a slide-on mute.
An entire ensemble may be fitted with this homemade mute inexpensively, quickly and
effectively.
Practice mutes are much heavier than orchestral mutes and their sole purpose is to dampen as
much sound as possible during practice. In an educational setting, five-pronged rubber practice
mutes are the preferred option. Metal practice mutes function just as well, although they pose
unnecessary hazards especially when they slip or fall onto the top plate of the instrument.

Rosin
Also known as colophony,2 rosin is distilled by evaporating turpentine, and hardened from
pine tree sap, or resin. Although the exact formulas are trade secrets, commercially
available rosins include some additives such as beeswax. Its color varies from light amber
to dark brown. The selection criteria for a particular rosin formula include personal tonal
preferences, climate, bow hair, bow, and instrument response. In a broad sense, the lighter
colored rosins produce smoother tone and the darker rosins produce a grittier tone.
Although instrument-specific rosins abound, a generic rosin may be used for the violin,
viola, and cello. A specific rosin with a stickier formula is preferred for the double bass,
since those lower strings require more resistance from the rosin. Most student-grade
rectangular rosins are molded in protective frames with open sides, but are not immune
from breaking when dropped. Round-shaped cake rosins are protected in fabric or thin
foam material and should be handled with extra care. When applying a cake rosin, the
student must alternate the direction, or rotate the cake regularly to avoid getting groves
from forming. Unlike the rectangular rosins, cake rosins may remain flat throughout their
useful lives.
It is possible to repair a broken rosin by melting and remolding it. Additionally, broken
rosin pieces may be pulverized for easy application on an unrosined bow, since it is a time-
consuming effort to rosin a rehaired or a new bow.3

Wolf Tone Suppressors

Wolf tone or wolf note is a tonal irregularity caused by the construction of the instrument, which
excessively enhances the resonance of a particular note and causes it to waver or wobble, much
like the howling of a wolf. The wolf tone manifests itself most predominantly between a major
6th and an octave on the G string of the cello. Since this is a regularly used part of the string,
 Lesson 6 93
cello wolf suppression may be necessary. To address it, a brass fitting with a rubber sleeve is
installed on the non-playable part of the string between the bridge and tailpiece. Once installed
on the string, it may need some adjustment before the wolf tone is suppressed. It must be noted
this device not only suppresses the wolf, but also the overall resonance and overtones, therefore,
the smallest possible wolf suppressor is the preferred option in addressing this anomaly. There
are additional ways to suppress wolf tone by modifying Tourte-style mutes or installing double-
sided magnets just below the bass side f-hole of the top plate.

Endpins
A standard feature of a cello or double bass, most full-size student cellos come with a retractable
steel endpin rod between 17 inches and 20 inches (an extendable length of 16 inches and 19
inches, respectively). The double bass endpin is likely to feature equidistant notches on the rod
and the cello is not likely. Newer cello outfits may feature a 20 inches carbon fiber endpin rod,
although steel is the most common material. The conical ebony plug is fitted onto the endpin
hole of the cello or bass with a reamer with a taper of 1:17. To reduce cost instrument
manufacturers use relatively shorter endpins, especially in the preceding days of carbon fiber,
therefore, an alternative solution for taller cellists or bassists may be necessary. To that end
carbon fiber endpins, with a composite plug with a cork inner sleeve, are excellent solutions for
both cellos and double basses. They are acoustically superior, inexpensive, light, strong, do not
bend, buzz, and feature ergonomic and secure tightening screws.

Endpin Anchors and Stops

Much like with shoulder rests and chinrests of the upper strings, the low string instruments need
to be securely grounded so that players do not have to worry about stability of their instruments.
In addition, endpins of the low strings can cause damage to flooring or carpet, therefore, endpin
anchors and stops are needed. Since the cello has a more shallow playing angle than the double
bass, there is greater force pushing the endpin away from the student and for that reason an
endpin anchor may be a more secure option. Available for both the cello and the double bass,
the basic principle of an endpin anchor is an adjustable nylon strap that attaches to a leg of the
chair, and a solid plate with a rubber bottom to secure the endpin. Endpin anchors are
extremely durable, portable, and work well on most surfaces. Wooden endpin anchors that
attach to two front legs of the chair, however, are more secure than single-leg attached anchors.
Although there are numerous variants, most common student-grade endpin stops are made
of a brass ring, or a solid top with a rubber disk. In addition, there are rubber tips that attach
to the endpin itself to prevent it from slipping and causing damage to the floor. A couple of
concerns with endpin stops are that they may not work well on all surfaces, and in time
rubber becomes brittle and slippery. It is a good idea for a low string player to carry an
endpin anchor and a stop for use on any flooring. Many string teachers and low string players
come up with homemade endpin anchors that are most suitable for them.

Bridges
All bridges are pre-fitted onto student instruments as part of the shop setup. Although bridges
with self-adjusting feet are available, it is best for a bridge to be fitted by a qualified violin
maker as its precise placement is critical to maintain proper measurements of a given
instrument and has a significant acoustical impact. For particular double basses that are
94 Lesson 6
used both for classical and jazz settings, an adjustable-height bridge with wheels provides
a practical solution. Pizzicato playing in the jazz setting does not require the string height
necessary for primary arco playing of classical ensembles, therefore, instruments used in
a dual setting can be fitted with an adjustable bridge by a qualified violin maker. Therefore,
a jazz-fitted double bass complete with a bridge-installed pickup and bow quiver may quickly
transition back-and-forth with the classical setting and remain mostly unchanged.

Peg Compound
Also known as peg dope, peg compound is made by a few well-known manufacturers as the
W. E. Hill and Pirastro, with specific proprietary formulas. It helps with both friction and
lubrication of pegs in the pegbox and ensures smooth functioning of pegs.

Assignment
1) Write a typed, one-page, double-spaced essay that answers the following, to be turned in
at next class: describe the setup-related reasons why it is important to fit a student with
proper accessories such as chinrest, shoulder rest, endpin anchors and stops.
2) Practice pizzicato exercises.
3) Practice Preparatory Bow Exercises, and the bow hold.
4) Review today’s lesson, and read Lesson 6 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Spohr, Violinschule, 8.
2 Rosin from the ancient city of Colophon in Asia Minor.
3 Alternately using a sticky bass rosin is a marvelous solution to jumpstart the process of rosining an
unrosined bow.
Lesson 7

Contents
Applied: Arco Tuning 95
Bow Exercises 95
Arco Playing 96
String Ensemble Playing Traditions 97

This lesson’s objectives are:

• Continued work on arco tuning.
• Practice bow exercises.
• Arco playing.
• A brief discussion on string ensemble traditions.

Applied: Arco Tuning

In this class we will continue to tune with sustained tones. The class will be tuning to an
A produced by a tone generator and once in tune, and will then move through the scholastic
ensemble tuning sequence of A, D, G, C, and E. At the instructor’s discretion, in addition to
fine tuners, pegs may be employed to tune: bow continuously in the upper 1/3 at a piano
dynamic and play only on the string being tuned. Throughout tuning no practicing or
“doodling” is allowed as it impedes the process and erodes morale.

Bow Exercises
First, repeat Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-String Pencil Bow Hold exercises with
the drawing of imaginary shapes. Continue onto the Swimming Octopus motion and apply it to the
pencil bow hold, and repeat the Opening and Closing the Imaginary File Cabinet exercise.
Next “play” the following three exercises with the paper towel roll. The following bow
strokes are slurred staccato (A), hooked bowing (B), and a combination of both bowings (C).
To achieve those bow strokes make a decisive and quick forearm movement with a clear
stoppage in-between each note. After each section stop to check your bow grip, making sure
that it is not collapsed. If collapsed, correct it and continue with the exercise. Once
comfortable, apply the exercise to all strings on respective instruments. Perform the figure
on each string, starting from the lowest to the highest. Make sure to pause in between each
string, check the bow grip and correct it if necessary (Figure 7.1).
96 Lesson 7

Figure 7.1 Paper towel roll exercise no. 3

Arco Playing
After completing the paper towel roll exercises, pick up instruments and pencils and air bow
the following variation of Lesson 6’s string crossing exercise. First, stop in between each
measure to adjust arm elevation for the following measure, then play the entire exercise
seamlessly with the bow (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2 String-crossing exercise no. 2

 Lesson 7 97
String Ensemble Playing Traditions
The earliest written description of a stand-alone mixed ensemble with strings, playing without
any relation to text, singing, dance or other incidental elements, is the performance of five
sinfonias during a Florentine intermedi in 1589 on the occasion of the grand duke of Tuscany
Ferdinando de’ Medici’s marriage to Christine of Lorraine.1 The term “concerto” initially
described an ensemble or orchestra.2 In England, small ensembles or consorts were created
for the purpose of performing instrumental and vocal music. By the middle of the 17th
century, both homogeneous and heterogeneous consorts were established.3 Not until later in
the 17th century did the instrumental concerto in the form of concerto grosso become
prominent as we understand it.
The origins of the form initiated from the sonata, to be performed by a large ensemble.
The accompanimental or secondary voices [ripieno] could be performed by players of lesser
ability and primary voices [concertino or concertato] by advanced performers, thus, doubled
string parts developed around the late 17th century in Italy. During this time period, sonata,
trio sonata, concerto grosso, and solo concerto were chief instrumental forms. The term sonata
was used interchangeably with sinfonia (canzone, capriccio, fantasia, et al.) and was used to
designate a volume of instrumental pieces by a single composer, as in Arcangelo Corelli’s
(1653–1713) 12 violin sonatas, Op. 5, published in 1700 in Rome in two volumes: Parte prima
(sonatas 1–6) and Parte seconda (sonatas 7–12), under the title of Sonate a violin e violone o cimbalo
[sonatas for violin and double bass viol or harpsichord]. Furthermore, sonata could have meant
a composition for two or three melody instruments with continuo, trio sonata, or five melody
instruments with continuo, sonata à cinque. Maurizio Cazzati (1616–1678), Giuseppe Torelli
(1658–1709), Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), and Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1750/51) were
among the influential composers that had a significant involvement with the development of
instrumental forms, ensembles, style and technique. Albinoni’s Op. 2, twelve sinfonias and
concerti for five melody instruments, titled Sinfonie e Concerti à cinque and his Op. 5, XII Concerti à
cinque feature two violin and two viola lines dedicated to alto viola and tenor viola, as it was
commonplace to find in instrumental ensemble works to offer a wide variety of organization for
the string ensemble.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) made a vast contribution to instrumental technique, style,
solo concerto form, program music, and orchestration as the most prolific concerto composer.
For example, Vivaldi implemented the ritornello form in instrumental writing, where he
transferred it from the church aria to the outer fast movements of concertos. This practice is
exemplified in L’estro armonico Op. 3 (1711), a collection of double concertos for strings and
harpsichord. Ritornello form (a diminutive of ritorno or return in Italian), in an instrumental
sense, is a refrain of a short melody alternated with solo instrumental episodes that afford
soloists an expansion of tonality and diverse technical difficulties.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who studied and arranged several of his concertos,
actually adapted Vivaldi’s string writing style into his own. In the case of his six so-called
Brandenburg Concertos (1721), Bach not only expanded the concerto grosso idiom
notably, but also placed significant demand of the virtuoso playing on all involved solo
instruments. When it comes to large-scale orchestral compositions, not involved with
singing or dance as in operas, oratorios, and other liturgical compositions, Bach’s four
orchestral suites (BWV 1066–69), one overture (BWV 1070, although spurious), and
sinfonia (BWV 1046a formerly BWV 1071), are noteworthy multi-movement works. In
1730, Bach’s municipal orchestra in Leipzig included the following string forces: three first
violins, three second violins, two violas, two cellos, and one violone (double bass viol). Both
98 Lesson 7
leaders of the first and second violins were professionals, and the section players were
students. His orchestra for instrumental music were as many as 20 players altogether with
the winds, percussion and keyboard instruments, although his ensemble dedicated to
church music comprised seven professionals and one apprentice.4 He employed not only
the members of the standard violin family, but also now-defunct instruments such as the
violino piccolo, violetta, viola d’amore, violoncello piccolo, in addition to the viola da
gamba and violone in his works as the cantatas.5 Bach personally owned numerous string
instruments, among which was a violin made by Jacob Stainer.6
George Frideric Handel’s (1685–1759) strings totaled fourteen violins, five violas, four
cellos, and two double basses in a mixed ensemble of 50.7 Among Handel’s largest string
sections included 22 violins, four violas, six cellos, and five double basses. The pay-lists for the
two Messiah charity performances at Foundling Hospital (1754/58 respectively) list the
following string sections: 14 first violins, 12 second violins, six/three violas, three cellos,
one/three double basses.8
The orchestra of Mannheim’s electoral court (1740–78) was among the most influential forces
on the development of orchestral styles and forms, particularly of the symphony. Among
Mannheim school’s prominent representatives was Johann Stamitz (1717–1757). Adopting the
orchestral idiom characterized in Italian opera overture in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti
(1660–1725), Leonardo Leo (1694–1744), Baldassare Galuppi (1706–1785), Niccolò Jommelli
(1714–1774), and Leonardo Vinci’s (1696?–1730), Stamitz greatly expanded the orchestral idiom.
He wrote both for strings and continuo, and for full orchestra in the following multi-movement
forms: orchestra quartets, sinfonias, sinfonia concertantes, symphonies, and concertos. Another
composer associated with the Mannheim court, Franz Xaver Richter (1709–1789) wrote six
string quartets, Op. 5 (publ. in London in 1768).
The string quartet and symphony become some of the most substantial expressions for
string writing for the three representatives of the Viennese Classicism: Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven. The string quartet at the heart of a symphonic orchestra exemplified the relations
between sections of the strings and in the symphonic idiom this relationship was expanded
with the use of non-string instruments. Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) wrote 68 string quartets
(No. 68, Op. 103 is unfinished), and 106 symphonies. He is known as the “father of” string
quartet and symphony due to the immense number, sublime excellence and lasting influence
of his output in both areas. Haydn’s symphonies could have as few as three first violins,
three second violins, one viola, one cello, and one double.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), while paying homage to Haydn further developed the
expression of both symphonic writing and string quartet. His 23 string quartets (written between
1770 and 1790), including the last three known as the “Prussian” (K. 575, K. 589, and K. 590) are
among the exemplary representations for this setting. In his 41 symphonies Mozart did not simply
follow the symphonic traditions established in Vienna, Salzburg, and Mannheim but actually broke
the established norms. His Salzburg symphonies (written in 1770s), and late symphonies, especially
Nos. 35–41 “Haffner” through “Jupiter” contain both superlative and stylistically challenging
writing for strings. When it comes to string section size, a Mozart symphony performance in
Vienna in 1781 featured 68 strings altogether. A much more likely string section in the same
timeline would have been a total of twenty-three: six first violins, six second violins, four violas, four
cellos, and three double basses. In 1781, in Vienna, a symphonic orchestra featured 21 violins, 22
violins, ten violas, eight cellos, and ten string basses.9
Third representative of the Viennese Classical tradition Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827)
has expanded the technical and individual responsibilities of the violin family both in the
symphonic and chamber setting. His string quartets are studied under three distinct periods:
 Lesson 7 99
early Nos. 1–6 (1798–1800), middle Nos. 7–11 (1806–11), and late Nos. 12–16 and Op. 133
Grosse Fuge (1824–26). The string quartets, particularly the late quartets present technical and
stylistic challenges to chamber musicians and influence composers for the next two centuries.
His symphonic output and particularly the nine symphonies (1799–1824) are the cornerstone of
orchestral repertoire. In Beethoven’s symphonic writing, overall demand of range for expres­
sion placed on all sections of strings, enhanced the individuality of cellos from double basses,
and the increase in responsibility is paramount. Due to the expanded number and sustained use
of winds and percussion, which greatly increased the dynamic and tessitura demands placed on
string instruments, as in extensive passages in higher positions, those string sections had to be
increased in number. In a letter to Archduke Rudolph dated 1811, Beethoven requested
a diminutive string section for the period: four firsts, four seconds, four violas, two cellos, and
two double basses for his middle symphonies and two overtures. Only a few years later his string
section that performed the Seventh and Eighth Symphonies in 1814 in Vienna featured 18
firsts, 18 seconds, 14 violas, 12 cellos, and seven string basses.
In less than a century the dependence of amateur musicians to bolster string sections,
a practice that served late Baroque composers as Bach fairly well, had become unsustainable.
Therefore, by the mid-19th century, Europe conservatories of music started to focus on the
production of orchestral musicians capable of performing highly technical writing found in
the symphonic repertoire of Beethoven, Franz Schubert (1797–1828), Robert Schumann
(1810–1856), and Johannes Brahms (1833–1897).
Following Beethoven’s exceptional treatment of orchestra, Romanticism further expand the size
and involvement of each section of the violin family for the rest of the 19th century and with
Richard Wagner’s (1813–1883), Gustav Mahler’s (1860–1911), and Anton Bruckner’s (1824–1896)
significant influences has reached its height. Vienna Philharmonic’s string section in the 19th
century was 12/12/8/8/8, in comparison to Wagner’s Bayreuth Festspielhaus’s (opened in 1876)
robust string section of 16/16/12/12/8, and around the same time New York Philharmonic
featured a string section of 37 violins, 14 violas, 14 cellos and 14 double basses.

Assignment
1) Study String Ensemble Playing Traditions for a quiz on this material in the next class and
write a one-paragraph summary of the same section to be turned in next class.
2) Review instrument hold and bow hold.
3) Practice pizzicato exercises, preparatory bow exercises, and arco exercises for your first
playing test.
4) Review today’s lesson, read Introduction of Lesson 8 and the String Playing Test Rubric.

Notes
1 Coelho and Polk, Instrumentalists and Renaissance Culture, 1420–1600, 184.
2 “Concertato” was used as a descriptor for a list of instruments at the marriage celebration of grand
duke of Tuscany Ferdinando de’ Medici to Christine of Lorraine (1565).
3 Adler, The Study of Orchestration, 4.
4 Terry, Bach’s Orchestra, 9.
5 Ibid., 238.
6 Wollny, “Bach and the Violin,” 96.
7 Hogwood, Handel: Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks, 13.
8 Stahura, “Handel and the Orchestra,” 243.
9 Zaslaw, “Toward the Revival of the Classical Orchestra,” 177.
Lesson 8

Contents
Videotaping of First Playing Test 100

In this lesson students will demonstrate the following:

• Proper posture.
• Proper setup.
• Good tone production.

Videotaping of First Playing Test

This lesson is dedicated to performing the first playing test. The instructor will be videotaping
the playing test and evaluating it on the spot. Each student will play the selections which have
been decided by the instructor. Each student will watch the videotape and complete the
following Self-Evaluation Form I, using the posture, setup, and tone production guidelines
established in class.
 Lesson 8 101
Videotaping Number 1

Name:_______________Instrument:__________Date:________Grades_____/______

STRING PLAYING TEST RUBRIC I

First watch your video and read your instructor’s evaluation of your playing. Afterwards,
watch your video again and fill out the below rubric. Leave correct items blank, mark any
exceptional element by a plus sign and any element in need of improvement by a minus sign.
You will receive a grade for full and accurate completion, and timely submission of this form.
The form is due at the beginning of next class.

POSTURE—INSTRUMENT HOLD, LEFT HAND, PIZZICATO POSITIONING AND

BOW HOLD

VIOLIN AND VIOLA

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ torso is square

_____ shoulders are relaxed
_____ feet are positioned correctly
_____ head is not tilted and is free of tension
_____ instrument is supported on the collarbone without tension
_____ instrument is placed parallel relative to the floor and kept with the “nose-scroll­
elbow-toe” alignment at all times
_____ wrist is straight from all angles
_____ hand is free of tension
_____ four fingers are curved and tips of fingers are hovering right above strings
_____ thumb is at a proper height and is free of tension

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the corner of fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ pinky finger is on top of stick
102 Lesson 8
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at proper distance from bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

CELLO

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ seated on front four inches of seat with feet positioned correctly and flat on the floor
in a position that can allow the student to stand up at any given time
_____ endpin is at a proper length with cello at a proper angle
_____ C peg is behind left ear, neck is one fist width above left shoulder and cello is tilted
slightly to the left
_____ cello is not pinched and knees are relaxed with instrument balanced without
assistance of arms
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of neck
_____ first joint of thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is slightly tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is parallel to the
first finger
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at side of fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of fingerboard
for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD
_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times
_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption
 Lesson 8 103
DOUBLE BASS

SITTING POSITION

_____ seated tall with left knee behind bass right foot planted firmly on the floor
_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle
_____ instrument is slightly leaning back with the right corner of instrument in front of
sternum with f-holes facing the conductor

STANDING POSITION

_____ standing tall, shoulders back with a straight spine

_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle with right corner of
instrument in front of sternum
_____ the instrument is positioned diagonally in-front of the player with f-holes facing the
conductor

INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ first finger is at eye level when placed on the first tape
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of the fingerboard
_____ first joint of thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is tilted toward the fingerboard and the fourth finger is reaching the
fourth finger tape with a K-shaped hand
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at side of fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of fingerboard
for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the first joint of the index finger at a proper angle

GERMAN BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ thumb, index and middle fingers are joined at the tips
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is behind stick, but not on top
_____ forearm and wrist are supinated at a proper angle
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
104 Lesson 8
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

FRENCH BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

Scale: intonation, accuracy, and fingering

Piece: intonation, accuracy, and fingering

Evaluation Summary: provide a summary of your playing test by writing one paragraph
on the positive elements of your playing and one paragraph on those elements in need of
improvement

1) A summary of positive elements.

2) A summary of elements in need of improvement.

Assignment
1) Complete String Playing Test Rubric I, to be turned in next class.
2) Practice pizzicato exercises.
3) Practice Preparatory Bow Exercises, and the bow hold.
4) Read Lesson 9.
Lesson 9

Contents
Guided Practice: A Bow Placement Exercise 105
Bow Management and String Crossings 106
Selection and Maintenance of String Instruments, Bows, and Strings 106
Bow Rehairing Frequency 107
Rosining and Maintenance of Bow Hair 107
String Maintenance and Replacement Frequency 108
String Replacement 108
Peg Maintenance 109
Chinrest Tightening 109
Bridge Care 110
Bow Selection and Care 111
Humidifiers 111
Endpin Rods 112
Planing a Fingerboard 112
Sound Post Adjustment 112

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A bow placement exercise.
• A discussion on bow management and string crossings.
• A brief discussion on selection and maintenance of string instruments, bows and strings.

Guided Practice: A Bow Placement Exercise

Mental imagery is central to playing a string instrument. The following exercise by Dr Rodney
Schmidt, featured in an article, titled “Contours, Images, and the Bow” in Journal of the Violin Society of
America, helps visualize the motions associated with bowing. To accomplish that, students pick up
their bows and drop their right arms on their side loosely. Close their eyes, imagine the body and
following a circular motion, upper string players bring the right thumb to their nose, and low string
players to their belly button. Make sure to imagine the body as vividly as possible and make any
adjustments necessary to the mental picture while the arm is moving. Once an accurate picture of
the movement is memorized, upper string players touch the nose with the middle and tip of
the bow, and low string players, touch the belly button with the middle and tip of the bow.
106 Lesson 9
Now pick up your instrument and hold in the playing position. Close your eyes and
imagine the playing area of the D string between the bridge and fingerboard. Divide the area
into five bow hair widths or tracks. With the right arm holding the bow and hanging loosely
at the side, visualize the circular movement necessary to bring the arm and bow to the string
with the frog touching the bridge. Perform the movement—out, up, and around—then
visually check for accuracy. Repeat the movement sequence until it is completely accurate.
Then place the middle and the tip of the bow at the bridge using the same procedure. Once
the bridge can be found using a variety of bow areas, begin experimenting with different
tracks or hair-width areas on the D string until they can be found with complete accuracy
with any part of the bow on any track, visualizing the entire procedure with the eyes closed,
only opening them to check accuracy.1

Bow Management and String Crossings

A substantial part of bow technique on all string instruments is bow management, or the ability
to distribute the bow within any given musical context. Often music necessitates the use of
unequal lengths on down and up bows and string players have to negotiate the difference. The
uneven down and up bows could be due to unequal note values, or an inconsistent number of
notes in a slur. The ability to distribute the bow to overcome any unevenness presented in the
music is a skill gained through intense practice and years of experience.
In the beginning stages only the middle 1/3 of the bow and similar note values are
presented. This approach allows the student to focus on constant bow weight and speed
without having to compensate the disproportionate note values or uneven slurs. Similarly, in
graded repertoire, editors work meticulously to avoid uneven slurring and when necessary
provide hooked bowing to even out dotted rhythms. It is a significant part of a string teacher’s
responsibilities to provide level-appropriate exercises in introducing students to the challenges
of bow management as they develop this essential skill. As the student gains more experience
and comfort with varied bow strokes, more and more uneven bow distribution and alternat­
ing bow strokes are introduced in playing.
String crossings pose yet another challenge to bow distribution that it takes away from
finite bow length to cross strings. To minimize the loss of bow length, pedagogues advocate
string crossing exercises to acquire proficiency in this area. Often, both challenges are
combined in uneven slurring and string crossings, and the added issue of varied dynamics
and musical phrasing make matters only more complicated.

Selection and Maintenance of String Instruments, Bows, and Strings

Regarding instrument selection string teachers must be well-acquainted and judicious with their
options, as acquiring a high-quality instrument with proper shop setup is critical. Shop setup
comprises the fitting of pegs, ensuring proper string width and height (proper string nut and
bridge height and profile), and a sound post adjustment. The instrument must be made with
suitable materials such as high quality and properly dried wood, and must be made within proper
measurements. All of the required knowledge makes it absolutely necessary to purchase instru­
ments only from a reputable shop, whether it is a local brick-and-mortar violin shop, or an online
store. A limited budget is almost always a determining factor when making an instrument
purchase, however, it is never a good idea to compromise quality. The advice must be shared
with students and parents looking into purchasing an instrument or a bow. An online auction or
classified advertisement site is never a good place to make such purchases by a layperson.
 Lesson 9 107
When making a purchase the teacher must perform due diligence in researching and
understanding all components and fittings featured on an instrument. Reputable shops list all
of those features in detail, a very good sign of a quality instrument. In quality instruments the
principal components are made of spruce, maple, and ebony. Sometimes ebony is replaced by
high-quality composite materials. Most often major manufacturers and large online stores
offer named series for different grade instruments as AV5-SC by Yamaha, SR41 by Scherl &
Roth®, Franz Hoffmann® by Shar, and Klaus Mueller by Southwest Strings.
Customer service is also a significant part of this decision. If the string teacher is close to
a local dedicated violin shop, customer service and maintenance are often bundled into the
purchase. If the string teacher is far from a brick-and-mortar violin shop, reputable online
shops offer comparable assurances.
String instruments require regular maintenance. Open seams are among the most common
issues and can be glued by a reputable violin repair person. When gluing seams, appropriate
water-soluble hide glue is used, but not permanent glues. Depending on the severity, repair of
cracks may range from a rather simple fix to a more involved restoration. To find open seams and
cracks, instruments should be inspected visually. In the case of buzzes and rattles of an unknown
cause, an open seam or a crack may be the culprit. In any case, the open seam or crack must be
addressed in a timely fashion to avoid further damage to the instrument. Certain cracks in
vulnerable areas, such as near the bass bar or sound post may reduce the value of an instrument.
Major instrument repairs may involve opening the instrument, removing or resetting the
neck and neck grafting. The decision to proceed with such a major repair depends on the
value of an instrument versus the cost of repair. Only a reputable and established shop and
repair person should be trusted with instrument maintenance and repair consultations. For
string teachers to educate themselves in overall maintenance, Emergency String Repair Manual
for School Orchestra Directors (1972) by Lowell G. and Douglas Bearden is an invaluable
resource that covers an extensive competency level from checking for correct measurements
of string instruments to changing strings, to sound post adjustment, to resetting a neck. Two
additional diminutive pocket references are An A to Z of Instrument Care for Players of the Violin
Family, 2nd ed. (1996) by Jane Dorner and String Reference Guide (1996) by Knilling.

Bow Rehairing Frequency

One of the most common questions from parents is “How often do we need to rehair our
student’s bow?” Depending on care and playing frequency, a bow may be rehaired from six
months to a year, if not longer. Realistically, many student bows do not get rehaired nearly as
frequently as they should and when this lapse of maintenance occurs, the bow will not hold
rosin and fails to produce a healthy tone.
As a rule of thumb the bow hair should not be touched by bare hands. The natural oils and dirt
of the player’s hands will cause gunk to build, particularly in the frog area where the right thumb
may make contact with the hair. Darkening of the white bow hair is a sign of grime building. It is
possible to clean gunked up bow hair by wiping it with an alcohol swab, however, after the
cleaning, hair will need to be rosined, as cleaning will take away all rosin along with oils and built
up grime. It is imperative not to touch the stick with alcohol swab, as it will remove polish.

Rosining and Maintenance of Bow Hair

Much like bow rehairing frequency, how much and how frequently to rosin a bow
is determined by a player’s needs. Under rosining a bow will cause uneven tone production
108 Lesson 9
and skidding of bow and in contrast, over rosining a bow will cause crunching and extraneous
sounds. Rosining from once a day to several times a week works for many players, although
the amount of playing dictates how much rosin the bow hair requires.
Breaking a bow hair during a performance is not an uncommon occurrence and it does not
affect the playability, since a violin bow has 140 to 200 strands of hair.2 Under proper
conditions of storage and playing, breaking bow hairs should not be an issue. In other words,
bow hair should be changed long before excessive breaking of hair becomes an issue.

String Maintenance and Replacement Frequency

The most basic string maintenance is to wipe off rosin every time the instrument is put away.
To that end, it is advisable to keep two separate dust towels: one dedicated to wiping off rosin
by the bridge and the belly of the instrument, and one dedicated to wiping off the fingerboard
and strings away from the bridge. This practice of keeping dirt and rosin from getting caked
on the string ensures the free resonance of strings.
Strings have a limited life expectancy and need to be replaced at least once a year.
Student-grade strings are most commonly made of steel or synthetic core and winding. With
regular use, strings go false and winding gets frayed. Arguably, somewhat more difficult to
detect on a student’s instrument than a frayed one, a false string will sound somewhat dull
and flat. When an open string is played and it does not resonate for a reasonable length of
time and sounds flatter than the initial attack, the string is false. To determine if a string is
false, turn on a tuner and bow the open string. If the tuner indicates initially in tune, and
shortly after the bow is released a flat pitch, the string is false.
The first parts of the string to unravel are the most played areas, such as the first position
and contact points of the playable portion of the string: string nut and the bridge. This
unravelling is a sign of normal wear of strings. However, an improperly grooved string nut
channel or a poorly-notched groove of a bridge will cause chafing and result in unravelling in
those areas. As part of regular maintenance, it is a good practice to treat those contact points
with graphite at every string change by marking the channel with a pencil at the string nut
and groove on the bridge.

String Replacement
It is ideal to replace all four strings as a set to ensure even wear, reliable intonation and
optimum sound production. In doing so, removing all four strings at once may cause the sound
post to fall, therefore, it is good practice to remove one string at a time and replace it. First
remove the old string and inspect it to see if there is any unusual wear caused by string nut or
the bridge. Remove the peg and wipe off any excessive peg compound from the peg and the
peg hole. Reapply a judicious amount of peg compound if the peg appears shiny at the peg
hole contact points. Reinsert the peg, insert the string through the string hole with the help of
tweezers pulling it out by 5 to 10 mm. Start winding the peg away from you: clockwise on the
treble side, and anticlockwise on the bass side. Capture the end of the string under the winding
on the peg, making sure no bunching or overlapping of winding occurs. Tune up to pitch
before moving onto the next string. Make sure to inspect neat and consistent winding of string
because problems with pegs may be caused by incorrect winding. Too close a winding to the
inner wall of the pegbox or bunching may cause pegs to stick, and too far winding from the
inner wall of the pegbox may cause pegs to be pulled outward and slip (Figure 9.1).
 Lesson 9 109

Figure 9.1 Correct winding of strings in the pegbox

Peg Maintenance
To keep string instruments in perfect playing condition pegs need to be well maintained. Changing
seasons and weather conditions may cause issues with pegs and tuning. Since it is part of the string
teacher’s responsibilities for all instruments to be tuned prior to any playing, it is in the interest of
optimal instruction time to keep pegs in perfect condition. As pegs are wedged and held in place
only by friction, the conical taper of pegs and corresponding peg holes need to be matched
perfectly. Outside any emergency, pegs should be inspected and maintained regularly at the time of
string replacement. Wiping pegs of excessive peg compound or graphite peg soap and reapplying
a judicious amount to shiny parts of a slipping peg is adequate maintenance on the part of the
teacher. If the pegs are beyond their useful life, that is, they are inserted too far into the peg holes,
a new set needs to be installed by a qualified repair person. It is also possible for a new set of string
holes to be drilled if they are moved further than their intended placement on old pegs.

Chinrest Tightening
The chinrest is secured by two brackets and turnbuckle barrels possibly conjoined at the
bottom. In normal use those turnbuckle barrels may loosen and cause buzzing. If the chinrest
is moving or making contact with the tailpiece, it must be realigned and tightened with
a chinrest tightener. The bottom of the chinrest and bracket’s contact point with the
instrument feature padding of a 1–2 mm thin sheet of cork and overtightening should be
avoided. Also, the tightening holes on the turnbuckle barrels go through and the chinrest
tightener can scratch the rib if not done carefully.
110 Lesson 9
Bridge Care
As mentioned in Lesson 6, all instruments with a proper shop setup are pre-fitted with
a bridge and the crown is aligned perfectly with the fingerboard’s profile. The bridge height
and string distances are perfectly measured and let strings resonate freely without a buzz and
feature string height from the fingerboard that allows player to perform without difficulty. If
the bridge is cared for and the instrument is stored within acceptable conditions, the bridge
should not have any issues.
The bridge should stand at a 90° angle from the tailpiece side. During tuning the bridge is
pulled away from the tailpiece with the tightening of the pegs. The friction of the string will
tend to pull the bridge every time the instrument is tuned and over time it will cause the bridge
to lean, and if unchecked, warp. To keep the bridge straight, using graphite to lubricate the
string grooves (as mentioned in String Replacement Frequency discussion) and straightening it
when necessary, are considered regular maintenance. It is a good idea for the teacher to inspect
each student’s instrument visually during tuning to ensure perfect playable condition.
To straighten the bridge of a violin or a viola hold the instrument in an upside-down cello
playing position, securing the upper bout between the knees, place the thumbs between two
upper and two lower strings along the edge of the bridge crown, and opposing thumbs with
the index and middle fingers pulling the top of bridge minimally. As soon as the top of the
bridge moves, stop and check visually from the side of the instrument. Repeat this process of
moving and checking until the desired 90° angle is achieved (Figure 9.2).
If the bridge’s feet are not in their intended place, so that the fingerboard alignment and
f-hole inner notch alignment are not true, the bridge itself must be realigned with those

Figure 9.2 Straightening the bridge of a violin

 Lesson 9 111
reference points. To accomplish that task strings may need to be loosened to move the bridge.
Also, due to the greater pressure of strings on the bridge, it is best to loosen the strings to
adjust the bridge of a cello or a bass. To work on a low strings instrument, place it flat on its
back on top of a soft case. Care must be exercised not to loosen the strings completely, which
may cause the sound post to fall. If you are uncomfortable with performing these tasks, the
string teacher may elect to call for the help of a qualified string repair shop.

Bow Selection and Care

Much like the selection of a high-quality string instrument, bow selection requires the string
teacher to understand the qualities of a well-made and reliable bow. A bow made of high-
quality materials by an expert bowmaker is sought after by professional players. In an
educational setting the use of high-quality student-grade bows is necessary to achieve
a good tonal result, therefore, help students to have a positive experience. It is likely to
encounter fiberglass bows in an educational setting. Some inexpensive student bows feature
synthetic hair, considered by many to be inferior to real horse hair, and should be avoided.
Although acceptable at the beginner level, a serious student will soon require a better
quality bow.
Student bows made of wood most likely feature brazilwood, a generic term used to denote
any lighter density wood used in place of the rare pernambuco. Another viable option for
student-grade bows is carbon fiber. A higher quality product than fiberglass, carbon fiber
bows are durable and suitable alternatives to inexpensive brazilwood student-grade bows.
After daily use, wiping off rosin from the stick and loosening the bow is the proper way of
storing it. Loosening the hair relieves pressure and allows the stick to get back to its natural
shape and wiping rosin off the stick will keep it from caking on the varnish. If the bow is
stored without loosening the hair, it may warp the stick and lessen the camber in time. Even
if well cared for, all bows need regular maintenance to remain in perfect playing shape.
Rehairing the bow regularly by a reputable shop is an essential practice and is the best way to
uphold the perfect playing condition of a bow. Getting a bow rehaired by an unqualified
person may create much damage to the bow. For example, if the bow hair is installed
unevenly it may cause the stick to warp. If there is too much hair or if the spreader wedge is
poorly fit then the ferrule could deform. If the plugs are not perfectly fit to the inside of the
head or frog mortise, if they are fit too tightly, or if too much pressure is used while inserting
the plugs then the head of the bow could crack or the frog could break.
Regular bow maintenance includes replacing the worn leather grip, securing undone silver
winding, cleaning and polishing the stick, adjusting or replacing a worn eyelet and lubricating
the tightening screw. Inexpensive fiberglass bows feature a plastic grip and if unglued, an
unsecured grip will cause discomfort and may negatively influence the bow grip of the
student, therefore, it must be glued at the proper distance from the frog. Much like in the
repair-cost-versus-instrument-value equation, in some cases it is more expensive to rehair
a student-grade bow than purchase a new bow.

Humidifiers
Internal humidifiers that are inserted through the f-hole are known to cause internal water
damage to instruments, therefore should be avoided. It is best practice not to expose string
instruments to sudden changes of humidity and temperature, and to store them in
a controlled environment absent from direct sunlight.
112 Lesson 9
Endpin Rods
If the low-string instrument is furnished with a steel endpin rod, it may be bent due to
mishandling. If possible, it is best to avoid double bass endpin rods with a thin diameter. Also,
the endpin rods for double basses (and some cellos) may feature notches and those offer
limited adjusting possibilities and tend to slide, particularly if the tightening screw is worn.

Planing a Fingerboard
As part of regular maintenance planing or dressing the fingerboard may be necessary. The
violin repair person will plane the fingerboard to shop specifications if any unevenness or
grooves are formed by regular use. An uneven fingerboard may impede ease of playing and
strings from resonating freely. For financial reasons makers of inexpensive instruments may
use black paint to give the appearance of ebony on certain parts of the instrument, like the
fingerboard, which cannot be planed since it will take away the black paint.

Sound Post Adjustment

To keep a string instrument in top playing condition the sound post may need to be adjusted
and it is part of a shop setup. A well-adjusted sound post will yield the optimal sound
production from the instrument, therefore it is a critical component. From time to time a new
sound post may need to be cut and fit into the instrument.

Assignment
1) Write a one paragraph summary on bow management and one paragraph on bow
selection criteria, to be turned in next class.
2) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
3) Practice Preparatory Bow Exercises, and the bow hold.
4) Review today’s lesson, and read Lesson 10 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Schmidt, “Contours, Images, and the Bow,” 107–9.
2 Guettler, “Some Physical Properties of the Modern Violin Bow,” 8.
Lesson 10

Contents
Conducting Strings: Error Detection and Rehearsal Techniques 113
Incorporating Good Teaching Habits in Strings: The Teaching Cycle 115
Musical Rehearsal Planning Parallels with the Teaching Cycle 116

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A discussion on error detection and string rehearsal techniques.
• A discussion on Teaching Cycle.

Conducting Strings: Error Detection and Rehearsal Techniques

Within the scope of this text we will focus on the pedagogy aspect of conducting strings
rather than the conducting craft itself. However, skills gained in conducting, as in the ability
to conduct while listening critically and determining the source of a given problem, would
be considered wholly relevant. In error detection there are both physically observable
problems and physically unobservable problems. When compared with voice or wind
instruments, most technical issues of string instruments are external and easily recognizable,
which means all string teachers must be keenly observant. To accomplish that when
instructing, the string teacher must remain outside the score and heed the conducting
adage of “score in head, not head in score.” Taking quick mental snapshots of the full score
to remain out of it is a good habit for any string teacher and conductor. That is the only
way to ensure how students are performing at any given time. General posture, instrument
setup, direction of bow, amount of bow, contact point, and bow alignment, are some critical
elements only observed when out of score.
In addition, it is a good practice to remain mobile, walk around and not be pinned to
a conducting podium. It will give the teacher a better perspective and catch all setup issues
which can only be spotted from different angles: as a straightened left thumb, left wrist, and
a misaligned left elbow. Some teachers rotate each section of the ensemble to keep a close eye on
less advanced students and bring them to the front seats regularly.
In score preparation the string teacher should map out the entire class or rehearsal to be
prepared for the predictable issues. Finger pattern problems for upper strings, as in high 2 versus
low 2, forward and backward extensions for low strings, shifting and awkward string crossings for
all strings are areas that will take extra rehearsal and sectional time. In intonation, as in bow
114 Lesson 10
planning and uniform bow placement, some students in each section may be flawless, whereas
some students may not. In error detection it is incumbent upon the teacher to identify which
students are inaccurate and fix those individual issues within the section.
Sectional work is an efficient way to address problems and transform each section to
solid ground. However, it is not always possible to break down classes into separate
sections. If that is the case, the entire ensemble can participate in soli sections. To
accomplish that, the teacher must plan ahead and produce warm-up sheets for the entire
ensemble to familiarize students with articulations, specific runs, and phrasing directions
well ahead of programming the particular work. One example is Brandenburg Concerto,
Number 5 by Bach (first movement—abridged, arranged by Merle J. Isaac, published by
Highland/Etling, Alfred, graded 3 by publisher). The opening ritornello figure in this
educational strings-only edition is assigned to the first violin section. In the original work
(BWV 1050) all violins play it in unison (Figure 10.1). In the Isaac graded string orchestra
edition, only the first violins play the original ritornello figure in a simplified eighth-note
value. It is an effective pedagogical approach to integrate this particular figure into a
D major and A major scales and use it during the class warm-up regimen (Figure 10.2).
The original ritornello figure can also be transcribed for the entire ensemble, which will
give the bass section an opportunity to work on this bow stroke, since in the Isaac
transcription the bass section never plays this eighth-note bow stroke. Having the entire
ensemble play a selection meant for a particular section is an effective way to include all
students in the introduction process of an idea, keep all the class involved and avoid any
class management issues.
Furthermore, passages that feature obvious technical and rhythmic challenges must be
taken into account when planning for class or rehearsal time. In lesson planning the above-
mentioned issues will dictate the time management in a way that is predictable and
repeatable. Setting goals to accomplish certain metronome markings, intonation, even note
values, and any other benchmark clearly set forth by the teacher helps to keep the class
motivated, informed, and enthusiastic. Some teachers use a drawing of a target with identified
goals to inform the class of its real-time progress and inspire students to keep on task.
Effective string teaching and modeling are inseparable. Successful teachers are known to
model regularly and demand consistent results from their students.

Figure 10.1 Manuscript detail of Bach Brandenburg Concerto in D Major, No. 5, BWV 1050, movement
1, Allegro
 Lesson 10 115

Figure 10.2 A string ensemble warm-up exercise based on Bach Brandenburg Concerto in D Major, No. 5,
BWV 1050, movement 1, Allegro

Incorporating Good Teaching Habits in Strings: the Teaching Cycle

The teaching cycle is an approach to assess student progress continuously within each class
period or teaching unit. The continuous teaching cycle can be described as: pre-assess, plan,
implement instruction, evaluate learning outcomes, analyze and reflect, and repeat the
sequence. Designed to determine student needs and assess outcomes, the continuous teaching
cycle can be summarized with the following model:
Pre-Assess

1) Plan
2) Implement Instruction
3) Evaluate Learning Outcomes
4) Analyze and Reflect
5) Repeat

Pre-Assess
At this stage of collecting information, the teacher evaluates the overall goal of the following
unit (class period, rehearsal, etc.). Both desired musical outcomes and standards-based
pedagogical objectives as dictated by the state, district, and school must be considered
within the lesson plan.

1) Plan: this is the step where the teacher determines what the students should know and are
able to perform at the end of the class or unit. The teacher writes a lesson plan, including
all concepts and terminology to be covered, along with a scaffolding plan to reach out to
every student at different learning and playing abilities.
116 Lesson 10
2) Implement Instruction: in this step the teacher executes the activity, or the learning unit.
During class or rehearsal, the teacher must be mindful of the ability of class participation
and success in achieving the planned outcome for each student. Accordingly, adjust
speed, repeat certain concepts if necessary, and change teaching methods to accommo­
date those learning inconsistencies.
3) Evaluate Learning Outcomes: a formative end-of-lesson assessment is an independent
practice session. This is a way to assess student learning at the end of the lesson that
follows the teacher-guided instruction.
4) Analyze and Reflect: in this section of the cycle, the teacher analyzes student work and
scrutinizes the student errors. This can be done with or without the use of rubrics.
Identifying the underlying causes of mistakes, re-evaluating the initial supposition or pre­
assessment, and moving onto the next lesson or unit.

Musical Rehearsal Planning Parallels with the Teaching Cycle

A common rehearsal technique used in professional settings is the “macro–micro–macro”
outline. This is an effective way to rehearse an ensemble and it is equally well suited both in
the professional and pedagogical settings. It can be summarized as tackling a large chunk of
musical material such as a movement or a section of a movement with the following plan: run
through (macro), rehearse in detail (micro), and run through again (macro). The first run
through provides the empty canvas on which learning activity will take place, and it is
comparable to the Pre-assessing and Planning portions of the Teaching Cycle. Rehearsing in
detail is akin to the Implementing Instruction portion of the Teaching Cycle. Arguably the
most critical segment, the post run through is comparable to Evaluating Learning Outcomes,
and as a result this section completes the cycle. In a musical setting, it is critical for the string
teacher to leave enough time to run through the same section without rehearsing, in order for
students to put to practice what they have learned during the rehearsal portion of class. This
post-instruction run-through functions as a formative end of lesson assessment.
Another perfect parallel with the Teaching Cycle, and an exemplary trait of a professional
conductor, is the flexibility of or acknowledgement of unplanned-for issues and choosing to
address or ignore them in the interest of following the pre-determined goal. An example for this is
to continue to run through a movement, even though there are ongoing ensemble or individual
execution concerns. A conductor’s capability of adjusting the overall pace or implementation of
goals during a rehearsal is analogous to a teacher’s ability of adjusting speed of instruction, re­
teaching previously discussed concepts, varying teaching strategies, and offering further scaffold­
ing during Implementing Instruction phase of Teaching Cycle.

Assignment
1) Review Error Detection section and be prepared for in-class error detection exercises.
2) Write a one paragraph summary of incorporating Teaching Cycle in string teaching to
be turned in next class.
3) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
4) Bring a table tennis ball or a similarly sized rubber ball for the collé exercise.
5) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 11 prior to next class.
Lesson 11

Contents
Collé Bowing Exercise 117
Adjustment of Collé for the Low Strings 121
Exercises on the Instrument 121
Classroom and String Orchestra Setup 123

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A collé bowing exercise for right hand and finger flexibility.
• A discussion on classroom and string orchestra setup.

Collé Bowing Exercise

Before we discuss this exercise we must be mindful that collé, as a part of the bow arm and its
technique, is a relatively small motion. In Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing, Carl
Flesch unmistakably indicates: “If assigning the change of bow to the fingers as their exclusive
privilege, one will achieve exactly the opposite of an inaudible change.”1 Indeed, all of the
movements discussed in this article must be approached with great care so that the desired
motions associated with the collé action must remain barely noticeable, but by no means
insignificant as collé action is among the principal elements of the bow technique.
In the literature, the term collé is often identified in the sense of a stroke like an off-string
martelé, or a combination of spiccato and martelé (those bow strokes will be discussed in
detail in Lesson 13). Flesch, on the other hand, labels the use of fingers in a connected, on the
string bow stroke as “the fingerstroke.” This is, however, the same motion described in the
collé stroke with the following differences: it is a smooth motion that occurs on the string.
The smooth and inaudible bow direction change requires the involvement of the wrist and the
fingers, and the greatest challenge of achieving an imperceptible bow change emerges at the frog.
Evidently, the bow weight and insufficient counterbalance of the pinky finger cause this difficulty.
To add to this problem, an incorrect version of the Russian bow hold—as in an exaggerated wrist
and forearm angle and the overall height, which cause the right-hand fingers to straighten and
stiffen—keeps the player from achieving a smooth and inaudible bow change at the frog.
Before applying it on the instrument, it would be advisable to break down the collé action
into its divisible building blocks (i.e. fingers and the wrist), and practice them separately. Then,
put those actions together, and practice the combined motion in different sections of the bow.
118 Lesson 11
Let’s first take the finger motion:

• With your right arm raised to the chest level in front of you, rotate your forearm counter
clockwise to a 45° angle (Figure 11.1).
• To isolate the finger motion, with your left hand, hold the top of your right hand, and
restrict its movement (Figure 11.2).
• Extend (open) and flex (close) the fingers, including the thumb (Figures 11.3 and 11.4).
• Do not allow the fingers to stiffen in a completely straight and locked position.

Figure 11.1 Forearm rotated counterclockwise to a 45° angle

Figure 11.2 Right hand with a restricted movement

 Lesson 11 119
Once the student is comfortable with the fingers, let’s move to the wrist motion:

• With your right arm raised to the chest level in front of you, rotate your forearm counter
clockwise to a 45° angle.
• To isolate the wrist motion, hold an object as a rubber ball in your right hand (Figure 11.5).
• Extend (open) and flex (close) the wrist (Figures 11.6 and 11.7).

Figure 11.3 Right hand extension of fingers (opened)

Figure 11.4 Right hand flexion of fingers (closed)

Figure 11.5 Isolated wrist with a rubber ball

Figure 11.6 Extension of the wrist (opened)

 Lesson 11 121

Figure 11.7 Flexion of the wrist (closed)

Once the student is comfortable with the above exercises, repeat with a light object as
a pencil or a straw held like a bow (Figures 11.8 and 11.9).

Adjustment of Collé for the Low Strings

The collé exercises apply to low strings only with minimal adjustments. The cello bow hold
and French hold for the bass are nearly the same. When applying collé on those bow holds,
pronation of the forearm is simply reduced. When it comes to German bass bow hold, first
create the “chop-stick” hold (refer back to figure 2.33) and apply the collé action extension of
the wrist and flexion of fingers and flexion of the wrist and extension of fingers.

Exercises on the Instrument

Apply this first exercise at the balance point, only with the use of fingers and the wrist (no
forearm motion is allowed). Tone production is not the main concern, but the correct collé
action is (Figure 11.10). To isolate the finger and wrist motion, the student may restrict the
forearm movement with the left hand.
Next, we move onto the smooth collé motion and apply it to a simple one-octave scale as
D Major (Figure 11.11). Making sure that the student remains at the absolute frog and the
absolute tip, but does not drift into a “middle-ish” bow placement.
Figure 11.8 The collé action extension of wrist and flexion of fingers

Figure 11.9 The collé action flexion of wrist and extension of fingers
 Lesson 11 123

Figure 11.10 First collé action exercise

Classroom and String Orchestra Setup

The instructor of any beginning string class must establish an instrumental setup for each
student to allow the production of a beautiful, resonant, and enjoyable sound. It must also
provide an ease of playing and decrease the likelihood of pain or injury in the student. This
task is often complicated due to the large numbers of students in class, as well as the nature
and possible inadequacies of the classroom. Eminent string pedagogues have pondered this
issue and offered solutions consistent with their teaching philosophies.
Teachers in secondary school systems across the US, prominently follow a standard score-
order seating: first violin, second violin, viola, cello, and double bass. An alternative educa­
tional string setting is the row seating for beginning string classes. An influential string
pedagogue and champion of heterogeneous string teaching, Jacquelyn Dillon-Krass (b 1936)
stresses the correct playing position by way of the row seating, where the teacher can walk
around each student and physically make adjustments. This early educational seating comes
with a warning from her, that “row seating is not a performance seating when students are to
be conducted.” Another alternative type of seating is used for rote learning, a circle formation
around the teacher that allows the teacher close visual contact with each student. The circle
124 Lesson 11

Figure 11.11 Collé action one-octave D major scale exercise

formation arrangement may be used for heterogeneous teaching as well as homogeneous

setting—this arrangement has been employed at Indiana Jacobs School of Music String
Academy.
Influential string pedagogue Paul Rolland (1911–1978), advocates violin students to stand
and prefers the use of a room spacious enough for the teacher to move around students, and
for rhythm activities. Also, he the use of rote technique in “eliminating the paraphernalia and
distraction of music stands.” Having the upper string players stand not only makes efficient
use of precious space, but also cultivates better posture in the beginning stages. In this class
we will follow this model and have all upper string players stand. When it comes to the cello,
from chair height to front-side seating position, the student’s weight is distributed on the feet,
more than on the chair. To promote this seating position, Dillon and Kriechbaum suggest
“Up” and “Bingo” games to allow students to “be able to get up quickly without shifting their
weight forward.” Hamann and Gillespie suggest similar game as “Jack-in-the-Box” to
encourage the same seating balance. Lastly, regarding standing vs. stool use preference for
 Lesson 11 125
the double bass, Professor of Bass at Wichita State University, and Principal Bassist of
Wichita Symphony, Dr Mark Foley recommends sitting at stool for bassists in the pedagogical
settings, as in secondary school classrooms and orchestras.
There are multiple options for string ensemble seating, the standard US string quintet
setup (Figure 11.12), and its alternative—also known as Furtwängler variation (Figure 11.13);
furthermore, antiphonal seatings are possible—also known as European (or German) (Figure
11.14), and its variation (Figure 11.15). Currently, both the American and European (or
German) orchestra traditions continue. Having started due to recording equipment deficien­
cies in the 1920s and advanced with Leopold Stokowski’s efforts, the American seating has
become popular around the world by the mid-20th century.2 The orchestral seating as late as
the 19th century was wildly varied, and the conductor did not face the audience, but stood
half-way toward the orchestra and was sometimes surrounded by the musicians. As a matter
of fact, throughout the 18th and into the 19th centuries, often times, the musicians were not
even seated except for the cello section. Austrian music critic and historian Eduard Hanslick
accredited the “Viennese custom” as to the origins of playing while seated.3
In an educational setting, shared spaces are a reality and unfortunately our room setup
may be far from optimum for string classrooms, as we share our rehearsal halls and orchestra
rooms with other disciplines. Often times, permanently-installed crescent-shaped risers,
otherwise stepped rooms, weight-bearing columns, and all other immovables stand in our
way of providing a healthy, accommodating string classroom.
Truly, all seating, both in the classroom and performance hall, should allow players to
perform without any physical strain to maintain a good setup, or to see the conductor.
Whether students are sharing a music stand or not, they should have both enough room to
move around and always be situated to face the teacher. These critically important orchestral
requirements are not readily apparent to students, or some students might have motivation to

Figure 11.12 American Seating

Figure 11.13 An Alternate American Seating

126 Lesson 11

Figure 11.14 European (or German) Seating

Figure 11.15 An Alternate European (or German) Seating

hide from the teacher, it is the teacher’s responsibility to implement seating. Some students
might be aware of a problem or discomfort but do not wish to seem disruptive or
confrontational and therefore will not speak up. Again, the responsibility falls to the teacher
to condition the students to react when setup issues arise.
Experimenting with various seating plans will provide a new sort of rotation, the rotation of
sections, and will afford students a different perspective on stage: both visually and aurally.
Splitting sections would not be advised in an educational setting, however, moving the basses to
the middle of the stage may be a good compromise so that their centralized position would make
them more prevalent on both wings, and equally audible to all sections. The European seating
plan of antiphonally splitting the first and second violins is a good start to break away from the
current American standard of score-order left-to-right string section. As antiphonal seating
variants do not necessarily lend themselves as easily to all repertoire, by nature, they prepare
the conductor and players to accept seating changes as part of the orchestra experience.
If the classroom is set up with load-bearing beams or columns, steps and permanent risers, the
exercise and flexibility of alternate seating will be most helpful in finding an optimum solution. If
the orchestra teacher is sharing a room with the band (as many of us do), they are likely to find
a room composed of multiple crescent rows. The first order of business is to break the crescent
rows, as they are rather inflexible, do not leave enough room to play a string instrument, do not
allow single chair rotations, and do not allow teachers access to the students. For example, to
alleviate the above space problem, it is a good idea to split the first and second violin sections
antiphonally as two facing rows and take the violas, cellos, and double basses on the top
platform. This seating will allow all sections more room to move, and allow them to rotate as
needed. However, it must be stressed that the antiphonal seating requires both violin sections to
be independently strong. In the words of Arturo Toscanini, who likens both violin sections to
shoulders: “Like shoulders, they must be equally strong and equivalent.”4
 Lesson 11 127
As string teachers, the more knowledge and awareness we possess, the more options we will
have and seating is no exception. Student health, both aural and neuromusculoskeletal, as
acknowledged by the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) and Performing Arts
Medicine Association (PAMA), is paramount in all activities we participate. All rehearsals and
performances must comply with good judgment on the teacher’s part, as students may not
possess the knowledge or experience needed to maintain their own health. We as teachers
must act on the account of our students and assure to provide a healthy learning environment
at all times.

Assignment
1) Repeat collé action and practice collé exercises on your instrument.
2) Write a one paragraph summary of orchestral string ensemble seating options, to be
turned in next class.
3) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
4) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 12 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Flesch, Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing, 14.
2 Alois Melichar, Der vollkommene Dirigent: Entwicklung und Verfall einer Kunst. (München: Langen–Müller,
1981), quoted in Jürgen Meyer, Acoustics and the Performance of Music: Manual for Acousticians, Audio
Engineers, Musicians, Architects and Musical Instrument Makers, 267.
3 Koury, Orchestral Performance Practices in the 19th Century: Size, Proportions, and Seating, 175.
4 Meyer, Acoustics and the Performance of Music, 264.
Lesson 12

Contents
Left-Hand Techniques 128
Performance Practices Specific to Orchestra 135

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A discussion on left-hand techniques.
• A brief discussion on orchestral performance practices.

Left-Hand Techniques
Among the most important fundamental objectives in the first stages of string instruction is to
establish a reliable and tension-free left arm and hand position that allows for an unrestricted
facility. In the beginning stages establishing finger patterns for the upper strings, C-shape and
forward and backward extensions for the cello, and K-shape and half and first positions on the bass
are among the first goals for a string teacher. Once the initial left-hand facility within the diatonic
scale framework is established, improving upon existing techniques and adding new ones at
a manageable pace is a sound pedagogical approach. The below discussion covers most essential
left-hand techniques that are common in the beginning and intermediate stages of instruction.
Positions: in heterogeneous string teaching everything that relates to the left hand is
optimized for the general classroom, with consideration of specific instrument needs. Begin­
ning method books acknowledge the need and aim to offer globally applicable material that
benefits all instruments at the same time. With regard to range, all strings are at an advantage
over the double bass, in that their range in the first position exceeds two octaves, conversely
bass is only an octave and a perfect fifth. This inequitable problem is solved with the early
introduction of a shift on the bass. As far as keys are concerned, D major and G major are
considered string-friendly and allow beginning students to perform simple melodic material
with minimal left-hand challenges. The overall goal of string instruction in the beginning
stages is to cover as much musical material without overwhelming students in the pursuit of
establishing a solid instrument setup, and foundational left-hand and bow-arm techniques.
Shifting: shifting is a central element both in technical and expressive areas of string
playing in that it helps define schools of playing and the very individuality of specific players,
therefore, it may be scrutinized both as a technical and expressive device. As a technical
element it expands the instrument’s range and is used in minimizing awkward string crossings
 Lesson 12 129
by way of using different positions for certain portions of a passage, and as an expressive
element it allows the player to execute a slide within a great range from a slight lilt to
a portamento, to a full glissando. It also allows the player to individualize the shift by
choosing with which finger to execute the slide portion.
Simply put, every shift can be defined as travelling between two different positions on
a string instrument. The travel starts with a departure finger, also known as the guide
finger, and ends on an arrival finger. In a simple shift, both departure and arrival fingers
are one and the same, where in a compound shift, both are different fingers (Figure 12.1).
In introducing the concept, a simple shift on the same string, between adjacent or close
positions is used.
Lack of frets on fingerboards of orchestral string instruments allow for a smooth and
unobstructed slide between any two pitches. A shift may occur within a single string, or
between two different strings. Either way the player will depart from a given position and
arrive in another. Also, a shift may occur from a lower position to a higher position, or
vice versa. Technically, the direction of a shift will not make a difference, however,
expressively it will matter whether to expose the slide of the departure finger or to disguise
it (Figure 12.2).
From a technical point of view, a shift can occur between adjacent or distant positions on
the same string or on different strings. Regardless of the distance, shifting may occur with the
same finger or two different fingers. If it is a single finger, for example departing and arriving
with the first finger between two positions, it is a straight forward slide as a portamento. The
slide in a shift may be disguised by executing it quickly and subtly, or may be revealed by
executing it slowly and deliberately for expressive purposes. In orchestral performances,
practice members of a section do not possess such expressive allowance, and may not take
extra time or make such individual expressive decisions unless a portamento or a glissando is
indicated by the composer. Furthermore, as Flesch warns against excessive use of
portamento,1 it should not be used as a crutch for shifting deficiencies.

Figure 12.1 Simple and compound shifts

Figure 12.2 An exposed shift

130 Lesson 12
The timing of the bow change will also help disguise or expose a shift. If a shift occurs
within a bow, only the timing will impact the outcome. A bow direction change within a shift
will help disguise or expose it.
Teaching Shifting: in teaching the sequence students should be comfortable playing in
a given position before shifting to and from it. In other words, shifting should be introduced
once students are comfortable playing in different finger patterns, as in playing in different
keys in the half and first positions. Additionally, before shifting is introduced, all left-hand
technical issues must be addressed. If there are pre-existing left hand technical problems, as in
a collapsed wrist and overall tension in the left hand, introducing shifting will only compound
those existing issues.
Shifting may be broken down to its basic components and taught first as a slide between two
notes, that is departing from one position and arriving in another. Using the first finger,
a smooth and deliberate slide between two positions takes place. The finger weight into the
string and fingerboard must be minimal and the thumb should not be clamped into the neck.
The first joint angle of the guide finger must remain constant and cannot roll forward or
backward. The left-hand shape and finger distances must remain intact during the shift. In other
words, the wrist or a finger cannot lead and the entire arm should move as a single unit.
Because of this, shifting between close positions, particularly between the half and first positions,
the line may be blurred and the student may be confused. The remedy for this possible
confusion is the reminder that the entire hand must be situated as a whole in any given
position, and the thumb moves along with the entire arm during a shift while keeping the finger
distances intact. Another common issue with shifts is undershooting or clamping down with
both the guide finger and the thumb. One exercise to solve this issue is tapping and rolling the
thumb against the neck. Additionally, the thumb may be removed altogether to demonstrate
the possibility of maintaining guide finger’s own minimal weight into the string, but not pushing
against it with the thumb. The goal is to remove any unnecessary friction caused by the tip of
the guide finger and first joint pad of thumb during the shift, much like the untimely
application of brakes would cause while trying to pedal a bicycle. Just enough weight to keep
the string down during a shift is necessary, any more weight or pressure will only hinder
a smooth shift. This exercise and similar exercises will help relieve excessive weight and
unnecessary pressure in achieving unobstructed and smooth shifts.
Portamento: described as “portamento della voce” or “carriage of voice,” vocal portamento
finds its roots in the 17th century’s established legato singing traditions and has been adopted
in string playing as an expressive gesture. In the instrumental tradition, Flesch’s indication of
“emotional connection between two notes” helps explain the instrumental meaning of
portamento as exposing a chosen portion of a slide. Either an upward or downward gesture,
portamento makes use of shifting as an expressive device. Although sometimes a composer
provides a diagonal line to indicate a portamento, it is not always the case. For string players
we may label four approaches to a portamento:

1) A simple portamento is a simple slide starting and ending on the same finger and on
the same string.
2) A compound portamento is a slide starting with the departure or guide finger, and
ending with the arrival finger. Any portion of the portamento to any extent can be
exposed (departure finger, arrival finger, or both).

On an upward portamento an early placement of the arrival finger will provide the latter
portion of the slide (Figure 12.3), conversely on the downward gesture, the departure finger will
 Lesson 12 131
provide the earlier portion of it (Figure 12.4). How much of the portamento will be audible may
be determined by placement timing of the departure and arrival fingers, and as a matter of
taste, the guide finger’s slide within a shift itself may be used as portamento (Figure 12.5).
Glissando: an Italianized French term, originates from the French verb glisser, “to slide.”
Sometimes a composer may indicate a glissando on a string instrument as a simple slide like
a portamento. In performance practice such an indication is executed as a dedicated slide
where all of the slide between the departure and arrival pitches is heard. A chromatic glissando,
defining all minor seconds (semitones) in between the two pitches is a much more advanced
technique than portamento. One virtuoso technique of executing a glissando is the imitation of
a chromatic scale with a vibrato-like motion during the slide. Unless the composer indicated
a chromatic glissando by defining all minor seconds (semitones) in between those two pitches, in
an orchestral setting all glissandos are done as a slide, much like a portamento. One significant
difference is exposing the entire slide between the departure and arrival pitches in the glissando,
where only a chosen portion of the slide may be exposed in a portamento.
Vibrato: originating in Italian, vibrare means to shake and vibrato is the past participle
form of the verb. On orchestral string instruments vibrato is the continuous wavering of pitch

Figure 12.3 Upward portamento

Figure 12.4 Downward portamento

Figure 12.5 Guide-finger portamento (from first to fifth position), Spohr, Violinschule
132 Lesson 12
on long or expressive notes. An early definition of vibrato is close shake, even though before
the 19th century, vibrato was generally considered an ornament savored for long and
expressive notes, in his cornerstone treatise on violin playing, titled The Art of Playing on the
Violin, Francesco Geminiani (1687–1762) advocates the use of vibrato not only on long notes,
but also on short notes, and “be made use of as often as possible.”2 Not until the first quarter
of the 20th century did continuous vibrato on all notes become fashionable. Continuous
vibrato ultimately became a part of a player’s tone production, particularly with Fritz
Kreisler’s (1875–1962) influence. Today, the use of continuous vibrato is expected of any
orchestral player, and by definition it is consistently provided throughout each note. From
one string instrument to another, and from lower to higher registers, both the speed and
width of vibrato differ greatly. In the lower instruments and registers, vibrato is slower and
wider. In higher registers vibrato gets faster and more narrow, a necessary adjustment to keep
the pitch unaffected by the width of the vibrato. Although with artistic choice, alterations to
vibrato’s intensity, starting a note senza vibrato and slowly introducing an increasing use of
vibrato, or intensifying the middle of a note as in a vocal expressive technique of messa di voce
(placing of the voice), are variations used in solo playing.
Sulla Corda: the expression indicates to play on a particular string. The particular string
may be indicated with a Roman numeral: the highest string of a given instrument is I, second
II, third III and the lowest is IV. Also, solmization technique as well as a letter system may be
used to indicate the given string. To indicate a section to be performed on only the G string,
sul G, sul sol, sulla IV corda or sul IV could be used for the violin. In the orchestral setting, string
sections should play on the same string for consistency of tone color. When a composer
indicates sulla corda, the given string section will remain on the indicated string for the
duration of the dashed lines, if no dashed lines are present for the duration of the passage
(Figure 12.6).
Trills: a simple definition of a trill is a quick alternation of a main note and the note
above it. The exact interval may or may not be indicated in music. If not indicated otherwise,
the key signature dictates the quality of the second: minor, major or an augmented second.
How many turns to execute in a trill is dictated by the note value and tempo. The most
essential part of executing a trill is the evenness of it.
Finger Tremolos: a natural extension of a trill, finger tremolos refer to the rapid
alternation of intervals greater than a second. Generally, finger tremolos are executed on
the same string and the rapid alternation of strings, or rapid string crossings should not be
necessary. Therefore, whenever possible, all tremolos are fingered in a way to keep them on
the same string, that is, constant shifting may be necessary. If a tremolo between intervals

Figure 12.6 Rimsky–Korsakov, Sheherazade, movement 3, mm 1–5, first and second violin sulla corda
 Lesson 12 133
greater than a fourth is necessary, then string crossings are necessary (see Lesson 13:
Ondeggiando). Finger tremolos may be measured or non-measured.
Natural Harmonics: although this topic was covered earlier in Lesson 5 as it applies
to tuning, natural harmonics, sometimes referred to as flageolet, are used often and offer
a significant color option in string playing. Most commonly the first partial, located an
octave above an open string, offers an extension in any given position and a solid
intonation reference point. Indicated with a round zero, or a zero above a finger
number, the first partial produces a consonant and clear tone. When it comes to second
through to fourth partials, notation choices of a composer can be confusing, and some­
times a composer may notate the sounding note or the actual placement on the string
notated as a diamond head (see figure 5.3). It is exceedingly rare to encounter second
through the fourth partials in graded editions, though not as rare in the standard
orchestral repertoire (Figure 12.7).
Double Stops: among the most challenging aspects of the left-hand technique, double
stops allow a player to sustain two adjacent strings at the same time. In string pedagogy
the student’s earliest introduction to double stops occurs with tuning by way of adjacent
strings. This standard tuning approach requires a player to keep an even weight on both
strings and a constant bow speed, therefore, it helps create a solid foundation for double
stops. Once bow independency and control is achieved, double stops are introduced by
playing two open strings, then adding a fingered strings to open strings, and finally
playing two fingered strings at a time. Use of natural harmonics, particularly the first
partial, is another good way to introduce double stops and sustain without having to put
much weight to produce sound and sustain (Figure 12.8).

Figure 12.7 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 5, Fandango asturiano, rehearsal V, first- and
second-partial natural harmonics

Figure 12.8 Ševčík, Preparatory Exercises in Double-Stopping, Op. 9 (1901), p 3

134 Lesson 12
Chords: due to the curvature of the bridge, no orchestral string instrument can sustain more
than two notes at a time. Therefore, in solo playing most commonly triple- and quadruple-stop
chords are executed as broken chords. Broken quadruple-stop chords are executed as the lower
two notes at a time, as grace notes, to be quickly followed by sustained upper two notes. For the
upper portion of chord to be on time, the lower two notes are placed right before the beat
(Figure12.9). Triple-stop chords can be executed as three notes at a time, although this approach
can cause crunching if excessive weight is applied on the string and the chord cannot be sustained.
Therefore, most commonly triple-stop chords are executed as lower two notes placed right before
the beat as grace notes, break the chord to sustain the upper two notes (Figure 12.10). In a softer
dynamic triple- and quadruple-stop chords can be rolled as one note at a time, although this is
a rare occurrence (Figures 12.11 and 12.12).

Figure 12.9 Executing a broken quadruple-stop chord

Figure 12.10 Executing a broken triple-stop chord

Figure 12.11 Executing a rolled quadruple-stop chord

Figure 12.12 Executing a rolled triple-stop chord

 Lesson 12 135
Performance Practices Specific to Orchestra
Divisi: in a string section, whenever multiple notes are written players execute only one note
at a time, unless indicated non-divisi. When sharing a stand, the outside person, seated closer
to the audience, plays the higher note and the inside person plays the lower note. If more
than two notes are present at a time, sometimes “by the player” and sometimes “by the
stand” approach may be taken. If by person, the composer indicates div. a 3, div. a 4, etc. The
end of divisi is indicated by tutti or unison, or abbreviated as unis. It must be noted that
composers or editors do not always indicate divisi. It is then up to the conductor to decide
when to divide the section and when not to do so.
Chords: in solo playing breaking or rolling a chord is not a cause for concern as the
player executes the bottom of the chord on the beat. In contrast, the large ensemble
setting poses a timing challenge that needs to be addressed, as exact timing of breaking or
rolling of a chord must be synchronized among all players. Furthermore, students tend to
press or crunch when playing chords. By executing chords as divisi, the inside person
plays the lower notes, and the outside person plays the higher notes, both timing and
pressed tone quality issues are addressed (Figure 12.13). There are certain exceptions, as
the opening of Beethoven’s First Symphony, where the first violin chord in the fourth
measure cannot be played as divisi, and the first violins must sustain the highest note and
continue without an interruption as part of the melody, and therefore, it must be broken
(Figure 12.14).
Use of Open Strings in the Large Ensemble Setting: in the interest of uniformity
and to be able to vibrate, the use of open strings is avoided in large ensembles and is part of
orchestral performance practice. The only exceptions are when open strings happen on quick,
passing notes, on a weak beat, and on non-divisi chords. Especially the open E string of the
violin is avoided because it stands out of texture.

Figure 12.13 Chord divisions for quadruple- and triple-stop chords

Figure 12.14 Beethoven Symphony No. 1, opening measures

136 Lesson 12
Arco and Pizzicato Transitions: sometimes there is no time between arco and
pizzicato passages. If the pizzicato passage is short enough, and that there is no time between
arco and pizzicato notes, the player may keep the bow grip in order to switch smoothly and
without missing any notes. If the bow grip is kept intact while playing those pizzicato notes,
the index finger is used to pluck the string on all string instruments.
Extended Pizzicato Sections or Pizzicato Movements: when a long section of
a pizzicato passage or a pizzicato movement is played, the teacher may designate exact spots
where the bows should be put down and picked back up.
Pizzicato chords: much like regular chords, pizzicato chords can be executed both as
non-divisi and divisi. When executing a pizzicato chord, the direction is from bottom up, or
from lowest string to the highest string, although there are some exceptions to this rule
(Figure 12.15).
Orchestral Notation Shortcuts: in orchestral writing, often times, engravers use short­
hand notation and the most common ones are on repeated notes. Shorthand notation on
repeated notes may be unclear and non-measured tremolo and measured repeated note
values can be mixed up. Non-string players may not be as familiar with this practice,
although all shorthand notation is likely to cause confusion on all players (Figure 12.16).

Figure 12.15 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 5, Fandango asturiano, mm 38–43, guitar-like
pizzicato chords

Figure 12.16 Orchestral notation shorthand samples

 Lesson 12 137
Assignment
1) Write one paragraph explaining reasons for shifting and the relationship between shifting
and portamento, to be turned in next class.
2) List all left hand techniques and their brief explanations discussed in this lesson, to be
turned in next class.
3) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
4) Practice rolled and broken chords on your assigned instrument.
5) Read Lesson 13 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Flesch, The Art of Violin Playing: Book One,15–16.
2 Geminiani, The Art of Playing on the Violin, 8.
Lesson 13

Contents
Principal Schools of Bow: German, Franco-Belgian, and Russian; French Vs. German Bass
Bow Holds 138
Bow Strokes and Expressions 139

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A discussion on principal schools of bow hold.
• Common bow strokes and expressions.

Principal Schools of Bow: German, Franco-Belgian, and Russian; French

Vs. German Bass Bow Holds
The three standard schools of upper-strings bow hold may be categorized as German,
Franco-Belgian, and Russian. In the interest of practicality both violin and viola bow holds
can be discussed under the same heading. Similarly, both cello and French bass bow holds
are similar and can be combined despite their minimal differences, and lastly the German
bass bow hold is the only other grip to discuss separately.
Above all, the introduction and maintenance of a technically solid bow hold is imperative,
and an overfocus on school-of-bow choice may be considered superfluous. Furthermore,
every student’s physical attributes are different and bow hold must make sense for that
particular student’s physical individuality. In other words, both upper and low strings choice
of bow, and school of bow, may have been made by a previous teacher and if there are no
technical deficiencies, should remain the same.

1) Upper Strings: when categorizing schools of bow, index finger placement in relation
to the stick is taken as a reference point. This placement has a direct effect on the
initial pronation and supination of the fingers, wrist, forearm, and the overall arm
height. The thumb pivoting is the other vital variable that remains flexible and
continually adjusts the pronation and supination while playing. Although national
affiliations offer little service other than streamlining different approaches, influential
pedagogues ultimately endorse their own synthesis when it comes to bow hold. The
three main schools of bow hold are:
 Lesson 13 139
• German school: index finger makes contact with stick at the first joint.
• Franco-Belgian school: index finger makes contact with stick at the second joint.
• Russian school: index finger makes contact with stick at the third joint.

Today, the German school is mostly outdated, so much so that contemporary violinists and
violists gravitate towards Franco-Belgian and Russian, or an amalgamation of the two
schools. In this text the Franco-Belgian school is the preferred approach to cover as many
bow grips as possible.

2) Cello: although it closely resembles the Franco-Belgian grip of the upper strings, in that
the right index finger makes contact with the stick at the second joint, the cello bow hold
is slightly less pronated and the pinky finger is placed in front of the frog, not on the stick.
3) Bass: the French bass bow hold, or overhand hold, is almost identical to the cello with
the following exceptions that pronation is less than the cello grip, the finger separation
is possibly greater, because of that, either the middle two fingers or the ring finger may
be aligned with the thumb, and the ring finger may be resting on the ferrule. Owing to
its ancestry in the viol family, German traditions continued with the viol lineage of
bows, hence the underhand bow hold. Both German and French bow holds have such
a profound influence on the bow technique and bowing preferences, that some
orchestras tend to hire musicians with a particular bow hold as established within
their traditions. Unlike the upper strings so-called national bow schools, among
European orchestras, Franco-Belgian and Germanic affiliations with bass bows are
quite nationalistic.

Bow Strokes and Expressions

Bow strokes prior to the 1780s included slurred notes, staccato, tremolo, ondeggiando, arpeg­
giando, among others, however, Baroque and earlier shorter bows without a convex curve and
a weighed tip limited the length of sustained notes and extended groupings of slurred notes. When
performing pre-Tourte era early music, it is prudent to be informed of period bows, instruments
and gut strings available to those musicians. From the mid-16th century to the late-18th century
the French practice of notes inégales (Fr. “unequal notes”) refers to a performance practice of
dotting notes that are written as equal note values. Although this is a limited practice it stresses the
preference of heavier down bow strokes and lighter up bow strokes.
The French bow maker François Xavier Tourte’s pioneering work and revolutionary
bows that were refined in the mid-1780s, with prominent German violin pedagogue Louis
Spohr’s endorsement, helped create the basis of modern bows and bow strokes. A heavier
frog and heavier hatchet head (tip), as opposed to the Baroque pike tip which helped
improve legato playing, longer slurs, expressive portato articulation and elasticity of the
stick made a variety of off-string bow strokes become part of regular string lexicon. Until
the mid- to late-19th century bowing articulations, both in vocabulary and notation, were
wildly inconsistent, as an interchangeable use of the terms of staccato, spiccato, and
sautillé, even to date some discrepancy on terminology and disagreement on interpreta­
tion exist. Below are some bow strokes and expressions that represent bow technique.
Most of the below strokes and expressions will be found in graded repertoire, although
some strokes are listed to give historical perspective, and some to give a broader knowl­
edge on this vast subject.
140 Lesson 13
Détaché
A ubiquitous bow stroke, the term denotes separated notes without a slur or articulation.
Despite the common misconception, détaché notes are neither detached nor legato.
Legato Slur
Slurred notes are played in a single bow direction, connected without any articulation. In
a legato slur, there are no articulation shapes between the note head and slur.
Legato
The term simply means to play connected. Legato may apply to separate notes in addition to
slurred notes.
Portato or Louré
A re-articulation of the same pitch or different pitch under the same slur. Most commonly it
is indicated as tenuto lines under a slur, however, some editions may place dots or tenuto
lines under dots to indicate portato. To execute a portato the bow may be paused in between
notes slightly, or the right index finger may pulsate without stopping the bow.
Staccato
Detached notes on the string. It is denoted by a dot above or below the note head and
articulated by stopping the bow in between notes. How much to shorten the note depends on
the note value, tempo, style, and other factors.
Slurred Staccato
Detached notes under a slur on the string. It is denoted by dots under the slur and articulated
by momentarily stopping the bow in between notes.
Martelé
(Fr. from marteler “to hammer”) an incisive, hammered bow stroke. It may be described as an
accented staccato. It is executed most commonly on the upper half or upper 1/3 of the bow
by the use of the forearm and the bow is stopped in between each note. Due to its distinct
quality, only the forearm motion is engaged to execute the stroke with inflexible wrist and
fingers. It may be denoted by a wedge (an arrow-head stroke) or an accent by the note head.
Spiccato
In present-day string playing the spiccato term indicates to play short and off-the-string
notes.1 To execute those bouncing notes, spiccato is played at or around the balance point
and its exact location depends on the speed in which it is played: the slower the spiccato, the
closer to the frog, the faster, the further towards the middle of bow. It is denoted by a dot by
the note head. When more-brisk than regular spiccato is called for, molto spiccato indication
may be provided by the composer or editor.
Brush Stroke
Although a made-up term, it indicates the exact opposite of molto spiccato where a lengthier
contact than regular spiccato is made with the string.
Slow or Artificial Spiccato
To execute a heavier and controlled spiccato at slower speeds, the bow is carried, bounced,
and controlled by hand. An artificial spiccato is the speed where the bow cannot spring on its
own accord and if slow spiccato is played at or above the balance point, bow control cannot
be maintained. It is denoted by a dot by the note head.
 Lesson 13 141
Sautillé
(Fr.; It. saltando) is a fast spiccato where the bow cannot fully bounce due to the quick pace.
The sautillé is played in the middle of the bow, slightly further than the balance-point
placement of spiccato. It is denoted by a wedge (an arrow-head stroke) or a dot by the note
head.
Staccato Volante
Or “flying staccato” is a fast slurred staccato where numerous notes are played in one bow in a rapid
succession. This is a soloistic bow stroke that will not occur in orchestral writing (Figure 13.1).
Ricochet
(Fr. “rebound” or jeté from jeter “to throw”) a thrown bow stroke that bounces on the same
bow direction to execute anywhere from two to several notes. It is denoted by dots by the
note heads under a slur. It is different from flying staccato in that the bow is thrown onto
string and made to bounce, or dribble on the string on its own volition. Naturally the bow
will run out of energy at some point, which limits the number of notes to be played within
rhythmic accuracy within a given tempo (Figure 13.2).

Figure 13.1 Paganini Caprice Op. 1, No. 7, mm 50–51, up and down bow flying staccatos

Figure 13.2 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 4, Scena e canto gitano, rehearsal L, first
and second violins, ricochet bowing
142 Lesson 13
Collé
(Fr. from coller “to stick” or “to glue”) although not a truly classified bow stroke, collé is
executed with the fingers on the string, with a light and defined pinching attack and a slight
lift at the end of stroke, much like a diminutive martelé stroke.
Ondeggiando
(It.; Fr. ondulé) an undulated bow stroke where continuous alteration between two strings takes
place, commonly within a slur or multiple slurs. Ondeggiando may or may not involve open
strings (Figure 13.3).
Bariolage
An undulated bow stroke where continuous alternation between stopped and open notes with
the involvement of an open string. Often times, executed within a slur or multiple slurs, the
particular illusion of bariolage is the color change caused by the alternation between the
stopped note and the open string (Figure 13.4).
Arpeggiando
In Baroque performance practice, rolled chords may be written as block chords and executed
in an arpeggiated manner, or in contemporary writing arpeggiated notes are written out.
Often times, executed within a slur or multiple slurs, it may involve three or four strings.
Additionally, it may be mixed with a ricochet bow stroke as in Paganini’s Caprice Op. 1, No.
1 or Mendelssohn Violin Concerto in E Minor, Op. 64 (Figure 13.5).

Figure 13.3 Mozart Symphony in E-flat Major, No. 39, movement 4, Allegro, second violin section’s
opening measures, an ondeggiando passage

Figure 13.4 Bach Violin Concerto in A Minor, BWV 1041, movement 3, Allegro assai, mm 105–108, first
four measures of the bariolage passage

Figure 13.5 Paganini Caprice, Op. 1, No. 1, opening, ricochet arpeggiando bow stroke
 Lesson 13 143
Multiple Stops
Although in orchestral performance practices, often times, multiple stops are divided, in some
cases non-divisi chords are indicated by the composer (Figure 13.6).
Hooked Bowing
Is executing a dotted rhythm stopped within the same bow direction with a defined or portato
articulation. Sometimes it is used to remove an unintentional accent caused by the shorter note
value’s bow recovery (Figure 13.7). It may be indicated with a dot under the slur by the longer and
shorter note values, sometimes only by the shorter note value. Sometimes, however, indicated with
only bow directions with no articulation attached. If the bow is stopped between two notes as
a distinct articulation, for instance, if the hooked bowing is for the repetition of the same pitch, the
first or the longer note value is somewhat shortened, however, the second or the shorter note value is
always on time (Figure 13.7).
Tremolo
Rapid non-measured restatement of the same note with quick down and up bow repetitions,
played at the tip or in the upper 1/3 portion of the bow. It may be indicated by the term
tremolo, or abbreviated as trem., but more often it may not be denoted (Figure 13.8). With
the common orchestration shorthand of repeated sixteenth notes or thirty-second notes,
distinction between measured and tremolo notes is sometimes veiled.
String Crossings
Occur anywhere in the bow from the frog to the tip, from separate notes to notes within a slur, from
a single crossing to multiple crossings (as in ondeggiando). Therefore, a comprehensive bow
technique is capable of executing any string crossing without any interruption or wasteful use of
bow. The only way to execute string crossings in an optimized manner is to get as close to the
adjacent string as possible without making it sound. This approach necessitates a smooth and
organic elevation change, but not an angular motion.2

Figure 13.6 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 1, Alborada, mm 33–36, first and second
violins, down-bow retakes

Figure 13.7 Hooked bowing

Figure 13.8 Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, Op. 14, movement 5, A witches’ sabbath, opening measures,
upper strings, tremolo
 Lesson 13 145
Retakes
Generally, composers do not indicate bow directions unless a particularly accented or unaccented
section calls for it. In accented figures a composer may indicate multiple down bows, which will
require multiple retakes (Figure 13.9). In contrast, for unaccented but separate notes players may
be called to execute with multiple up bows (Figure 13.10).

Figure 13.9 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 2, Variazioni, mm 73–75, first and second
violins, down-bow retakes

Figure 13.10 Prokofiev Third Piano Concerto in C Major, Op. 26, II. Tema con variazioni: Andantino, first
two measures, violins, violas and cellos, up-bow retakes
© Copyright 1923 Hawkes and Son (London) Ltd. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright Renewed.
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by Permission.
146 Lesson 13
Effects Acquired with Contact Point
The following two items are not bow strokes, but effects acquired by an intentional contact
point placement.
Sul Tasto
(It. also sulla tastiera; Fr. sur la touche; Ger. am Griffbrett), an Italian term indicating to bow on the
fingerboard. The same effect is also known as flautando (It.) and it produces a softer, breathy,
more veiled flute-like tone quality. Contact point having been moved onto the fingerboard
requires additional bow length.
Sul Ponticello
Indicates to play at the bridge (It.; Fr. au chevalet; Ger. am Steg) and it produces overtones
resulting in a glassy or a metallic tone quality. Often times, sul ponticello is coupled with
tremolo.

Assignment
1) Write a one paragraph summary of bow schools discussed in this lesson, to be turned in
next class.
2) List all bow-related terms and their brief explanations discussed in this lesson, to be
turned in next class.
3) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
4) Read Lesson 14 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Boyden and Walls, “Spiccato.”
2 For a comprehensive list of bow motions expressed in graphs, see Hodgson, Motion Study and Violin
Bowing, 35–63.
Lesson 14

Contents
Common Technical Problems and their Remedies 147
Common Faults Associated with Vibrato 153

This lesson’s focus is:

• A discussion on common technical issues and their remedies.

Common Technical Problems and Their Remedies

All aspects of string playing, from instrument setup to bow hold to tone production, present various
challenges. Although technical challenges manifest themselves in various forms, there are common­
alities found with each of those issues. The remedies for the following common problems are
abundant in method and delivery, and all experienced string teachers establish their individual
solutions through years of teaching, this lesson will examine common challenges and provide
proven strategies to remedy them in the beginning and intermediate stages of string playing.
Posture and Instrument Setup Issues cause faulty tone-production, because a misaligned
instrument is just as problematic as a misaligned bow arm, and a contributing factor to tension and
other technical deficiencies. The center of each school of teaching, stable posture and instrument
hold create the foundation for all techniques to develop. Even though at first look both posture and
instrument hold appear to be static, they are wholly dynamic aspects of string technique that allow
players to move while performing without any restriction. Static instrument hold and unnatural
posture are a recipe for tension, and are the exact opposite of a healthy motion in string playing.
Posture and setup concerns of upper strings:
Problems while standing:

• Student is leaning toward the instrument.

• Student is leaning back.
• Student is leaning forward.

Problems while sitting:

• Student is slouching.
• Student is leaning back.
148 Lesson 14
Solution: have the student stand with one heel off the floor as described in Lesson 2, and
sway sideways. Place the instrument in the playing position, have the student repeat the sway
motion. The natural posture must remain throughout this exercise and no lean should ever
occur. Have the student lie on the floor in the supine position with knees flexed and feet
tucked by the torso and hold the instrument in the playing position.
Problems:

• Instrument is placed on the chest.

• Instrument is placed too far on the shoulder.
• Instrument angle is too steep.
• Instrument angle is too flat.

Solution: make sure that the chinrest and shoulder rest fit the student perfectly. The left
shoulder should never be elevated while playing the instrument, conversely the shoulder rest
and chinrest should not cause the jaw to be raised and head tilted away from the instrument.
Making sure that the instrument size is correct for the given student and finding well-fitting
and well-functioning accessories, as the chinrest and shoulder rest are critical. For a drooping
instrument hold, Rolland’s Balancing a Ball exercise, or Holding Game, is an effective way to
keep the instrument from drooping (Lesson 2).
Left hand and arm problems with upper strings:
Problem:

• Left wrist is extended (known as collapsed wrist).

• Left wrist is flexed.
• Left wrist is bent sideways (ulnar or radial deviation).
• Left thumb is straightened.
• Left thumb and index finger are clamped on the neck.
• Left hand carries the instrument.

Solution: while playing the upper strings, the left wrist should be in the natural position.
Some students may be supporting the violin that causes the wrist to collapse (extension). If
that is the case the instrument hold must be re-examined and any issues with the chin rest
and shoulder rest must be addressed, then the wrist must return to its natural position. The
opposite of a collapsed wrist is a flexed wrist and it also causes tension in the hand and
restricts free movement of fingers. Since there is no causal relation with instrument hold, left
arm position must be re-evaluated and the wrist should be returned to its natural position.1
Sideway motion of the wrist, or ulnar and radial deviations, is caused by the entire arm not
engaging in a pendulum motion when moving from one string position to the other and for
the wrist to move sideways to accommodate string changes. “Pendulum” exercise (Lesson 3)
helps resolve this issue efficiently. In the case of a straightened left thumb or lack of a squirrel
hole with the left hand that carries the weight of the instrument, “A-OK” position and
squirrel hole must be created (much like the C-position of the cello). A thumb exercise of
tapping and drawing circles with the pad of thumb on the side of the neck will relieve tension
and help release the neck from the hand’s clutch, allowing fingers to function freely.
Problem: left arm extended to the left while playing on the highest string and fingers are
placed too low in relation to the fingerboard.
 Lesson 14 149
Solution: in the first stages of playing it is a relatively common issue for a student to extend
and abduct the left arm out to the left of the instrument while playing on the highest string
and lower left fingers in relation to the fingerboard. This creates tension in the shoulder
(glenohumeral) joint, an unnecessary playing angle for the left arm. The simplest way to make
the student aware of this undesirable motion is to place the four fingers in the playing position
on the second string (A string and D string, on the violin and viola respectively) and move all
four fingers onto the first string (E string and A string, on the violin and viola respectively).
This will assure that the highest string can be played with the first finger placed high enough
to be squared like a hook and the elbow position is perfectly vertical (Figures 14.1 and 14.2).
Problem: left-hand’s mold of rounded fingers is not kept intact and fingers move away from
the fingerboard, furthermore, the fourth finger may be curled under.
Solution: in the initial stages of string playing it is common for fingers to lift higher than
necessary and move away from the fingerboard and that can cause issues in intonation, accuracy,
and withhold the student from achieving agility. If corrective work is necessary, work with the
student on their left-hand position (Lesson 2). A simple exercise of holding a crumpled piece of
paper and placing the hand on the neck assures a perfectly rounded shape of the left hand.
Subsequently, reminding the student to imagine a crumpled piece of paper in the left hand helps
ensures the perfect left-hand mold. If the student is curling the fourth finger, tapping the first
joints of the third and fourth fingers will confirm that the fourth finger is not curling under.
Problem: avoiding the use of the fourth finger causes awkward string crossings, random
color changes, and interruption of vibrato on arbitrary open-string notes.
Solution: avoiding the fourth finger is an exceedingly common issue where it is dismissed as
an “age-related laziness” or “carelessness” on the account of younger students all the way to

Figure 14.1 Correct first finger height on upper strings

 150 Lesson 14

Figure 14.2 Incorrect first finger height on upper strings

high school and even some college students. The avoidance of the fourth finger may be
a deeper problem, that some method books and some teachers delay introduction of it for an
extended period of time in the earliest stages of instruction. First, this practice gives the
student a false impression that the fourth finger is not part of the basic left-hand technique and
should be used only when an open string is not an option. Whether that message is given
verbally or not, the student identifies it as such and the avoidance of the fourth finger
becomes an accepted manner of playing. The only way to avoid this from becoming an issue,
the fourth finger must be introduced right along with finger numbers one, two, and three.
Problem: avoiding the use of second position causes awkward string crossings, and redundant
shifting.
Solution: with the exception of half position, an upper-string student’s first encounter with
a new position is third position. The reason second position is initially bypassed is that the
finger patterns between first, third, and fifth positions are more similar than that of the second
and fourth positions. Therefore, it is quite common for students to avoid the second position.
The only solution to this problem is to practice two-octave scales in second and fourth
positions as in Scale-Studies by Jan Hřímalý, and work on studies in those positions. Introducing
the Positions for Violin: Volume II—Second, Fourth, Sixth and Seventh Positions by Harvey S. Whistler,
and New Violin Study School, Op. 182, Book 4 (2nd position) and Book 7 (4th position) by Arthur
Seybold, and Introducing the Positions for Viola: Volume 2—Second, Fourth and Fifth Positions by
Harvey S. Whistler, Practical Viola School by Hans Sitt, and viola transcription of his Études for
the Violin: Book II, Op. 32 are invaluable resources.
 Lesson 14 151
Setup concerns of low strings:

• The cello is held at too steep an angle.

• The cello is held at too shallow an angle.
• The cello is tilted too far to left.
• The cello is tilted right.
• The cello is tilted left in the vertical plane.
• The student is leaning too far into the bass.
• The bass is leaning too far into student.
• The student is positioned behind the bass.
• The student is positioned on side of bass.

Solution: making sure that proper seat height, stool height for seated bass, and endpin
length are maintained for low strings. Following the Cello Sitting Position and Double Bass
Standing Position steps and “hugging” the instrument provides a good reference for appro­
priate instrument angle (Lesson 2). When it comes to bowing for double bass, both with the
French and German bows, instrument positioning should allow for free bowing on the lowest
and highest strings.
Left hand and arm problems with low strings:

• Left elbow resting on the ribs (both on the cello and the bass).
• Left thumb is straightened behind the neck.
• Left thumb is pointing up.
• Instrument’s neck is clutched by the left hand.

Solution: all of the listed issues with the left hand and arm cause tension and all issues of
tension must be corrected quickly. Re-evaluate the left arm slope, as it must be maintained at
all times (Lesson 2). Imagining a beach ball resting under the left elbow is an efficient way to
create a correct slope. Tapping the tip of left thumb and drawing circles with the tip of the
thumb behind the neck are effective exercises to fix thumb directional issues (C-shape and
K-shape) and tension problems. If the left hand issues are caused by an incorrect bass hold in
standing position, getting comfortable with balancing the instrument is necessary and will
help relieve tension of the left hand (Lesson 2).
Tone Production: is among the most intimidating challenges in early string instruction. It
may take years to acquire an advanced proficiency in bow technique, but that does not mean
the student cannot enjoy the process in the interim and make steady improvement in achieving
a good tone. The most essential tenet in early string education is to keep students from getting
overwhelmed and letting bad habits take over while challenging them at an appropriate pace to
assure their improvement. Below are the most common causes for faulty tone production:
Problem: a bow-arm misalignment creates an uneven contact point that causes an uneven
tone production, or the contact point is on the fingerboard which results in an unintentional
and persistent sul tasto. Directly related to this issue, a faulty instrument hold, a drooping
instrument onto the chest for upper strings and misalignment on the vertical plane for low
strings may also be contributing factors in this problem.
Solution: videotape students to show bow misalignment and contact point irregularities from
the teacher’s point of view and work with students on the paper towel roll exercises in front of
a mirror (figures 4.4, 6.2, and 7.2). If the misalignment is caused by faulty posture and
152 Lesson 14
instrument hold, work with the student on posture and instrument hold to remedy the
problem (Lesson 2).
Problem: the student hesitates in between bow changes.
Solution: commonly encountered in the early stages of string playing, the ability to keep
weight into the string during bow changes is the true solution for hesitant bow changes. Work
with the student to relax the wrist and fingers with the pencil exercise (Lesson 2) and legato
rubber-band exercise (Lesson 19).
Problem: the student avoids the frog area due to a stiff wrist and fingers, resulting in
a longer articulation when short, crisp notes are needed (e.g. spiccato), and because of
avoiding the frog, retakes of the bow are inadequate.
Solution: work with students on preparatory bow exercises (Lesson 2) to remove tension in
the wrist and fingers.
Problem: the right shoulder is elevated and tense, causing labored bowing and preventing
an optimal tone production.
Solution: most often, string crossings from high to low strings allow shoulder elevation to
sneak into the motion. In fact, the shoulder is not a moving component of the bow arm and it
should not elevate when crossing strings. The lifting may occur to a varying degree and in
certain passages. Therefore, it is imperative for students to realize when this unintentional lift of
the shoulder is occurring to fix the problem. To accomplish that, have the student place the left
hand on the right shoulder to realize the extent of the shoulder lift on a scale from one to ten.
To remedy the issue work with the student on the bow placement exercise (Lesson 9).
Problem: right elbow is locked and preventing the student from legato playing.
Solution: work with students on the paper towel roll exercises in front of a mirror (figures
4.4, 6.2, and 7.2).
Problem: the student produces a wispy, surface tone that does not carry.
Solution: first have the student weigh the right arm by holding it with the left hand at the
elbow and help realize the natural weight of the right arm. There are two possible issues in
play that cause a wispy tone quality: not enough weight applied into the string, or too much
bow length is used for a given note. If not enough weight is applied into the string, the bow-
arm weight must be utilized and index-finger transfer of that weight into the string is not
taking place. On the lowest strings of the cello and particularly of the double bass, due to
gauge thickness of the string, a slower, more deliberate bowing is required than that of the
high strings. Refer to Gearhart’s “recipe” for speed and weight ratio (Lesson 3). Furthermore,
work with students on supplemental preparatory bow exercises (Lesson 2).
Problem: the student does not sustain the tone: after an initial attack tone withers.
Solution: the continuous use of the right index finger to transfer arm weight into the string is
the solution to this problem. On a down bow the weight of the index finger must increase,
and on an up bow it must decrease to keep the same amplitude of tone or dynamic level.
Without the increased weight of the index finger, tone will wane on all down bows. Work
with the student on Gearhart’s “recipe” for speed and weight ratio (Lesson 3) and legato
rubber-band exercise (Lesson 19).
Common Bow Hold Issues
In the pursuit of bow technique, maintaining a reliable bow grip, moving the entire arm in
a coordinated manner, smooth bow changes, smooth string crossings, and flexibility of fingers
 Lesson 14 153
are not overnight achievements. In the earliest stages of string instruction on the teacher’s
part, an empathetic yet determined approach is necessary to accomplish all of the above in
a timely.
Problem: an overly pronated bow hold.
Solution: overpronation of bow hold causes a raised forearm and hinders smooth bowing.
To address this issue work with the student in gaining a reliable and flexible bow grip with
corrective pencil exercises (Lesson 2) and reevaluate the right arm slope.
Common Faults with Intonation
Problem: minor seconds are not close enough with upper strings.
Solution: work with the student on remedial finger pattern exercises and scales as Otakar
Ševčík’s Violin School for Beginners, Op. 6, Part 1, and Castleman and Koob II’s The Tonal
Application of Finger Patterns to Violin Scale Technique and The Tonal Application of Finger Patterns to
Viola Scale Technique. Furthermore, the use of open strings as a drone in placing minor seconds
is a proven formula in solving this issue.
Problem: first finger is too sharp and fourth finger is too flat with low strings.
Solution: this problem may be due to lack of a proper C-shaped cello left hand and
K-shaped bass left hand. Work with the cello student on remedial left-hand positioning
(Lesson 2), finger pattern exercises and scales as Kummer’s Violoncello Method, Op. 60, Lee’s
First Steps in Violoncello Playing, Op. 101 and Fischer’s Method for the Violoncello, and for the bass
student Nanny’s Complete Method for Double Bass, and Simandl’s New Method for the String Bass.

Common Faults Associated with Vibrato

When vibrato is introduced, both intonation and a tension-free left-hand technique must be
established so that adding vibrato may aggravate those deficiencies. In its initial stages,
vibrato sounds out of place, because it is slow and applied only to longer notes. However,
once established, vibrato should fit into any passage without being noticed, unless an
indication such as non-vibrato or molto vibrato is given by the composer. The below are
some common issues encountered in early to intermediate stages of string studies.
Problem: vibrato is infrequent, suddenly starts and stops on a given note, and is affected by
fingering.
Solution: although during the initial stage vibrato is only applied to longer notes, once it is
fully implemented, students should be able to vibrate on all notes regardless of fingering and
note value. The main principle of vibrato practice is to gain the ability to vibrate on all four
fingers throughout one’s playing. Any deficiency of vibrato on a given finger, or changes in its
speed and continuity, are signs of a partially-developed vibrato. Establishing the complete
ability to vibrate takes time and practice. Vibrato must be nurtured throughout its infancy,
and it will sound out-of-place for a considerably long period of time. As this newly-acquired
skill will consume substantial amounts of concentration for the student, technically challen­
ging pieces of music are not appropriate repertoire choices for vibrato application. For that
reason, the string teacher must be clear in defining expectations when the students should
apply vibrato, and when not to apply it.
Problem: finger initiates the vibrato, and sideways finger motion is used to achieve vibrato.
Solution: separate from appropriate finger vibrato, finger-initiated sideway vibrato causes
intonation problems and vibrato limitations. A common issue with upper strings, this faulty
154 Lesson 14
vibrato is cause for concern on the accounts of intonation and tension. All vibrato motion
must be initiated by arm and transferred to fingertip, but not the other way around. Such
faulty vibrato should be addressed with proper pre-vibrato and vibrato exercises (Lesson 21).
Problem: wrist flexes or collapses during vibrato.
Solution: if vibrato causes the wrist to flex or collapse, it is a sign of improper motion to
achieve vibrato. Remedial work may be required to re-evaluate left-hand position, remove
tension (Lesson 2), and supplement with pre-vibrato and vibrato exercises (Lesson 21).
Problem: vibrato causes pitch to sharpen.
Solution: if vibrato affects pitch, it may be too wide to maintain pitch. Depending on the register,
vibrato must remain within acceptable parameters: the lower, the wider and slower, the higher, the
faster and narrower. If it exceeds those benchmarks, vibrato may cause pitch to become unreliable
and sharp. Therefore, vibrato should be controlled in its amount of width and speed (Lesson 21).
Problem: vibrato is too wide and slow or too narrow and fast for the given piece of music.
Solution: as long as there is no causal relation with tension, both vibrato width and speed
are refined through practice and experience (Lesson 21).
Common Faults Associated with Shifting
When introducing shifting, both a reliable intonation and left-hand technique must have been
established, all deficiencies such as tension issues must be addressed, so that shifting is not
going to compound those problems. For example, if there is any existing tension in the left
hand, smooth and reliable shifting can never be achieved. Therefore, much like with the
vibrato, preventive medicine in shifting is starting with a solidified left-hand foundation.
Problem: a clamped-down guide finger and thumb cause a jerky and undershot shift.
Solution: work with the student to remove all tension in the hand by remedial work
(Lesson 2), by pre-shifting exercises (Lesson 21), and by removing thumb from neck to
accomplish the shifting motion without it.
Problems:

• The thumb and first finger separate during shift.

• The wrist anticipates shift.
• The distance between fingers is collapsed during shift.

Solution: the shifting motion must be accomplished without any apparent change to the left
hand’s shape and functionality. The string teacher must be vigilant in observing any of the
abovementioned tendencies and must address them in the pre-shifting phase, so that when
shifting is introduced they are not an issue. However, if any of these problems are
encountered, the teacher must work with the student on pre-shifting exercises (Lesson 21).
Common Faults Associated with Trills
Although an in-depth discussion of trill is not within the scope of this text, the ability to play
trills in an unimpeded manner is an imperative component of the left-hand technique, there­
fore, common problems related to trill will be discussed below. Much like with the vibrato and
shifting, trill exercises are necessary to acquire this skill and maintain proficiency (Lesson 21).
Problem: trill is uneven in its speed, intermittent, and is affected by fingering.
Solution: whether on weaker third and fourth fingers, or stronger first and second fingers,
trills may be undermined by inadequate control. The only way to address this problem is
 Lesson 14 155
through trill exercises and evenly strengthening all fingers. Otakar Ševčík’s Studies Preparatory to
the Shake, Op. 7 is an invaluable resource for the violin, however, all string instruments should
transform vibrato exercises to trills and practice them with the metronome to improve and
maintain trills. In acquiring control, fewer turns of trill should be applied first and sped up in
time. As good taste dictates, trills with open strings should be avoided by way of shifting up to
keep an even tone color.
Problem: vibrato is mixed with trill.
Solution: it is a common issue for a student to mix vibrato with a trill. The problem of a trill
mixed with vibrato causes the trill to become muddy. The teacher must work with the student
on trill exercises (Lesson 21).
Problem: tension with left hand causes the wrist to flex or collapse (extend) during trill,
therefore the upper auxiliary, or upper neighbor note of trill sounds flat.
Solution: an indiscernibly slight flexion of the wrist is acceptable as it allows for a quicker
trill, however, if an excessive flexion or any extension (collapse) caused by tension is present,
the left wrist must be relaxed and straightened during trills. The upper auxiliary note
sounding flat is most likely related to extension (or collapse) of the wrist, however, at times
may occur independently of this issue. If that is the case, practicing trills with drone tones or
drone open strings will address the intonation issue.
Problem: trill shortens or lengthens the note value.
Solution: it is imperative to treat trills in multiple layers of challenge and introduce them in
succession only after gaining complete control of each layer. First, the student should remove
all ornaments including the trill and turns, play the note unembellished with a metronome.
Once comfortable with the length of the note, the student should add the trill, then add turns
before and after it in sequence. In this building practice only a limited number of turns must
be executed for all ornamentation, including turns before or after trill, to be accommodated
within the allotted time.

Assignment
1) List common faults on your assigned instrument, to be turned in next class.
2) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises in preparation for second playing test.
3) Review today’s lesson and midterm test preparation prior to next class.

Note
1 The only exception to flexing left wrist is in higher positions where some flexion movement is
required, although this occurs at negligibly shallow angles.
Lesson 15

Contents
Videotaping of Second Playing Test 156

In this lesson students will demonstrate the following:

• Proper posture.
• Proper setup.
• Good tone production.

Videotaping of Second Playing Test

This lesson is dedicated to performing the second playing test. The instructor will be videotaping the
playing test and evaluating it on the spot. Each student will play the selections which have been
decided by the instructor. Each student will watch the videotape and complete the following Self-
Evaluation Form II, using the posture, setup, and tone production guidelines established in class.
 Lesson 15 157
Videotaping Number 2

Name:________________Instrument:___________Date:________Grades____/____

STRING PLAYING TEST RUBRIC II

First watch your video and read your instructor’s evaluation of your playing. Afterwards
watch your video again and fill out the below rubric. Leave correct items blank, mark any
exceptional element by a plus sign and any element in need of improvement by a minus sign.
You will receive a grade for full and accurate completion, and timely submission of this form.
The form is due at the beginning of next class.

POSTURE—INSTRUMENT HOLD, LEFT HAND, PIZZICATO POSITIONING

AND BOW HOLD

VIOLIN AND VIOLA

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ torso is square

_____ shoulders are relaxed
_____ feet are positioned correctly
_____ head is not tilted and is free of tension
_____ instrument is supported on the collarbone without tension
_____ instrument is placed parallel relative to the floor and kept with the “nose-scroll­
elbow-toe” alignment at all times
_____ wrist is straight from all angles
_____ hand is free of tension
_____ four fingers are curved and tips of fingers are hovering right above strings
_____ thumb is at a proper height and is free of tension

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the corner of the fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ pinky finger is on top of stick
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
158 Lesson 15
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

CELLO

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ seated on front four inches of seat with feet positioned correctly and flat on the floor
in a position that can allow the student to stand up at any given time
_____ endpin is at a proper length with cello at a proper angle
_____ C peg is behind left ear, neck is one fist width above left shoulder and cello is tilted
slightly to the left
_____ cello is not pinched and knees are relaxed with instrument balanced without
assistance of arms
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of the neck
_____ first joint of the thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is slightly tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is parallel to the
first finger
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at side of fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of fingerboard
for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at proper distance from bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption
 Lesson 15 159
DOUBLE BASS

SITTING POSITION

_____ seated tall with left knee behind bass right foot planted firmly on the floor
_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle
_____ instrument is slightly leaning back with the right corner of the instrument in front of
the sternum with f-holes facing the conductor

STANDING POSITION

_____ standing tall, shoulders back with a straight spine

_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle with right corner of
instrument in front of sternum
_____ the instrument is positioned diagonally in-front of the player with f-holes facing the
conductor

INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ first finger is at eye level when placed on the first tape
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of the fingerboard
_____ first joint of thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is reaching the fourth
finger tape with a K-shaped hand
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at side of fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of fingerboard
for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the first joint of the index finger at a proper angle

GERMAN BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ thumb, index and middle fingers are joined at the tips
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is behind stick, but not on top
_____ forearm and wrist are supinated at a proper angle
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption
160 Lesson 15
FRENCH BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

Scale: intonation, accuracy, and fingering

Piece: intonation, accuracy, and fingering

Evaluation Summary: provide a summary of your playing test by writing one paragraph
on the positive elements of your playing and one paragraph on those elements in need of
improvement.

1) A summary of positive elements.

2) A summary of elements in need of improvement.

Assignment
1) Complete Playing Test Rubric II, to be turned in next class.
2) Practice pizzicato exercises.
3) Read Lesson 16 prior to next class.
Lesson 16

Contents
Studio Teaching 161
Teaching the Violin 166
Teaching the Viola 169
Teaching the Cello 172
Teaching the Bass 176

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A discussion of studio teaching of string instruments.
• Studio teaching of violin.
• Studio teaching of viola.
• Studio teaching of cello.
• Studio teaching of bass.

Studio Teaching
This lesson will be dedicated to specifics of teaching orchestral string instruments in one-on-one
instructional setting. In the studio setting the teacher has the vital responsibility of selection,
correct sizing, and fitting of the instrument. An improperly sized and fitted violin and viola can
cause permanent injury. A great number of string students do not have access to private
teaching: they either never received one-on-one instruction, or received it intermittently for one
reason or another. It is common to encounter a student playing an instrument for years without
any access to private instruction. In a large classroom, string teachers have limited time and
resources to devote to an individual student, even though they can be significantly helpful by
taking necessary steps to promote and uphold good techniques and resolve pre-existing
technical issues. Therefore, the essential role of studio teachers is to devote their attention to
guide their students with knowledge, experience, and sound pedagogical philosophy in
a systematic development timetable.

Instrument Quality
The concern of instrument quality has been examined in the Instrument Selection discussion
(Lesson 9). In continued instruction it may become necessary for a serious student to upgrade to
162 Lesson 16
a better student model due to acoustic limitations, or growing out of the current instrument.
The teacher must exercise due diligence when it comes to finding a local reputable shop or
a reputable online vendor and help the student select a perfect instrument.

Instrument Sizing
When compared with the violin, viola sizing issues are much more prevalent because unlike
a fairly standard 4/4 violin size of a 14 inch body length, a “full” viola size may vary
anywhere from 15 inches to 17 inches, and bout and neck widths vary. Although young
students are much more pliable than adult students, significant harm can be done by
assigning a student too-large an instrument with the promise of “growing into” it. The
student should be able to maintain left-hand position without an excessive stretch. When the
violin is in the proper playing position on the collarbone and the student can reach around
the scroll with the left hand comfortably with a relaxed elbow, the instrument size is proper as
far as the arm is concerned. If the student can place first, second, third, and fourth fingers on
the first position tapes without an excessive stretch, the neck size is correct as well.
How is the body length of an instrument determined? The measurement is taken on
the back of the instrument from the side of the button to the bottom of the instrument
(Figure 16.1). The string length is measured from string nut to the bridge and under

Figure 16.1 Back of violin for a body length measurement

 Lesson 16 163

Figure 16.2 Front of violin for a string length measurement

normal circumstances a properly fitted bridge should line up with inside notches of
F-holes (Figure 16.2). In the US, standard measurement of instruments is the body
length expressed in inches. As an industry standard both makers and shops use fractional
sizes for string instruments (from 1/32 to 4/4 for violin, 1/10 to 4/4 for cello, and 1/10
to 3/4 for bass) with the exception of viola. Viola sizes are expressed in inches and
can be found from 12 inches to 16 ½ inches for student-grade instruments, and 15 inches
to 17 inches among artist-grade violas. 17 inch plus instruments are rare but not unheard
of. The current standard bass body size is 3/4 due to playability concerns. The same is
the case for the viola, since accommodations must be made with regard to neck
width and string length to make larger instruments playable. In addition to standard
fractional instruments, petite sized or non-standard 7/8 size violins and cellos are possible
to acquire.
164 Lesson 16
Bow Length
Once instrument size is established, there is a chance that the student cannot stretch the bow
arm all the way to the exact tip. It is perfectly acceptable for a student not to be able to reach
the tip of the bow. The bow arm should never be contorted and shoulder should never be
extended in an effort to reach the tip.

Strip Preparation of the Fingerboard

To prepare a violin for a student you may affix four strips of 1/16 inch white striping tape on
the fingerboard and a hole punch reinforcement label on the side of the neck for the thumb
alignment. For the fingerboard marking, the most commonly used two tape arrangements are
the three-tape pattern: whole, whole, 1/2; or the four-tape pattern: whole, whole, 1/2, whole
for upper strings (Figure 16.3), whole, whole, 1/2 for the cello (Figure 16.4), and whole,
whole, whole, 1/2 for the bass (Figure 16.5). For the thumb alignment with the first finger,
you may place a hole punch reinforcement label on the side of the neck, although this is not
as common as the fingerboard tape patterns.

Figure 16.3 Upper strings fingerboard tape placement

Figure 16.4 Cello fingerboard tape placement

 Lesson 16 165

Figure 16.5 Bass fingerboard tape placement

The old fingerboard tapes need to be replaced if they are dirty, worn, and are out of tune.
You may remove them and clean the fingerboard with the help of an alcohol swab, making
sure no alcohol touches the neck or the instrument as it will dissolve varnish. When placing
new tapes, use a pencil to mark the side of the fingerboard as tuning the correct placement of
tapes. Once the correct tape placement is determined, cut and slide the tape under the strings
using pencil markings as a guide and visually inspect that the tape is affixed straight across the
fingerboard to ensure perfect intonation.

Preparation of the Bow

Although there are proprietary bow-grip aids available on the market, through the years
string teachers have been preparing bows to help their students develop a correct bow hold
by placing a rubber band, affixing corn cushions and hole punch reinforcement labels. The
basic idea behind any physical item used as bow-grip assistance is to aid the student by
referencing certain contact points and confining fingers into a correct bow hold. Corrective
proprietary aids work by securing student’s bow hold position into one or two pieces of
a molded rubber material. The rubber band is wrapped around the frog and is used to
capture the ring finger so it does not migrate up the bow and perch on top of the stick.
Affixing corn cushions, or less conspicuous clear hole punch reinforcement labels, can work
by marking the proper placements of the thumb, index and pinky fingers (Figure 16.6). The
bow-grip aids are extremely helpful in correcting collapsed and slipping thumbs, straightening
pinky fingers, perching the middle two fingers, and securing a migrating bow grip.

Figure 16.6 Rubber band and corn cushion placements on the bow
166 Lesson 16
Use of Classroom Method Books in the Studio
When it comes to selecting a method book written specifically for private study and not for
classroom use, violin studio teachers have diverse and strong opinions. One question that
must be asked is: what is the purpose of a method book? It is meant to impart knowledge, for
the student to gain technical ability on the instrument and learn a particular way of playing.
None of these goals are achieved on the account of a method book without the work and
direction of a studio teacher. In essence, a method book is merely a means for an end and it
is most effective when used as part of the vision of an enlightened instructor. Therefore, it
might be just as effective for an instructor to gather materials outside a single source and use
various method books to implement multiple objectives in the studio.
It is a fairly common practice to use method books meant for classroom instruction in the studio.
While it is not a completely objectionable practice, in light of the abovementioned method books
and scores of unmentioned options, taking a cookie-cutter approach of assigning classroom method
books in the studio may not be the preferred choice. Studio teachers are expected to be observant
and commit all their focus on one student and modify their teaching and teaching materials to
accommodate the needs of that particular student. Nonetheless, for the purposes of this class,
students may use the classroom method book for the sample lesson teaching (Lesson 27).

Teaching the Violin

Clef
All violin music is written in treble clef (Figure 16.7). Any occasion of alto-clef writing in
scordatura passages, is exceedingly rare.1

Scales and Double Stops

Two standard violin scale books with worldwide acceptance are Scale System by Carl Flesch
that features scales, arpeggios, double stops, and artificial harmonics, and Contemporary Violin
Technique in two volumes by Ivan Galamian and Frederick Neumann that features scales and
arpeggios along with rhythmic and bowing variations. Two scale books that can be used in
preparation to the above is the first part of Scale-Studies by Jan Hřímalý and Complete Scale
Studies by Henry Schradieck. Preparatory double stops are Harvey S. Whistler’s Developing
Double Stops, and Melodious Double-Stops in two volumes by Josephine Trott. Also, Preparatory
Exercises in Double-Stopping, Op. 9 by Otakar Ševčík.

Methods and Study Books

Among numerous selections, a couple of established methods are Ševčík’s Violin School for
Beginners, Op. 6, Wohlfahrt’s Foundation Studies for the Violin, and another book worthy of

Figure 16.7 Violin’s treble clef and open strings

 Lesson 16 167
attention is Erich and Elma Doflein’s The Doflein Method. When it comes to early violin studies,
étude books or compilations, Bériot, Campagnoli, Kayser, Mazas, Schradieck, Seybold (Op.
182), Sitt, Spohr, Wichtl, and Wohlfahrt are among the most influential pedagogues.

First and Half Positions

The explanation of first position on the violin is the ability to play all available
consecutive notes of a tetrachord in a diatonic scale above an open string without
having to shift: B-natural, C-sharp, D-natural and E-natural on the A string. A passing
stretch of the fourth finger does not change that rule. Conversely, half position requires
a backward shift of the left hand, meaning the move of the hand as a single unit with the
thumb and forearm. Half position reduces the span of four fingers on a string allowing
a sharpened version of the same letter of an open string through only a tetrachord:
A-sharp, B-sharp, C-sharp and D-sharp on the A string (Figure 16.8). This span can be
compressed further to accommodate a chromatic scale as A-sharp, B-natural, C-natural,
and D-natural.
Stretches: stretches are a form of an extension and are a means to perform passing notes
that are just above or below the regular position of the fingers. In other words, stretching the
first finger backward or fourth finger forward allows that individual note to be played without
having to cross strings or to shift into another position. The main rule of a stretch is that it is
momentary and is done without having to move the thumb. By definition moving the thumb
constitutes a position change and passing extensions are simply a stretch of that particular
finger (Figure 16.9).

Figure 16.8 Violin fingering chart for half and first positions

Figure 16.9 Violin stretches

168 Lesson 16
Higher Positions
In ensemble playing, higher positions are required primarily of the first violin in higher
passages (Figure 16.10). This means that in orchestral playing, with the exception of sulla
corda passages, E string is the only region of the instrument a student would have to perform
in higher positions. This trend starts with the introduction of third position in enabling the
student to play a two-octave D major scale. Aside from range-dictated higher positions, sulla
corda playing in the interest of drawing different colors, shifting into positions that eliminate
awkward string crossings, all require the student to be conversant in all strings in higher
positions, not just the highest string. This facility must be acquired by practicing degree
scales, or two-octave scales that start and end in a single position, and studies in higher
positions. Introducing the Positions for Violin in two volumes (Volume I: 3rd and 5th; Volume II: 2nd,
4th, 6th, and 7th positions) by Harvey S. Whistler and Above the First Position by Markwood
Holmes and Russell Webber are two wonderful resources when it comes to getting comfor­
table with higher positions. Arthur Seybold’s New Violin Study School, Op. 182, a selection of
studies including the higher positions (Book 9: Studies on the Higher Positions) is an invaluable
source for developing proficiency in higher positions on all strings.

Repertoire
An invaluable source of graded solo violin repertoire, in addition to technical works as
methods and studies is String Syllabus Volume One, edited by David Littrell. In the early stages of
violin instruction, it is imperative to encourage the student with as much ability to play
technically constructive and musically satisfying pieces. Collection of short pieces as Violinists’
First Solo Album: Volume One Elementary by G. Perlman, First Solo Album by Whistler and
Hummel, World’s Favorite Easy Violin Pieces, published by Ashley, and Miniature Masterpieces by
W. F. Ambrosio are some outstanding examples of accessible pieces with a rewarding and
encouraging piano accompaniment.
Easy student concertos in first position, such as as Küchler Concertino in G Major, Op. 11,
Rieding Concerto in G Major, No. 1, Op. 34, and Portnoff Concertino in E Minor, Op. 13 are
marvelous examples. These and similar works allow students to build technique and perform
melodious works written in the concerto form remarkably early in their violin education. Simple

Figure 16.10 Violin fingering chart from second through fourth positions
 Lesson 16 169
duos played by two students, or by a student and teacher are also effective formats in the early
violin education. Bruni Six Easy Duets, Op. 34, Gearhart and Green’s Fiddle Sessions for Two, Three
and Four Violins, Hindemith 14 Easy Pieces for Two Violins, Kalliwoda Three Easy Duos, Op. 178,
Mazas 12 Little Duets, Op. 38 are several excellent examples of this setting.

Teaching the Viola

Instrument Size
An area of intense debate and concern is viola size. As with any string instrument, the overall
size of the sound box or body of instrument is the determining factor of sound color of the
instrument. Viola, due to its responsibility dictated by location between violin and cello, must
be able to take violin-like and cello-like personalities as a particular register and character of
a piece calls for it. In simple terms, the larger the body the more cello-like, the daintier the
body the more violin-like sound quality the viola produces. Regardless of tone quality
differences, the primary concern for a teacher when assigning instruments is proper sizing
for the particular student. The greatest danger in assigning students too-large an instrument is
twofold: first intonation is problematic when the student is unable to reach the longer span
between notes, second continuous stretching over time can cause health problems. Therefore,
much like the violin, both arm and finger parameters must be met when assigning a viola as
dictated by the left arm slope when holding the instrument and finger span as determined by
fingerboard strips.

Left Hand Specifics

When violin instructors teach viola students, some tend to treat the instrument like a “rather
large violin,” even though overall technique of the instrument is different. Left hand specifics
of the viola resemble low strings for the fact that the second finger is used to pivot the hand
that due to the large span between first through to the fourth fingers, therefore, viola players
do not keep fingers down to the same extent as the violin players. Also, vibrato width and
speed are not as narrow and fast as the violin. Aside from those differences most left-hand
exercises and technical studies can be used interchangeably for the violin and viola.

Clefs
Majority of viola music is written in alto, or third-line C clef (Figure 16.11). In higher registers
treble clef is used to avoid ledger lines and all’ottava or 8va writing (Figure 16.12).

Scales and Double Stops

The viola transcription of two standard violin scale books are Scale System by Carl Flesch,
edited by Charlotte Karman, and The Galamian Scale System Adapted for Viola by Ivan Galamian
and Frederick Neumann, edited by Karen Olson. Two scale books that can be used in
preparation to the above is the first part of Scales for Viola by Enrico Polo, and Scale Studies for
Viola: Based on the Hrimaly Scale Studies for the Violin by Leonard Mogill. Two preparatory
double-stop books are Jane Daniel’s transcription of Melodious Double-Stops: Book 1 by
Josephine Trott, and Alan Arnold’s transcription of Preparatory Studies in Double-Stopping, Op.
9 by Otakar Ševčík.
170 Lesson 16

Figure 16.11 Viola’s alto clef and open strings

Figure 16.12 Viola’s alto and treble clef comparison

Methods and Study Books

Among many, a few noteworthy methods are Hans Sitt’s Practical Viola School, Antonio
Bartolomeo Bruni’s School for Viola: Followed by 25 Studies (text in Italian, French, and English),
Berta Volmer’s Viola Method (text in German and French), and Etienne Ginot’s New Method of
Initiation to the Viola (text in French, English and German). Influential pedagogues Bruni,
Campagnoli, Kayser, Kreuzer, Mazas, Schradieck, Ševčík, Seybold (Op. 182), Sitt, Volmer,
and Wohlfahrt are noteworthy authors of early viola studies, étude books or compilations.

First and Half Positions

The explanation of first position on the viola is the ability to play all available consecutive
notes of a tetrachord in a diatonic scale above an open string without having to shift:
B-natural, C-sharp, D-natural and E-natural on the A string, and a passing stretch of the
fourth finger does not change that rule (refer back to Figure 16.9). Conversely, half position
requires a backward shift of the left hand, meaning the move of hand as a single unit with the
thumb and forearm. Half position reduces the span of four fingers on a string allowing
a sharpened version of the same letter of an open string through only a tetrachord: A-sharp,
B-sharp, C-sharp and D-sharp on the A string (Figure 16.13). This span can be compressed
further to accommodate a chromatic scale as A-sharp, B-natural, C-natural, and D-natural.

Higher Positions
Much like with the violin, with the exception of sulla corda, the orchestral setting requires the
student to get familiar with playing in the higher positions, albeit mostly on the A string
(Figure 16.14). The facility of playing in the higher positions on all strings must be acquired
 Lesson 16 171

Figure 16.13 Viola fingering chart for half and first positions

Figure 16.14 Viola fingering chart from second through fourth positions

by practicing degree scales, or two-octave scales that start and end in a single position, and
studies in higher positions. Introducing the Positions for Viola in two volumes (Volume I: 3rd and
1/2; Volume II: 2nd, 4th, and 5th positions) by Harvey S. Whistler; and the viola transcrip­
tion of Arthur Seybold’s New Violin Study School Books 6 and 8 (Book 6: 1st–3rd; Book 8: 1st–5th
positions) Op. 182 are invaluable sources for developing proficiency in the first five positions
on all strings.

Repertoire
A marvelous source of graded solo viola repertoire, as well as technical works as methods and
studies is String Syllabus Volume One, edited by David Littrell. In the early phases of viola
instruction, the student must be inspired by playing both technically beneficial and melodious
pieces. Such collections in the first position as Schott Viola Album: Eleven Transcriptions in the First
172 Lesson 16
Position by Raymond Dodd, or First Solo Album by Whistler and Hummel, are outstanding
examples of accessible pieces with a rewarding and encouraging piano accompaniment.
Easy student concertos in the first position as viola transcriptions of Küchler Concertino in
G Major, Op. 11, Portnoff Concertino in E Minor, Op. 13, Rieding Concerto in B Minor,
No. 1, Op. 34, arranged by Philip Lehmann, Concerto in B Minor, Op. 35, and Concerto in
D, Op. 36, and Concertino in G Major by Henri Classens are several good examples. Simple
duos for two students or for a student and teacher are a wonderful way to introduce
beginners into chamber music early in viola instruction. Samuel Applebaum’s Chamber Music
for Two String Instruments: Book 1, Kalliwoda Three Easy Duos, Op. 178, and Fifteen Viola Duets
from Keyboard Works of the Baroque Era, edited by Lynne Latham are a few excellent examples of
this setting.

Teaching the Cello

Clefs
Most cello music is written in bass clef (Figure 16.15). In higher registers tenor and treble clefs
are used to avoid ledger lines and all’ottava or 8va writing (Figure 16.16). One potentially
confusing irregularity for treble-clef writing is, composers like Dvořák and some of his 19th
century Romantic contemporaries such as Schumann notated treble clef passages one octave
higher than the sounding pitch (Figure 16.17). This octave-higher-than-sounding notation of
treble clef still exists in orchestral scores and parts, though some have been corrected by
contemporary tenor clef standards.

Scales and Double Stops

At the preparatory level Elementary Scales and Bowings by Harvey S. Whistler and Herman
A. Hummel and Scales: Book One by Samuel Applebaum, Double Stops for Cello by Rick Mooney
can be mentioned. Daily Exercises for Violoncello by Louis R. Feuillard, Technical Studies by Julius

Figure 16.15 Cello’s bass clef and open strings

Figure 16.16 Cello’s common bass, tenor, and treble clef registers
 Lesson 16 173

Figure 16.17 Dvořák Carnival Overture, Op. 92, mm 270–71, cello treble clef as written and sounding pitch
in tenor clef

Klengel, Violoncello Technique by Mark Yampolsky, and The Ivan Galamian Scale System for
Violoncello arranged and edited by Hans Jørgen Jensen are all-encompassing technical
proficiency works for cello.

Methods and Study Books

Among others, a few method choices are Method for the Violoncello by Carl Fischer, Practical
Method for Violoncello by Joseph Werner, Studies of the Young Cellist (text in English, French,
and German) by Louis R. Feuillard, Method for Cello by Carlo Alfredo Piatti, and The Art of
Cello Playing by Louis Potter, Jr., Tune a Day series by C. Paul Herfurth is a good example of
a bifold string method book suitable for both classroom use and individual lessons. Playing the
String Game: Strategies for Teaching Cello and Strings by Phyllis Young is an invaluable resource to
introduce foundational concepts to younger students in the form of games that can be
adapted to all string instruments. Early cello studies or compilations by prominent cello
pedagogues as Dotzauer, Feuillard, Kummer (Op. 60), Lee (Op. 101), Popper, and Schroeder
make up the majority of cello technical repertory.

First and Half Positions, Backward and Forward Extensions

The explanation of first position on the cello is the ability to play all available consecutive notes of
a tetrachord in a diatonic scale, including an open string without having to shift: open A string,
B-natural, C-sharp, and D-natural (Figure 16.18). Extensions are a significant element of the cello
left-hand technique and critical part of early cello education. They are classified as backward, or
first finger, and forward, or fourth finger extensions (Figure 16.19). In either case, the distance
between second through to the fourth fingers remains the same, and the first finger is the only one
stretched from a minor second to a major second by way of pivoting, much like the K-shape of the
double bass left hand. Normally the left hand on the cello covers the distance of a minor third: that
is E-natural to G-natural on the D string in the first position, also known as the closed position. The
extension allows players to expand the span between the first and fourth finger and produce a major
third within the position: that is E-natural to G-sharp on the D string in the first position, or E-flat to
G-natural, also known as the extended position. An important quality of an extension is that it is
momentary, and that the student should not keep the first finger extended to avoid a prolonged
static tension. Unlike the thumb rule of the upper strings stretches—that its move signifies a shift—
in the cello extensions, the thumb moves with the second finger to allow the second through to the
fourth finger distances to remain the same without causing undue tension to the hand.
174 Lesson 16

Figure 16.18 Cello fingering chart for half and first positions, backward and forward extensions

Figure 16.19 Cello extensions

Higher Positions and Thumb Position

A positive initiation into positions can be accomplished with Introducing the Positions for Cello in
two volumes (Volume I: 4th; Volume II: 2nd, 2 1/2th, 3rd, and 3 1/2th positions) by Harvey
S. Whistler, Otakar Ševčík’s Changing the Positions Opus 8 arranged by Orlando Cole, and
Position Pieces for Cello by Rick Mooney. Much like upper strings, it is most likely for a cellist to
encounter higher positions on the highest A string (Figure 16.20). Therefore, it is necessary
for a cellist to gain proficiency in higher positions on all strings. This must be acquired by
practicing scales, as in one-octave scales on one string, studies in higher positions, and pieces
as Position Pieces for Cello, book two (5th through 7th positions) by Rick Mooney.
Cello thumb position can be introduced as a fingering option on the first-partial harmonics
during tuning, as explained in Tuning with the First Partial section (Lesson 5). Thumb
position is not necessary to reach the highest positions of the fingerboard, however, it is
necessary for the fact that it enables the player to move between adjacent strings with agility
and execute double stops in higher positions (Figure 16.21). Placing thumb position on the
first-partial harmonic serves two purposes: fourth position at the end of the neck provides
physical alignment for the thumb with the first finger, then a shift to the thumb position on
A harmonic gives further confidence that transitioning the thumb from back of neck onto the
string is not as intimidating. In addition to cello method books, particular thumb exercises
such as Thumb Position for Cello, in two volumes, by Rick Mooney would help students build
self-assurance in thumb position.
 Lesson 16 175

Figure 16.20 Cello fingering chart from second through fourth positions

Figure 16.21 Cello thumb position on A string in treble and tenor clefs

Although it is extensively used in higher positions, thumb position can be called upon in
lower sections of the fingerboard. For instance, thumb position is used to execute octaves and
ondeggiando passages, as low as the first through to fourth position regions on all strings. In
the cello repertoire, Boccherini’s and Haydn’s cello concertos make extensive use of thumb
positions: virtuoso passages with continuous string crossings, mixed double-stops, including
octaves both in broken and block forms.

Repertoire
An excellent reference of graded solo cello repertoire, in addition to technical works as
methods and studies is String Syllabus Volume One, edited by David Littrell. Applebaum’s
Building Technic Through Beautiful Music is a collection meant for classroom or individual
instruction, containing elementary-level tuneful melodies linked with various bow
strokes. Erich Doflein’s Collection of Small Pieces, Playful Book for Violoncello (duets and
176 Lesson 16
solos in first position), and Bach for the Cello: Ten Pieces in the First Position, transcribed by
Charles Krane, and Three Easy Pieces (first position) by Paul Hindemith are good
examples of accessible collections for the cello. Jean-Baptiste Bréval’s Sonata in C and
Fourth Concertino in C (in first position), edited by Ruyssen are attractive yet accessible
works that introduce cello students to multi-movement forms of sonata and concerto
early in their education.

Teaching the Bass

Clefs and Register

Much double bass music is written in bass clef (Figure 16.22),2 and sounds an octave lower
than notated. In higher registers tenor and treble clefs are used to avoid ledger lines and
all’ottava or 8va writing in advanced levels (Figure 16.23).

Scales
At the preparatory level, Elementary Scales and Bowings by Harvey S. Whistler and
Herman A. Hummel and Scales: Book One by Samuel Applebaum are classroom materials
that can be used for individual instruction. Scales, Triads, and Exercises for String Bass
Beginners by Dmitri Shmuklovsky, edited by Lucas Drew, can be used in preparation to
the below method books that feature comprehensive scales, arpeggios and broken
intervals as thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves.

Methods and Study Books

Representative method book of the French school of playing is Edouard Nanny’s Complete
Method for String Bass. Czech bassist Franz Simandl represents the Prague or colloquially known
as German school of playing in his Complete Method for Double Bass, a method book with an
orchestral emphasis, which is still used in music schools worldwide.3 Incidentally, classroom
studies and method books as Essential Elements, String Explorer, et al. are based on the Simandl

Figure 16.22 Double bass’s bass clef and open strings

Figure 16.23 Double bass’s common bass, tenor, and treble clef registers
 Lesson 16 177
position organization. A New Technique of the Double Bass in three volumes (2012) (text in French,
English, German, and Spanish) by François Rabbath (b 1931 in Aleppo, Syria), is a unique bass
method that uses the thumb pivoting in order to reach a larger span than Simandl or Nanny,
reducing the bass fingerboard into six positions. George Vance and Annette Costanzi’s book,
titled Progressive Repertoire for the Double Bass: Volume 1 (2000) functions as preparation to the
Rabbath method. In preparation to Sturm’s 110 Studies: Vol I, Op. 20, and Simandl’s 30 Etudes
for the String Bass; Thomas B. Gale’s Practical Studies for Double Bass, Melodic Foundation Studies, and
Technical Foundation Studies, are valuable building blocks.

Simandl versus Nanny System

Simandl and Nanny methods start with half position and advance through positions (or
degrees) in sequential order. Simandl breaks down positions into halves: half position, first
position, second position, second and a half position, third position, third and a half position
and so on (Figure 16.24). Nanny on the other hand labels the same left-hand span by degrees.
He labels positions in whole numbers, although he assigns two degrees per lower position:
first degree, first position, second degree, first position, third degree, second position, fourth
degree, second position and so on (Figure 16.25).
For example, second and a half position in Simandl corresponds with the second position
fourth degree in the Nanny system. There is, however, further complications in the Nanny
system, where he labels second position fourth degree and its enharmonic equivalency of
third position fourth degree as two separate entities. Nanny’s explanation of this discrepancy
is as follows (Figure 16.26):

The 3d position (4th degree) differs from the 2nd (4th degree) in the name of the notes.
The place of the fingers of the left hand is about the same: one comma from one
another:4

Alternatively the more recent Rabbath system reduces half positions into whole positions by way
of pivoting the thumb, also known as crab fingering. Preferred by some pedagogues, Rabbath
employs left-hand flexibility to eliminate frequent shifting required by both Simandl and Nanny

Figure 16.24 Franz Simandl’s Bass fingering chart from half through fourth positions
178 Lesson 16

Figure 16.25 Edouard Nanny’s Bass fingering chart from half through fourth positions

Figure 16.26 Nanny’s C-sharp to D-flat one comma difference

systems. George Vance breaks down the Rabbath system further and makes it more accessible for
beginning students in his Progressive Repertoire for the Double Bass.

Higher Positions and Thumb Position

Predominantly, instead of the fourth finger, the third finger is used in the sixth position and
above, and thumb position is used for seventh position and above. Therefore, higher-position
and thumb-position exercises and scales as Simandl’s second part of New Method for String Bass,
as well as specific studies as Thumb Position Exercises for the Double Bass, in addition to the latter
two volumes of Enjoy the Double Bass method (Vol 3: 5 1/2–7th positions and Vol 4: Thumb
Position) by Gerd Reinke are beneficial in becoming proficient.
 Lesson 16 179

Figure 16.27 Bass shift from fifth to thumb position on G string

The thumb position can be introduced for the bass as a fingering option on the first-partial
harmonics during tuning, as explained in Tuning with the First Partial section (Lesson 5). Thumb
position is not necessary to reach the highest positions of the fingerboard, however, it is necessary
for the fact that it enables the player to move between adjacent strings with agility, execute double
stops in higher positions, and frees the fourth finger. One example to transition to thumb position
on the C string is to shift from fifth position directly to thumb position, for which the thumb can
use G harmonic for intonation security in the early stages (Figure 16.27).

Repertoire
An exceptional source of graded solo bass repertoire, in addition to technical works as methods and
studies is String Syllabus Volume One, edited by David Littrell. Applebaum’s Building Technic Through
Beautiful Music and Solo Time for Strings, books 1 and 2, by Forest Etling are two collections designed for
either classroom use or studio teaching that feature accessible pieces. Also, Leichte Spielstücke: für
Kontrabass und Klavier: Teil I, edited by Klaus Trumpf, String Festival Solos: Volume 1, by Samuel
Applebaum, and Festival Performance Solos published by Carl Fischer are ideal examples of easy
albums. The earliest student bass concertos require higher technical ability than other string
instruments such as the violin. For example, Antonio Capuzzi’s F Major Concerto (originally in
D major), edited by Francis Baines, Benedetto Marcello’s Six Sonatas and Vivaldi’s Six Sonatas,
both edited by Lucas Drew, are considered grade 4, or early-intermediate. Therefore, short pieces
and accessible works like William Presser’s Sonatina can be used earlier in bass education.

Assignment
1) Measure your assigned instrument’s body length and string length.
2) Write one paragraph on the benefits of fingerboard tape use in string teaching, to be
turned in next class.
3) Provide a list of beginner scale books, studies, and grade one repertoire for your assigned
instrument, to be turned in next class.
4) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
5) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 17 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Alfred Schnittke wrote the scordatura section of second violin part in Moz-Art (after sketches by
Mozart, K. 416d, for two violins, 1976) in alto clef.
2 This particular figure illustrates standard orchestral tuning, “solo tuning” will be discussed in
Scordatura discussion in Lesson 21.
3 Originally published as Neueste Methode des Contrabass-Spiels in Vienna: Markus Krämer, 1874.
4 Edouard Nanny, Méthode complète pour la contrebasse à quatre et cinq cordes, 36.
Lesson 17

Contents
Pedagogical Understanding of String Teaching 180
Moving Students Between Instruments 182
Preparation of Secondary-School String Program Observation 184

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A brief discussion on influential pedagogical approaches in string teaching.
• Moving students between string instruments.
• A discussion on how to prepare for the secondary-school string program observation
assignment.

Pedagogical Understanding of String Teaching

In order to understand string teaching from a holistic perspective, universal pedagogical
approaches must be contemplated both philosophically and in practice. Teaching the
technical side of strings may be examined separately, however, the philosophical foundation
and all other aspects of teaching music should be integrated within the string discipline. In
other words, doctrines of various prominent music pedagogues can be incorporated into
a cohesive string teaching approach, as movement, singing, and experimentation are all as
beneficial to string playing as rote techniques.
Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865–1950): Swiss educationist and composer Jaques-Dalcroze
embraced his interest in polyrhythms and irregular rhythms in a eurhythmics method he
created. The Dalcroze eurhythmics involve rhythmic steps and clapping by students as they
react to teacher’s improvised piano playing. Dalcroze’s approach aims to connect mechanics
of music with an internalized sense of musicality.
An article on how to integrate Dalcroze in string classroom:
Barbara Flooding and Kathy Thomsen. (2009). “Practical Dalcroze for String Teachers.”
American String Teacher, 59 (3), 28–32. doi:10.1177/000313130905900306.
Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967): Hungarian educationist, composer and ethnomusicologist,
Kodály believed that any student capable of linguistic literacy is capable of musical literacy,
a student is most receptive to musical instruction between ages six and sixteen, and it is the
school’s responsibility to provide it. Kodály’s concept includes relative solmization, or move-
able do, hand signs (attributed to John Curwen), rhythmic syllables (after Jacques Chevé), and
 Lesson 17 181
a musical shorthand notation featuring stems without note heads, known as stick notation. In
the string classroom there are numerous avenues of incorporating Kodály’s approach. One
way is for students to sing their parts before attempting on their instruments. As Kodály’s
method concentrates on developing aural skills, it is particularly advantageous for improving
sight reading skills.
An article on how to integrate Kodály in string classroom:
Priscilla M. Howard. (1996). “Kodaly strategies for instrumental teachers.” Music Educators
Journal, 82 (5), 27. doi:10.2307/3398929.
Carl Orff (1895–1982): German educationist and composer, Orff’s ground breaking work
alongside Gunild Keetman Orff-Schulwerk: Music for Children has revolutionized early music
education worldwide with the Observe, Imitate, Explore/Experiment, and Improvise/Create
model of learning. Although the Orff system does not readily correspond with practical string
teaching, it is possible to draw ideas and parallels from a learning strategy that includes play,
dance, and drama.
Edwin E. Gordon (1927–2015): American scholar and music educator, Gordon has
contributed to music education with Musical Aptitude Profile (1965) and developed a system he
called Audiation: “Audation takes place when one hears and comprehends music silently, the
sound of music no longer being or never having been physically present.”1 His
Music Learning Theory is implemented in the Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series for Strings
(GIA: 2000).
Shin’ichi Suzuki (1898–1998): Japanese violinist and educationist best known for his
revolutionary Suzuki method, and books Ability Development from Age Zero (Athens, OH: Ability
Development Associates, 1981) and Nurtured by Love: The Classic Approach to Talent Education
(Smithtown, NY: Exposition Press, 1983). In 1933 he realized the ability of mother-tongue
speech at an early age regardless of intelligence, much like Kodály, and that repetition of
stimuli in the form of in-tune repetition of string playing with rote process would produce
exceedingly positive results. This ability to follow rote-note method precedes any commu­
nication via written music and language by years, therefore it allows string education at
a very young age. Suzuki Violin School has ten volumes (books one through eight feature
recordings as books nine and ten are standard Mozart concertos), Suzuki Viola School has
nine volumes (all books feature recordings), Suzuki Cello School has ten volumes (books one
through eight feature recordings), and Suzuki Bass School has five books (books one through
three feature recordings).
When taught by well-inculcated Suzuki practitioners who thoroughly comprehend his
philosophy, and by conscientious non-Suzuki teachers who understand and follow his
principles outlined in detail in abovementioned books, the method generates impeccable
results. Indeed, the Suzuki method has been responsible for producing an innumerable
number of musicians through the last seven decades including world-renowned soloists,
chamber musicians, orchestral musicians, teachers, and non-professional string players
alike. The Suzuki method’s exceptional success in early string education is not arguable,
the question then becomes when to expand it to incorporate sight reading that allows
students to improve musical literacy outside the familiar guidance of the Suzuki method,
and when to forego it altogether later in string education. It is a controversial question
without a definite answer, that string teachers must use their judgment and decide on
a case-by-case basis.
Paul Rolland [Reisman] (1911–1978): Hungarian born American violinist, violist, and string
educator Rolland is responsible for the Illinois String Research Project (1966–70) that conducted
research on motion studies and string playing with a medical and pedagogical consideration.
182 Lesson 17
His research book and accompanying video recordings, titled The Teaching of Action in String Playing
(University of Urbana, IL: Illinois String Research Project, 1970) [reissued in a single 201­
minute DVD and 23 page booklet in 2008], and his collaborative work with Marla Mutschler,
titled The Teaching of Action in String Playing: Developmental and Remedial Techniques [for] Violin and Viola
(1974) [reprinted in 2007] are pioneering and exhaustive studies that make an ironclad case for
Rolland’s approach in building a solid, free of tension upper strings technique. The involvement
of visionary physiologist, physiatrist, and physical medicine and rehabilitation specialist Frances
Anna Hellebrandt, MD (1901–1992) in the project under the chapter, titled “Control and
Regulation of Voluntary Movement: Application of Newer Knowledge to Violin Pedagogy”
(1974) is significant for the fact that she illustrates the neuroscience relationship of Suzuki, Havas
and Rolland’s approaches in her chapter in prose and diagrams.
Kató Havas OBE (1920–2018): Hungarian born British violinist and teacher Havas
has been influential in establishing her “New Approach” as detailed in A New Approach to
Violin Playing (1961), its continuation of The Twelve Lesson Course: A New Approach to Violin
Playing (1964) reject the idea of a rigid correct position for the preference of balance and
motion, of which Dr Hellebrandt was a resolute proponent. Her influential book, titled
Stage Fright: Its Causes and Cures, with Special Reference to Violin Playing (1973) is noteworthy of
Havas’s enduring legacy in removing fears all the way from dropping the violin, trembling
bow arm, being out of tune, to the undue stress put upon string students in the pursuit of
technical perfection.
Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955): F. M. Alexander, an Australian actor
diagnosed with chronic laryngitis, sought to cure the ailment by removing his neck stress
and posture concerns. His ability to overcome his health issues and improve performances
led to him sharing those techniques with others: first with actors then with the general
public through his courses. Today, there are several thousand Alexander teachers who
help performers, including string players. The Alexander Technique has been adopted by
numerous string professors throughout the world, though any Alexander teacher with
proper credentials can help a string player through workshops or private sessions. Both
Rolland and Havas’s approaches have been likened to Alexander, all three advocate to
avoid strain and anxiety in string playing. Incorporated in 1988, The Performing Arts
Medicine Association (PAMA) has been instrumental in expanding the discussion further
than musculoskeletal concerns to hearing, mental health, nutrition, voice, and occupa­
tional health. Furthermore, PAMA makes recommendations to schools of music for health
advocacy.2

Moving Students between Instruments

In a string program, an ensemble may not have a perfect ratio of instruments all by itself.
String educators must work diligently, both in recruiting and in internal moves between
sections, to keep a preferred number of strong players in each of the five sections in an
ideal string ensemble: sixteen first violins, fourteen second violins, ten violas, ten cellos,
and eight basses. In reality, a string teacher may have to start with an ensemble that
comprises ten violins, zero violas, eight cellos and zero basses. There may be various
reasons for this disproportion: seats of graduating students not having been filled due to
inadequacies with feeder programs, an uneven number of students in sections due to
shortcomings in school-owned instrument inventory, simple mismanagement, and any
other arbitrary cause. Regardless of the cause, and in addition to urgent recruiting,
a move between sections must be made in order to alleviate this hypothetical problem.
 Lesson 17 183
Transition between instruments is common practice, not just to keep favored proportions
in an ensemble, but on account of growth, aptitude, and aspiration of developing string
students. Rationale for moving a student between instruments may come from growth of
the student and physical aspects of an individual. For example, a taller violin student with
long fingers, may be better suited for the viola, or a cellist with particularly large and
strong hands is perhaps better suited for the bass (see Instrument Assignment discussion in
Lesson 2). However, if the idea of moving between instruments is initiated by the teacher,
an in-depth conversation must take place with the student to discuss the rationale. Without
the student’s acceptance and endorsement, a transition is likely to harm the student’s self­
esteem. A positive way to broach the subject might be the student’s potential of growth in
the instrument, and leadership qualities of a student to be engaged in a section that is in
need. In fact, there are countless examples of plateaued students excelling after a move to
a different instrument. However, the unwavering encouragement and support of the
teacher is central to keeping the student motivated after the transition. Below are some
likely permutations, although all moves between instruments are possible and occur
regularly.
Violin and viola: among the most common transitions between string instruments is
the move between violin and viola. American violist of Austrian birth, Paul Doktor
(1919–1989) describes a “scratchy and unpleasant” tone quality of a violinist starting on
the viola.3 Indeed, the instrument does require a different approach for the right-hand, as
well as the left-hand technique. The bow arm must be adjusted to respond to a larger
instrument’s resonance, heavier gauge of the C string, and even in spiccato stroke’s
resonance as Doktor indicates: “All of the spiccato bowings should be played nearer to
the string on the viola. The bounce should not be so high up, as the strings will not speak
on most violas as quickly as on the violin.”4 Naturally these are only a couple of examples
of issues encountered while learning a new instrument. The way strings respond, lower
range of viola, vibrato speed and width, reading alto clef along with transition into treble
clef are among the challenges a student must overcome. It must be noted that the left-
hand technique appreciably differs from the violin by the fact that pivoting is necessary to
reach the increased span of four fingers, much like with low string instruments. This way,
intonation challenges caused by a larger instrument size are tackled properly. Harvey
S. Whistler’s forty-eight-page book, titled From Violin to Viola: A Transitional Method is an
invaluable resource that addresses some of the most common technical issues encoun­
tered. In addition to Whistler’s book, assigning accessible scales, arpeggios, and technical
exercises are crucial in attaining proficiency in viola.
Cello and bass: it is more likely for a student to move from the cello to the bass.
Different instrument holds and bow holds, the transition from C-shape to K-shape hand,
different fingerings and tuning, vibrato speed and width, and tone production on the thicker
gauge strings are all formidable challenges to conquer. Furthermore, understanding how to
produce a proper tone with a good bite and not to skid on attacks, particularly on the
E string, takes meticulous practice (see Lesson 3, Section G, Tone Production for a “slipping­
attack”). For the bow hold there are two approaches: abandon the French, or overhand bow
hold altogether and learn German, or underhand bow hold. This approach will start the
student afresh on the bow grip and keep from transferring any habits from the cello.
The second way would be to keep with the French bow grip and use the similarities between
the two instruments’ bow holds to benefit from the student’s familiarity.
It is quite common for a bass guitar player to take interest in the double bass or upright
bass in a string class. In addition to instrument hold, two obvious challenges are the bow-arm
184 Lesson 17
and left-hand techniques. The student would be expected to have an uneven proficiency, that
bow arm would be at the beginning stages, where the left hand facility would have been
developed further along. One prevalent issue with the left hand would be the use of the third
finger. The bass guitar uses the third finger in low positions and double bass does not.
Therefore, prompt formation of a K-shape left hand, with proper stretch between first
and second, and second and fourth fingers is imperative.
Upper strings and low strings: the need to move a student between instruments does
not only arise within upper strings and low strings, but also across the upper-strings and low-
strings line. Even though, at first, it may appear to be a daunting challenge, given proper
attention practice and encouragement, a successful move between any instruments is achiev­
able. To accomplish that, the student must be observed closely and both posture and setup
corrected as frequently as necessary. When transitioning between upper and low strings, the
position of the left fingers and left hand, left arm slope, and bow grip pronation are most
notably different. However, with an attention to establish a proper instrument hold, bow hold
and develop rounded tone production, these differences will not endure and the student will
progress reliably.

Preparation of Secondary-School String Program Observation

Visit an areas secondary-school’s orchestra class. When you arrive at school, sign in at the
main office and report to the orchestra teacher. Observe the class using the below form, so
that your responses answer the form’s questions precisely. Provide additional responses if
needed and be as specific as possible on how the observed teacher approached certain
technical aspects like instrument hold, bow hold, intonation, and sound production. The
form will be due next class.

SECONDARY-SCHOOL STRING PROGRAM OBSERVATION FORM

Your Name: ____________________________

Observed Teacher: ______________________
School: _________________________________
Grade/Class: ___________________________
Age Range of Students: ___________________
Technical Studies Covered: ________________________________________________
Repertoire Rehearsed (if applicable): _______________________________________

What was the objective of the class?

How did the observed teacher work on achieving those objectives?

 Lesson 17 185
How attentive were the students in their work?

How successfully did the observed teacher attain class objectives?

What was the overall atmosphere of the class?

How was the observed teacher’s time management?

What forms of classroom management did the observed teacher use?

Did the observed teacher follow a teaching cycle?

What did you like about the observed teacher?

What would you do differently if you were teaching the observed class?

Additional Observations:

Assignment
1) Provide a list of string pedagogues discussed in this lesson with a brief narrative of their
achievements.
2) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
3) Prepare for your upcoming secondary-school string program visit and reconfirm your
visit with the teacher you are planning to observe.
4) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 18 prior to next class.

Notes
1 Gordon, A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children: 2013 Edition, 25, emphasis in original.
2 [Link] (accessed February 2, 2020).
3 Applebaum, The Way They Play, Book 1, 228.
4 Ibid., 230–31.
Lesson 18

Contents
A Presentation and a Discussion on the Secondary-School String Program Visit 186
Legato Playing and its Exercises 186

This Lesson’s Objectives are:

• Student presentations of secondary-school string program visit assignment and a discussion.
• A brief discussion on legato playing and its exercises.

A Presentation and a Discussion on the Secondary-School String

Program Visit
Students will present their observation based on the Secondary-School String Program
Observation Form, immediately followed by a class discussion facilitated by the instructor.
Students should be prepared to answer these follow-up questions:

• Did the observed teacher demonstrate, and if so, in what context?

• How was the observed teacher’s rapport with the students, and how do you think it
relates to teaching effectiveness?
• How do time management and teaching effectiveness relate?
• How do teaching cycle and teaching effectiveness relate?
• How close was the overall level of students?
• How do you think class size (as in number of students) affected the observed class?
• What technical deficiencies did you observe in the students?

Legato Playing, and Its Exercises

In string playing, legato indicates to play “successive notes in performance, connected
without any intervening silence of articulation.”1 The legato bow stroke can be played
both with separate and slurred notes: legato and legato slur respectively. As notes within
a single slur are naturally connected, both bow changes in between slurs and bow
changes between separate legato notes are also played in a connected manner.
A nuanced legato playing differs from détaché in that it is more connected and requires
the movement of the right wrist, hand and fingers. In the early stages of instruction
 Lesson 18 187
legato playing is not asked of students, however, left-hand exercises that promote
smooth motion are necessary in building right-hand technique that enables the execu­
tion of the legato bow stroke. The pencil exercises (Lesson 2) and Swimming Octopus
exercise (Lesson 3) are vital to preparing the right arm and hand, as legato playing is
impossible to execute with a stiff bow hold. There are two factors in executing a legato
bow stroke: keeping bow weight into the string during the bow change, and a split-
second anticipation of the right wrist.
To build upon pencil and Swimming Octopus, two more advanced exercises are ideal in
explaining the abstract notion of “feeling the string resistance” to the student. First, away
from the instrument, and second on the instrument.
Finger Dragging exercise: while sitting at a table, students imagine holding a bow and
dragging their finger tips on a table allowing the natural arm weight to create friction with
the surface. Set the metronome to 60 and move the right arm from left to right, or down bow
for four beats, and move right to left, or up bow for four beats (Figures 18.1, 18.2, and 18.3).
The right wrist should lead the motion, and utmost attention should be given to keeping the
weight in the arm during direction change. First, the instructor will model the exercise for the
class, then students will repeat it where the instructor will walk around the room to help
students as needed.
Rubber Band exercise: once the students are comfortable with the Finger Dragging
exercise, they pick up their instruments, a rubber band is attached through the frog and tip of
bow and with one student holding the rubber band taut, the other student plays the above
exercise on an open string (Figures 18.4 and 18.5). The right wrist should lead the motion, and
utmost attention should be given to keeping the weight of the arm during the direction change.
First, the instructor will model the exercise for the class with the assistance of a student, then
students will repeat it in pairs as the instructor will walk around the room to observe and help.

Figure 18.1 “Down bow” Finger Dragging exercise

Figure 18.2 “Up bow” Finger Dragging exercise

Figure 18.3 Finger Dragging exercise

Figure 18.4 Holding the rubber band on down bow

 Lesson 18 189

Figure 18.5 Holding the rubber band on up bow

Assignment
1) Write one paragraph reflecting on your visit and today’s discussion on it.
2) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
3) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 19 prior to next class.

Note
1 Chew, “Legato.”
Lesson 19

Contents
Shifting, Vibrato, and Trill Exercises 190

This lesson’s focus is:

• A discussion on shifting, vibrato, and trill exercises.

Shifting, Vibrato, and Trill Exercises

Teaching Vibrato, and Shifting

In string music education “when to introduce vibrato” is a valid question. The definition of
vibrato is the intentional wavering of otherwise perfect pitch in pursuit of a pleasing tone
quality. Therefore, students must have a good understanding of, and the ability to play with
solid intonation. Furthermore, the student must have a well-developed left-hand technique
that is facile, free of tension, with a straight wrist and a perfect mold of fingers. Just because
the abovementioned requirements must be met before vibrato is incorporated into one’s
playing, it does not mean the introduction cannot be made before the students are ready for
full implementation of vibrato. On the other hand, even after vibrato and shifting are
introduced, both pre-shifting and pre-vibrato exercises may continue concurrently with
regular exercises.

1) Pre-Shifting Exercises

Pre-shifting and pre-vibrato exercises can precede the actual implementation of these
techniques by an extended period of time, as a matter of fact, many successful string teachers
introduce these exercises quite early in their curriculum. One such exercise is to slide the arm
up and down with the first finger and thumb placed on a cylindrical object as a mailing tube,
both acting as and positioned as a fingerboard. For upper strings the tube will be placed on
top of the student’s shoulder, for lower strings it will be positioned above the shoulder.
A piece of rolled paper under the hand will ensure smooth shifting motion without squeezing
the tube (Figures 19.1 and 19.2). Much like in pre-bowing exercises, the task of achieving
a smooth shift is isolated away from the instrument and once students are comfortable with
the motion, it is moved onto the fingerboard.
Figure 19.1 Shifting with paper on upper strings

Figure 19.2 Shifting with paper on low strings

192 Lesson 19
Upper Strings Vibrato: for upper strings there are three categories for vibrato:

A) Finger vibrato signifies the smallest part of the arm associated with the vibrato motion. The
most minimal vibrato motion is initiated by the arm, only the first joint appears to move. This
is due to the minute amount of vibrato provided, but not because the first joint initiates the
motion. (Common problems associated with finger vibrato were discussed in Lesson 14.)
B) Wrist vibrato limits the motion to the wrist and finger joints and excludes the forearm.
It is a variety of vibrato that is preferred by some teachers. In a heterogeneous string
classroom, it can be omitted as arm vibrato correlates perfectly with shifting and is
aligned with the low strings vibrato motion.
C) Arm vibrato uses the entire arm as active components of the shake motion. The upper
arm, forearm, wrist, all three joints of a finger are active participants in the vibrato
motion. In a heterogeneous string class, we will focus on arm vibrato, rather than wrist
vibrato, as it closely resembles the low strings vibrato.

Low Strings Vibrato: both the cello and double bass share the same motion for the vibrato
and it closely resembles that of the arm vibrato of upper strings. When vibrating the entire
arm moves, including the upper arm, forearm, wrist, and all three joints of a finger.

1) Pre-Vibrato Exercises: pre-vibrato exercises are fun activities for the class that often
involves percussion instruments. Either a store-bought egg shaker, or a home-made version
can be employed for this exercise. Common and inexpensive items like plastic Easter eggs or
empty pill bottles can be used as shakers and any seed or grain as corn, rice, or beans as rattle
elements (Figure 19.3). Have students hold shakers in the proper position for upper string or
a low string instruments. Then have the class shake the instruments rhythmically with
a vibrato motion to a metronome beat or a recorded piece of music, first to a slow beat
then work up to faster tempos.

Figure 19.3 A homemade vibrato exercise device

 Lesson 19 193
Once the students are comfortable with this exercise, move onto the mailing tube, go through
the same progressive metronome and recorded music regimens with the matching tempo of
the vibrato motion. Once comfortable with the mailing tube, finally move onto instruments to
apply the vibrato motion.

Shifting and Vibrato Exercises on the Instrument:

Since both the vibrato and shifting motions share the same attribute of shortening or
lengthening the playable span of the string, they can be introduced concurrently in
a heterogeneous string class. First, have students start sliding up and down on their finger­
boards with inexact pitch, freely on all strings. This free and smooth motion will establish the
minimal weight of fingers while in motion and the teacher will ensure the entire arm is
engaged for this motion and fingers or wrist will not lead the slide, but the arm moves as
a single unit. Once comfortable with the motion, the teacher will ask students to depart from
and arrive at two given pitches: move first finger B-natural to D-natural and back to
B-natural on the A string. Then, E-natural to G-natural and back to E-natural on the
D string. Finally, A-natural to C-natural and back to A-natural on the G string. This shift
motion is done without changing the left-hand mold, collapsing distances between fingers,
and first-finger and thumb alignment. Lastly, violin and bass move onto the E string and viola
and cello move onto the C string (Figure 19.4). This exercise can be practiced with the use of
metronome and sound generator as a tuner.

Figure 19.4 Heterogeneous shifting exercises

194 Lesson 19
Alternately, using the adjacent open string is a good reference point as it provides a drone tone
during shifting exercises and eliminates the need for a tuner. For instance, when practicing shifting
on the D string, the G string provides the perfect drone, as it is a perfect octave below G-natural on
the D string.

• As the left hand may impede the vibrato motion for upper strings, because mistakenly the
student might be supporting the instrument with the left hand, vibrato exercises may be
executed by putting the scroll against a wall. To accomplish that, a piece of cloth is
placed between the scroll and the wall, and the student proceeds with the vibrato
exercise. Once the student is made aware of the left-hand freedom during this exercise,
remove the instrument from the wall.
• Another way to free left-hand tension during vibrato exercises for upper strings is to ask
the student to lie down on the floor and execute vibrato exercises. Much like the wall
exercise, it should make the student aware of left-hand freedom.

A piece of rolled paper between the student’s left hand and the neck/fingerboard can be used
to break any unwanted tension while vibrating (refer back to Figures 19.1 and 19.2). Vibrato
exercises are repeated on all fingers. Starting with the first finger, moving onto the second, third,
and the weakest fourth finger. In all vibrato exercises the teacher must keep a close eye on hand
position so that the perfect finger mold is not broken while vibrating. Much like the shifting
exercises, it is preferable to optimize class time with heterogeneous vibrato exercises (Figure 19.5).

Teaching Trills
Much like with the vibrato, the constant speed and continuity of the trill are the most vital
elements, and a string player must be able to execute trills between second and third, and
third and fourth fingers just as well as first and second fingers. Third and fourth fingers are
relatively weaker than the first and second fingers and it takes practice to learn, improve, and
maintain those trills. Borrowing practice strategies from vibrato exercises, starting trills slowly
and building speed and the number of turns and repeating on all fingers and strings is an
effective way to build trills (Figure 19.6).

Figure 19.5 A heterogeneous first-finger vibrato exercise

 Lesson 19 195

Figure 19.6 A heterogeneous first-and-second-finger trill exercise

Assignment
1) Write a double-spaced one-page essay on vibrato: its variations, when to introduce it, and
its relationship with shifting.
2) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises in preparation for the third playing test.
3) Review today’s lesson and read Lesson 20 prior to next class.
Lesson 20

Contents
Videotaping of Third Playing Test 196

In this lesson students will demonstrate the following:

• Proper posture
• Proper setup
• Good tone production

Videotaping of Third Playing Test

This lesson is dedicated to performing the third playing test. The instructor will be videotap­
ing the playing test and evaluating it on the spot. Each student will play the selections which
have been decided by the instructor. Each student will watch the videotape and complete the
following Self-Evaluation Form III, using the posture, setup, and tone production guidelines
established in class.
 Lesson 20 197
Videotaping Number 3

Name:_________________Instrument:___________Date:________Grades____/____

STRING PLAYING TEST RUBRIC III

First watch your video and read your instructor’s evaluation of your playing. Afterwards
watch your video again and fill out the below rubric. Leave correct items blank, mark any
exceptional element by a plus sign and any element in need of improvement by a minus sign.
You will receive a grade for full and accurate completion, and timely submission of this form.
The form is due at the beginning of next class.

POSTURE—INSTRUMENT HOLD, LEFT HAND, PIZZICATO POSITIONING AND

BOW HOLD

VIOLIN AND VIOLA

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ torso is square

_____ shoulders are relaxed
_____ feet are positioned correctly
_____ head is not tilted and is free of tension
_____ instrument is supported on the collarbone without tension
_____ instrument is placed parallel relative to the floor and kept with the “nose-scroll­
elbow-toe” alignment at all times
_____ wrist is straight from all angles
_____ hand is free of tension
_____ four fingers are curved and tips of fingers are hovering right above strings
_____ thumb is at a proper height and is free of tension

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the corner of the fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ pinky finger is on top of stick
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
198 Lesson 20
_____ bow is at proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

CELLO POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ seated on front four inches of seat with feet positioned correctly and flat on the floor
in a position that can allow the student to stand up at any given time
_____ endpin is at a proper length with cello at a proper angle
_____ C peg is behind left ear, neck is one fist width above left shoulder and cello is tilted
slightly to left
_____ cello is not pinched and knees are relaxed with instrument balanced without
assistance of arms
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of the neck
_____ first joint of thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is slightly tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is parallel to the
first finger
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the side of the fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of
fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

DOUBLE BASS SITTING POSITION

_____ seated tall with left knee behind bass right foot planted firmly on the floor
_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle
_____ instrument is slightly leaning back with the right corner of the instrument in front of
the sternum with f-holes facing the conductor
 Lesson 20 199
STANDING POSITION

_____ standing tall, shoulders back with a straight spine

_____ endpin is at a proper length with the bass at a proper angle with the right corner of
the instrument in front of the sternum
_____ the instrument is positioned diagonally in-front of the player with f-holes facing the
conductor

INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ first finger is at eye level when placed on the first tape
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of the fingerboard
_____ first joint of the thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is reaching the fourth
finger tape with a K-shaped hand
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the side of the fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of the
fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the first joint of the index finger at a proper angle

GERMAN BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ thumb, index and middle fingers are joined at the tips
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and the tip of the thumb is behind stick, but not on top
_____ forearm and wrist are supinated at a proper angle
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

FRENCH BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and the tip of the thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at proper distance from bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
200 Lesson 20
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

Scale: intonation, accuracy, and fingering

Piece: intonation, accuracy, and fingering

Evaluation Summary: provide a summary of your playing test by writing one paragraph
on the positive elements of your playing and one paragraph on those elements in need of
improvement.

1) A summary of positive elements.

2) A summary of elements in need of improvement.

Assignment
1) Complete Playing Test Rubric III, to be turned in next class.
2) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
3) Read Lesson 21 prior to next class.
Lesson 21

Contents
Extended Left-Hand and Bow Techniques 201
A Discussion on Heterogeneous String Class Method Books 205
Method Books 205
Technical Books 206
A Repertoire Book 206

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A discussion on the extended left-hand and bow techniques.
• A discussion on heterogeneous string class method books and their selection.

Extended Left-Hand and Bow Techniques

The extended left-hand and bow techniques mentioned in this lesson are not part of the
beginning and intermediate string lexicon. Since they are mostly advanced techniques, the
following are not likely found in the graded string repertoire.

Artificial Harmonics
Most commonly, artificial harmonics make use of the third partial, a perfect fourth above the
fundamental, and create a new fundamental by stopping the string with the first finger and
lightly touching the fourth finger in the violin and viola (Figure 21.1), or thumb and third
finger for the cello and bass (Figure 21.2), to produce a sounding pitch two octaves above the
fundamental. The standard notation for artificial harmonics is regular note head for the
stopped fundamental and a diamond note head for the lightly-touched harmonic, although
composers may notate the intended pitch in place of, or in addition to the standard notation.
Although second and fourth partials are possible to produce in artificial harmonics on all
string instruments, they are exceedingly rare in orchestral writing.

Scordatura
It., from scordare, “to mistune.” Scordatura may be used to indicate any non-standard tuning.
The instrument may be called to be “mistuned” ahead, or during the performance. One well-
known example is the first violin solo in the opening measures of the symphonic poem, titled
Danse Macabre, Op. 40 by Saint–Saëns (Figure 21.3). Scordatura may be called for to allow for
unusual chords to be played as in Danse Macabre, or may be used to brighten the tone quality
202 Lesson 21

Figure 21.1 Glazunov Symphony No. 4, movement 2, Scherzo, rehearsal 31, first violins, artificial harmonics

Figure 21.2 Verdi Aida, Act 3, mm 3–4, cellos, artificial harmonics

Figure 21.3 Saint–Saëns Danse Macabre, Op. 40, mm 25–32, first violin solo, scordatura

of the instrument as in the solo viola’s minor-second higher than normal tuning on all strings
in Mozart’s Sinfonia Concertante, K. 364. Similarly, Paganini employed scordatura in several
works of his, including the Concerto No. 1, where all four strings of solo violin may be tuned
a minor second higher than normal (a predominantly abandoned version), and Introduction
and Variations on “Dal tuo stellato soglio” from Rossini’s Mose in Egitto, Op. 24, MS 23,
“Mosè-Fantasia” for the G string, where the G string is tuned up to a B-flat. For double bass,
so called “solo tuning” is used in soloistic repertoire and tunes all four strings a major-second
higher than orchestral tuning: F-sharp, B-natural, E-natural, and A-natural (Figure 21.4). As
a consequence “solo tuning” necessitates thinner gauge strings that are capable of with­
standing this high tension.
 Lesson 21 203

Figure 21.4 Double bass solo tuning

Snap Pizzicato
Plucking the string away from the fingerboard in order to produce a snapping tone by striking
the fingerboard. Through the string history only a few examples exist, as Bohemian born
Austrian violinist composer Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644–1704), who, in his
programmatic work Battalia (Sonata di marche) (1673), asked violone, or double bass viol to
execute a snap-like pizzicato to simulate cannon shots. Not until Hungarian composer Béla
Bartók (1881–1945) did snap pizzicato become known, so much so that idiomatically the snap
pizzicato is referred to as “Bartók pizzicato.” Bartók indicates the snap pizzicato with an
upside-down cello thumb position symbol, currently a standard notation (Figures 21.5).

Left-hand Pizzicato
Left-hand pizzicato is used to play both open strings and stopped notes. A higher finger
number, such as the fourth finger, plucks the string sideways toward the palm of the hand
making a lower finger number or open string sound. If the highest string needs to be sounded,

Figure 21.5 Bartók String Quartet No. 4, Sz. 91, movement 4, Allegretto pizzicato, m 119, snap pizzicato
© 1929 Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. Copyright Renewed. International Copyright Secured. All Rights
Reserved. Reprinted by Permission.
204 Lesson 21

Figure 21.6 Paganini Caprice Op. 1, No. 24, variation no. 9, left-hand pizzicato

Figure 21.7 Rimsky-Korsakov Capriccio Espagnol, movement 1, Alborada, mm 15–18, first and second
violins, an alternating right- and left-hand pizzicato passage

the bow is struck onto the string toward the tip (Figure 21.6). Currently, the standard notation
of left-hand pizzicato is a plus symbol. Primarily, left-hand pizzicato is used in virtuoso solo works
as Zigeunerweisen, Op. 20 by Spanish violinist and composer Pablo de Sarasate (1844–1908) and
Caprice No. 24, Op. 1 by Paganini. However, rarely alternating right and left-hand pizzicatos
occur in orchestral writing, as in the first movement of Rimsky-Korsakov’s Capriccio Espagnol. In
Rimsky-Korsakov’s example up stems indicate right-hand, low stems indicate left-hand pizzicatos
alternating on open E string (Figure 21.7).

Col Legno Battuto and Tratto

Col legno (It. “with the wood”) can be played both by striking the stick portion of the bow
onto the string toward the tip (col legno battuto) or drawing it across the string (col legno tratto).
In Violin Concerto in A Major, No. 5, K 219, “Turkish” (1775) Mozart indicates coll’ arco al
rovescio [with the reverse side of bow], effectively col legno for low strings (Figure 21.8).
Another well-known example is the col legno passage of upper strings in Symphonie Fantastique
by Berlioz (Figure 21.9).

Figure 21.8 Mozart Violin Concerto in A Major, No. 5, K 219, “Turkish,” movement 3, mm 227–31, low
strings, col legno passage
 Lesson 21 205

Figure 21.9 Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, Op. 14, movement 5, A witches’ sabbath, rehearsal number 83,
upper strings, col legno

A Discussion on Heterogeneous String Class Method Books

Method books are among the numerous tools in a string teacher’s hypothetical toolbox in the
pursuit of imparting solid techniques and good habits in a positive learning environment.
A method book should help accomplish fundamental benchmarks in an organized and timely
fashion, function seamlessly within a purposeful string curriculum, and philosophically fit with
the vision of a string teacher. To determine how a proposed method book would be a good
fit, the first year’s teaching goals must be established. First year’s goals may or may not have
been predefined for a teacher. Prudent and achievable goals are listed in Teaching Stringed
Instruments: A Course of Study, which proposes to cover most of the first book of string method.
The following instructional goals that correspond with Grade One level are expected: play
with proper posture, instrument hold, left-hand and right-hand positions, keep a steady beat,
accurate intonation, perform in the keys of D major and possibly G major, time signatures of
4/4, 3/4, and 2/4, play note and rest values of quarter, half and whole, slurs and ties, unison
playing and simple harmonizations.1
Furthermore, the method book must work well with academic standards as Common Core,
as well as the state or district standards to which the teacher must comply.2 Some method
book series feature repertoire pairings based on the level in the method book. Technology
inclusion is another consideration, having started with the addition of accompanying CD
recordings and DVDs in the last two decades, SmartMusic compatibility has now become
commonplace among recent publications of method books. However convenient technology
and text currency are, some old publications still hold their significance among teachers and
are presently used and reprinted: String Builder, originally published in 1960, and Müller-Rusch
String Method, published in 1961 are two perfect examples. The below is a list of method and
technique books for classroom and ensemble settings.

Method Books
Spotlight on Strings: Level 1, Technique and Program Music for String Orchestra and Individual Instruction
(2016) by Doris Gazda & Albert Stoutamire, published by Kjos.
206 Lesson 21
Measures of Success: for String Orchestra (2013), with SmartMusic access, by Gail V. Barnes,
Brian Balmages, Carrie Lane Gruselle, and Michael Trowbridge, published by FJH Music.
String Basics: Steps to Success for String Orchestra (2011), with SmartMusic and Interactive
Practice Studio access, by Terry Shade and Jeremy Woolstenhulme, published by Kjos.
Sound Innovations for String Orchestra: A Revolutionary Method for Beginning Musicians (2010), with
CD and DVD, SmartMusic access, by Bob Phillips, Peter Boonshaft, and Robert Sheldon,
published by Alfred.
Simply Strings (2007) by Denese Odegaard, published by Northeastern Music.
Orchestra Expressions (2006), with CD and SmartMusic access, by Kathleen DeBerry Brungard,
Michael L. Alexander, Gerald E. Anderson, and Sandra Dackow, published by Alfred.
New Directions for Strings: A Comprehensive String Method (2006) with two CDs and SmartMusic
access, by Joanne Erwin, Kathleen Horvath, Robert D. McCashin, and Brenda Mitchell,
published by FJH Music.
Introduction to Artistry in Strings (2005), with CD, by Gerald Fischbach, Wendy Barden, and
Robert S. Frost, published by Kjos.
Essential Elements 2000 for Strings: A Comprehensive String Method (2004), with CD and DVD,
SmartMusic and [Link] access, by Michael Allen, Robert Gillespie,
and Pamela Tellejohn Hayes, published by Hal Leonard.
Explorer (2002), with CD and SmartMusic access, Andrew Dabczynski, Richard Meyer, and
Bob Phillips, published by Alfred.
All for Strings: Comprehensive String Method (1985) by Gerald E. Anderson and Robert S. Frost,
published by Kjos.
Solo Time for Strings, Book 1: for String Class or Individual Instruction (1968) by Forest Etling,
published by Alfred.
Müller-Rusch String Method: for Class or Individual Study (1961), by J. Frederick Müller and
Harold W. Rusch, published by Kjos.
String Builder: A String Class Method (for Class or Individual Instruction) in Three Volumes (1960)
Samuel Applebaum, published by Alfred.

Technical Books
Habits of a Successful String Musician: A Comprehensive Curriculum for Use During Fundamentals Time.
(2014) by Christopher Selby, Scott Rush, and Rich Moon, published by GIA.
Daily Warm-Ups for String Orchestra (1993) by Michael Allen, published by Hal Leonard.

A Repertoire Book
The ABCs of String Orchestra (2000) by Janice Tucker Rhoda and Andrew Balent, published by
Fischer.

Assignment
1) List extended left-hand and bow techniques and their brief explanations discussed in this
lesson, to be turned in next class.
2) List method books discussed in this lesson, to be turned in next class.
3) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
4) Read Lesson 22 prior to next class.
 Lesson 21 207
Notes
1 Dillon-Krass and Straub, Establishing a String and Orchestra Program, 3.
2 Some examples for standards are: NAfME Core Music Standards, [Link]
standards/core-music-standards/, NAfME Ensemble Standards, [Link] and
ASTA Teacher Standards [Link] (accessed February 2, 2020).
Lesson 22

Contents
Selection of Repertoire: A Discussion on Graded Orchestra Repertoire 208
How to Avoid the Dreaded Over-Programming 210
Spiccato Exercises 211

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A discussion on graded orchestra repertoire.
• Ways of avoiding pitfalls of over-programming.
• Spiccato exercises.

Selection of Repertoire: A Discussion on Graded Orchestra Repertoire

Both full and string orchestra repertoire classifications are broken down into six levels: grades
one through to six—respectively from the easiest to the most challenging.1 Separate from
state lists, publishers follow their own grade systems which are widely subjective and
concerned with, lists of educational publishers. For instance, educational publisher Alfred,
under the direction of Bob Phillips, Director of String Publications, in its orchestra catalog
meticulously breaks down the first five levels of the system into halves: level 1/2, level 1, level
1-1/2, etc. with precise parameters of key and time signatures, instrumentation, ranges,
rhythm, and special considerations. Moreover, audio previews and score samples may be
available on publisher websites, which are helpful in familiarizing oneself with a piece of
music. Although not all educational publishers are thorough in their catalogs, and coupled
with subjectivity of grading systems and profitability pressures those companies face, all level
suggestions must be taken with a grain of salt. Additionally, relative strengths and weaknesses
of each ensemble cannot be readily accommodated by a simplistic grade and the string
teacher is the best person to make any such judgment call.
The most exhaustive study of repertoire in the discipline Teaching Music Through Performance
in Orchestra, in three volumes, is an invaluable resource. It provides detailed information
broken down into units under the Teacher Resource Guide for each composition examined:
title of work, date(s) of composer, name of arranger (if applicable), instrumentation, biogra­
phical information of composer, biographical information of arranger (if applicable), compo­
sition, historical perspective, technical and stylistic considerations, musical elements, form and
structure, suggested listening, and additional references and resources.
 Lesson 22 209
Although any grade system may be open to argument, the below list is a starting point in
venturing into graded string orchestra and full orchestra repertoire. It is based on Florida
Orchestra Association’s Classification Rubric, which features a corresponding letter system.
There is no substitute for knowledge: the more knowledgeable of repertoire string educators are,
the better they can reason and positively overcome the fallibility of a simplistic grade system.

Grade 1:

• Only in the keys of D and G major.

• Basic rhythms (eighth, quarter, half and whole notes, minimal dotted notes).
• Written in a moderate tempo.
• Simple or duple meters only.
• Mainly homophonic, without much part independency.
• No tempo changes.
• One or two violin parts, third violin doubles the viola.
• First position only (double basses may encounter 3rd position in D major).
• Short compositions with an average length of one- to two-minutes.
• Basic form, simple repeat signs.
• Terraced dynamics only.

Grade 2:

• Keys of A and F and C major are added.

• More complex rhythms, including some syncopation, triplets and tied notes.
• Minimum changes of meter between 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 6/8, and 2/2.
• Limited part independency, and some use of polyphony.
• Mostly written in the first position (double basses may encounter the 3rd position more
extensively) cellos encounter forward and backward extensions.
• Some chromaticism.
• Slurred notes, staccato, hooked bowing, tremolo and accents.
• Some variation in articulation and bowings.
• More complex repeat markings as D.C., D.S. al fine or al coda.
• Dynamic changes are encountered, more dynamics are added.

Grade 3:

• Keys including three sharps and two flats, including minor keys.
• Some key changes, and mixed meter are encountered.
• More complex rhythms and syncopation.
• More independence between parts, and polyphonic writing.
• Shifting required in all instruments (upper strings up to third position, cello fourth, and
double bass fifth).
• All bowings including spiccato and ricochet.
• More complex forms and repeat markings are encountered.
• All dynamics, and dynamic changes.
• Vibrato is appropriate.
210 Lesson 22
Grade 4:

• Keys including four sharps and four flats, including relative minor keys.
• Multiple key changes, and any meter are encountered (including asymmetrical).
• Multiple meter and tempo changes.
• More demanding shifts are required (violins up to fifth position, viola up to third position,
both cello and double bass fifth position).
• Faster tempos, and sustained notes in slower tempos.
• More complex and varied bowings and left-hand techniques.
• Vibrato is necessary.

Grade 5:

• All keys and changes.

• Greater stylistic demands.
• All positions are encountered.
• Most complex forms and length of works (including multi-movement compositions).
• Both vibrato and a full command of bow and left-hand techniques are necessary.

Grade 6:

• Essentially equal to, and including non-educational editions of string and symphonic-
orchestra repertoire.

How to Avoid the Dreaded Over-Programming

As discussed above the grade system is both subjective and generic and cannot account for
unpredictable specifics of an ensemble. In addition, string programs serve students of a wide
variety of backgrounds, technical and musical maturity, and an abundance of other variables.
Even within a well-matched ensemble, a piece of music may overwhelm one student, while it
fails to challenge another. To a great extent, grade systems focus on technical aspects of
repertoire, but not musical challenges, with the musical expression seen as the topping of the
proverbial cake of technical ability, and not achieved without succeeding in mechanical
facility first. James Kjelland’s criticism of an arrangement of a Bach chorale’s grading that
requires sostenuto, or sustained playing is as follows:

Sustained bowing, such as in an adagio-style piece, for example, can be extremely

challenging and may not be taken into consideration in the grade level determina­
tion. An arrangement of Bach’s chorale, “Come Sweet Death,” is marketed as
a Grade 3 piece, when in actuality it could challenge a Grade 5 orchestra. For that
matter, any advanced orchestra can be challenged musically by a sostenuto piece.2

The perceived misclassification is not limited to sostenuto, but is extensive in all technical and
musical aspects of repertoire. Therefore, grade in itself is nothing but part of a benchmark,
merely a starting point in the repertoire selection process. The string teacher must peruse the
considered repertoire painstakingly for its musical value, technical benefits, and pedagogical
substance. The “go/no-go decision” made by every safe pilot in aviation is analogous to
picking string repertoire: part of being a contemplative string teacher is knowing when to
 Lesson 22 211
accept a certain challenge and when to reject it. Aside from a blatant disregard for the
ensemble’s capabilities versus the demands of the chosen repertoire, one great misstep in
selecting repertoire is underestimating the time it takes to learn a piece of music. In summary,
programming conservatively with the “less is more” adage in mind, choosing achievable goals
that can be accomplished within a given period, with reserve time for unforeseen events and
time left to polish and mature the work is the prudent approach for any new string teacher.

Spiccato Exercises
To execute off-the-string or bouncing notes, spiccato is played at or around the balance point,
and the exact location depends on the speed in which it is played: the slower the spiccato, the
closer to the frog, the faster, the further toward middle of bow. All of this requires a perfectly
supple bow grip, with which a player only guides the springing of bow, but does not “make the
bow spring.” A perfect analogy to the spiccato stroke is dribbling a ball, in both cases a subtle
but defined human interaction with a connected external motion is what makes them work.
Therefore, only a measured guidance of the bow spring is necessary, as over controlling will
cause tightness of right hand and loss of bow-hold flexibility. It is critical in the early stages of
string instruction that the bow grip remains flexible and the entire bow arm is free of tension.
Without this solid foundation accomplishing an effective spiccato bow stroke is impossible.

Figure 22.1 Upper strings bow drop

Figure 22.2 Low strings bow drop

Figure 22.3 A spiccato exercise

 Lesson 22 213

Figure 22.4 A slow spiccato one-octave D major scale

When it comes to preparing for the spiccato bow stroke, the earlier on-the-string collé
exercises prepare the right wrist and fingers for the flexibility it requires. Spiccato will require
suppleness of fingers and wrist, however, this diminutive bow stroke will be generated from the
forearm. The first step in spiccato is to hover the bow four inches from the string at balance
point, around the lower 1/3 of bow, and allow it to drop onto the string as a down bow with
no trepidation (Figures 22.1 and 22.2). Repeat this motion numerous times observing the bow
grip to make sure the right fingers and wrist are relaxed and a small spiccato motion comes
from the forearm. Once comfortable move onto the below spiccato exercise, making sure to
observe that the bow grip remains intact and flexible (Figure 22.3). Once pleased with reliability
and control of motion, move onto a one-octave D major scale for a slow or artificial spiccato.
This bow stroke is executed closer to the frog, at around the lower 1/4 of the bow, with the
bow carried, bounced and controlled by the hand (Figure 22.4). As part of the warm-up
routine, with the help of a metronome, slow spiccato exercises should become second-nature
before speeding up slow spiccato further toward the balance point to a speed where it can
spring on its own accord.

Assignment
1) Locate online and peruse the Florida Orchestra Association’s Required Music List.
2) Locate online and peruse the Maryland Music Educators Association’s String Orchestra
List.
214 Lesson 22
3) Locate online and peruse the Maryland Music Educators Association’s Full Orchestra
List.
4) Locate online and peruse the South Carolina Music Educators Association’s String
Orchestra List.
5) Locate online and peruse the Georgia Music Educators Association’s Combined Orchestra
List.
6) Locate online and peruse the New York Music Educators Association’s Combined
Orchestra List.
7) Locate online and peruse the Texas Music Educators Association’s Combined Orchestra
List.
8) Locate online and peruse the Florida Orchestra Association’s Sight Reading Music
Selection Guidelines.
9) Provide a string orchestra contest program at grade one using a state list of your choice
from the above.
10) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises.
11) Read Lesson 23 prior to next class.

Notes
1 As this lesson focuses on the strings only, for specific technical requirements of wind and percussion
sections in the full orchestra setting, refer to appropriate band music references.
2 Michael Allen, Louis Bergonzi, Jacquelyn Dillon, Robert Gillespie, James Kjelland, and Dorothy
Straub. Teaching Music Through Performance in Orchestra. (Chicago, IL: GIA, 2001), 11.
Lesson 23

Contents
A Brief Discussion on First Year of Teaching and Contest Preparation 215
Writing a Lesson Plan for Individual and Classroom Teaching 216

This lesson’s objectives are:

• A brief discussion on what to expect in the first year of teaching and contest preparation.
• Writing lesson plans for individual instruction and classroom teaching.

A Brief Discussion on First Year of Teaching and Contest Preparation

The first year of teaching is among the most exciting and memorable times in a teacher’s
career. Whether the new string teacher works with other educators in a larger and established
program or starts in a smaller one, the expected outcome is just the same: remarkably life-
changing. Unbeknownst to the new teacher, the immediate impact on students is real and in
return rewards of teaching affects one’s life far beyond the power of imagination. Regardless
of the exact job description, locale, or any other specifics, the new teacher must be able to
adjust quickly to function in this new position that comes complete with its responsibilities.
Energy, enthusiasm, and passion for teaching are all exceptionally helpful in overcoming both
inherent challenges, and the anxieties of the unknown. Two areas of help are trusted mentors
and the ability to draw from one’s own experiences in the process of adapting to full-time
teaching.
Among the most influential champions of string teaching and heterogeneous string
programs, Jacquelyn Dillon-Krass stresses the importance of large classes between eight and
twenty-four students in a heterogeneous string orchestra from the very beginning of string
instruction. She points out the importance of securing the school administration’s support of
a string program and to keep string class sizes in those parameters in order to work within
a streamlined academic schedule.1 There are some items in a “to-do list” that are not
necessarily apparent from the job responsibilities perspective. It is likely that the new teacher
will have colleagues in the immediate region, as teachers of other schools, or feeder programs.
It is prudent to establish a schedule of regular visits, promptly establish rapport and trust with
teachers in the area, particularly of feeder schools, and collaborate. In the process of building
one’s program, or expanding an already established program, these are necessary steps.
216 Lesson 23
Contest preparation in the first year of teaching may cause undue anxiety on the part of
the new teacher. Preparing an ensemble for a high-stakes outside evaluation with immediate
and tangible results is certainly intimidating. The new teacher likely deems the contest
outcome an assessment of one’s own teaching, and such self-imposed importance of one
singular event is simply unjust and unrealistic. In fact, teaching excellence occurs on a day-to­
day basis and a high-impact event such as a scheduled concert or contest participation is
nothing but a natural extension of routine instruction. Actual preparation for those events
occurs in the teacher’s early planning and all the rest is implementing those set objectives. For
a successful outcome, programming conservatively and challenging students with achievable
goals in an organized manner is a prudent approach that has been proven successful.
Selecting appropriate repertoire for an ensemble that demonstrates insightful understanding
and encompasses diverse styles is the first meaningful step to successful concert and contest
performances, as it establishes the priorities of a thoughtful string teacher. Additionally,
reading articles written by established educators and adjudicators, such as Dr Mark Laycock’s
“Here Comes the Judge” is an expedient way to establish those priorities. For instance,
scheduling sectionals and implementing seating rotations are among many of his excellent
suggestions.2 In addition to performing the contest repertoire at a preparatory concert,
hosting an outside clinician as an adjudicator and performing a mock contest is an excellent
“dress rehearsal” for the real event. To familiarize oneself with current contest rules and to
prepare for those particular requirements will help eliminate all mysteries. When it comes to
the contest itself, it is helpful to remember that adjudicators observe not only musical aspects
but also the overall discipline of the ensemble as it relates to musical matters, and the serious
approach of the director in extra-auditory details such as delivering well-marked, well-
organized scores to judges sets the first positive steps to a successful performance.

Writing a Lesson Plan for Individual and Classroom Teaching

Individual Lesson
In preparation for the Videotaping of Individual Lesson session in Lesson 25, every student
should find a student who has not played a string instrument previously, and write a lesson
plan. For the purposes of this demonstration, students shall focus solely on the technical facet
of their lessons: proper posture and instrument hold. Every aspect of the sample lesson must
be accounted for, as adherence to time management is consequential for teaching effective­
ness. This individual sample lesson will be dedicated to introducing a string instrument of
choice, and both bow hold and right arm will be omitted. By the end of the lesson, the
student should be able to hold the instrument properly and make sound by way of plucking.
For this short lesson to be successful, the teacher must have a detailed lesson plan that needs
to be planned out and practiced.
Teachers should plan for and practice the following:

• Turn to the audience and their students.

• Speak clearly and loudly for everyone to hear.
• Introduce your student to class.
• Speak with your student using age-appropriate vocabulary.
• First, name the parts of the instrument that the student needs to know for this lesson.
• Explain all of the terminology as they go along: “pizzicato means plucking the string.”
 Lesson 23 217
• Explain and demonstrate the correct posture for the particular instrument, how to hold
it, and the left hand/arm position. If the student does not have the accurate position,
teachers must verbally and physically correct it.
• Prefer clear directions when offering feedback and avoid inexplicit words as “good” or
“great.”

Classroom Teaching
For the purposes of Videotaping of Classroom Teaching session in Lesson 25, the classroom
teaching will be assigned as per the instructor’s prerogative. As tasked by the instructor, every
teacher should write a lesson plan, in which students shall focus solely on the classroom
material. The lesson plan should spell out all objectives for the selected materials and indicate
teacher’s methodology.
Teachers should plan for and practice the following:

• Speak clearly and loudly for the entire class to hear.

• Use body and facial expressions to engage your students in a confident manner.
• Model when appropriate.
• Instruct class clearly of the task to be performed.
• Keep speech to less than 15 seconds at a time.
• Keep all ensemble members engaged, whether they are performing at the time or not.
• Recognize and correct all important issues.
• Give clear feedback both in praise and criticism, avoid unconstructive words as “great”
or “good.”
• Follow a proper teaching cycle pattern as explained in Lesson 10.
• Be prepared to conduct or model as either activity is required.

Assignment
1) Write a paragraph on first-year teaching and contest preparation, to be turned in next
class.
2) Find a student for the five-minute sample lesson.
3) Practice pizzicato and arco exercises in preparation to fourth playing test.

Notes
1 Dillon-Krass, “String Class Teaching Philosophy,” 1.
2 Laycock, “Here Comes the Judge,” 29.
Lesson 24

Contents
Videotaping of Fourth Playing Test 218

In this lesson students will demonstrate the following:

• Proper posture.
• Proper setup.
• Good tone production.

Videotaping of Fourth Playing Test

This lesson is dedicated to performing the fourth playing test. The instructor will be
videotaping the playing test and evaluating it on the spot. Each student will play the selections
which have been decided by the instructor. Each student will watch the videotape and
complete the following Self-Evaluation Form II, using the posture, setup, and tone production
guidelines established in class.
 Lesson 24 219
Videotaping Number 4

Name:_________________Instrument:___________Date:________Grades____/____

STRING PLAYING TEST RUBRIC IV

First, watch your video and read your instructor’s evaluation of your playing. Afterwards
watch your video again and fill out the below rubric. Leave correct items blank, mark any
exceptional element by a plus sign and any element in need of improvement by a minus sign.
You will receive a grade for full and accurate completion, and timely submission of this form.
The form is due at the beginning of next class.

POSTURE—INSTRUMENT HOLD, LEFT HAND, PIZZICATO POSITIONING AND

BOW HOLD

VIOLIN AND VIOLA

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ torso is square

_____ shoulders are relaxed
_____ feet are positioned correctly
_____ head is not tilted and is free of tension
_____ instrument is supported on the collarbone without tension
_____ instrument is placed parallel relative to the floor and kept with the “nose-scroll­
elbow-toe” alignment at all times
_____ wrist is straight from all angles
_____ hand is free of tension
_____ all four fingers are curved and tips of fingers are hovering right above strings
_____ thumb is at a proper height and is free of tension

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the corner of the fingerboard for secure pizzicato
anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and the tip of the thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ pinky finger is on top of stick
220 Lesson 24
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

CELLO

POSTURE, INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ seated on front four inches of seat with feet positioned correctly and flat on the floor
in a position that can allow the student to stand up at any given time
_____ endpin is at a proper length with cello at a proper angle
_____ C peg is behind left ear, neck is one fist width above left shoulder and cello is tilted
slightly to the left
_____ cello is not pinched and knees are relaxed with instrument balanced without
assistance of arms
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of thumb is lightly touching the
middle of neck
_____ first joint of thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is slightly tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is parallel to the
first finger
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the side of the fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of the
fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the index finger at a proper distance from the bridge

BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and the tip of the thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption
 Lesson 24 221
DOUBLE BASS

SITTING POSITION

_____ seated tall with left knee behind bass right foot planted firmly on the floor
_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle
_____ instrument is slightly leaning back with the right corner of the instrument in front of
the sternum with f-holes facing the conductor

STANDING POSITION

_____ standing tall, shoulders back with a straight spine

_____ endpin is at a proper length with bass at a proper angle with the right corner of
instrument in front of the sternum
_____ the instrument is positioned diagonally in-front of the player with f-holes facing the
conductor

INSTRUMENT HOLD AND LEFT HAND

_____ first finger is at eye level when placed on the first tape
_____ wrist is straight from all angles and draws a straight line from elbow to knuckles
_____ elbow height can allow the student to slide up and down on the fingerboard
_____ thumb is behind the second finger and the tip of the thumb is lightly touching the
middle of the fingerboard
_____ first joint of thumb is slightly rounded but not straightened
_____ first finger is tilted toward the fingerboard and fourth finger is reaching the fourth
finger tape with a K-shaped hand
_____ first to second and second to fourth fingers are equidistant from each other

PIZZICATO POSITIONING

_____ hand and arm are at a proper angle to play pizzicato

_____ tip of thumb is placed at the side of the fingerboard, last three- to four-inches of the
fingerboard for secure pizzicato anchoring
_____ pizzicato is played with the first joint of index finger at a proper angle

GERMAN BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ thumb, index and middle fingers are joined at the tips
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and tip of thumb is behind stick, but not on top
_____ forearm and wrist are supinated at a proper angle
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at proper distance from bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption
222 Lesson 24
FRENCH BOW HOLD

_____ shoulder is relaxed at all times

_____ elbow is relaxed and functioning smoothly
_____ wrist is slightly higher than knuckles
_____ all fingers are properly curved and spaced
_____ thumb’s first joint is curved and the tip of the thumb is wedged against end of frog
_____ forearm and wrist are slightly pronated and index finger is leaning toward the stick
_____ bow is always parallel to the bridge
_____ bow is at a proper distance from the bridge with a constant contact point
_____ arm weight and index finger produce a sustained and even tone
_____ bow direction changes are executed smoothly and without stoppage
_____ string crossings are executed smoothly and without disruption

Scale: intonation, accuracy, and fingering.

Piece: intonation, accuracy, and fingering.

Evaluation Summary: provide a summary of your playing test by writing one paragraph on
the positive elements of your playing and one paragraph on those elements in need of improvement.

1) A summary of positive elements.

2) A summary of elements in need of improvement.

Assignment
1) Complete String Playing Test Rubric VI, to be turned in next class.
2) Write your individual lesson plan and classroom lesson plan to be turned in next class.
Lesson 25

Contents
Videotaping of Individual Lesson and Classroom Teaching 223

In this lesson students will demonstrate the following:

• Proper teaching traits as discussed in Lesson 23.
• Good tone production.

Videotaping of Individual Lesson and Classroom Teaching

This lesson is dedicated to teaching a mini individual lesson to a student who does not have any
prior string instruction, and a brief classroom teaching session. The instructor will be videotaping
your teaching and evaluating it on the spot. Each student will teach the class a specific section
which has been selected by the instructor. Each student will watch the videotape and complete
the following Self-Evaluation Forms, using the guidelines established in Lesson 23.
 Lesson 25 225

Name:________________Instrument:___________Date:________Grades____/____

INDIVIDUAL LESSON RUBRIC

First, watch your video and read your instructor’s evaluation of your teaching. Afterwards
watch your video again and fill out the below rubric. Leave correct items blank, mark any
exceptional element by a plus sign and any element in need of improvement by a minus sign.
You will receive a grade for full and accurate completion, and timely submission of this form.
The form is due as per your instructor’s directions.

_____ speech clarity and volume

_____ demonstration of correct posture
_____ model as needed
_____ proper and timely use of terminology
_____ interaction and rapport with the student
_____ teaching effectiveness
_____ clear instruction of the task to be performed
_____ use of age-appropriate vocabulary
_____ appropriately and timely naming of the parts of the instrument
_____ recognize and correct all important issues
_____ provide clear directions when offering feedback

Evaluation Summary: provide a summary of your individual lesson by writing one

paragraph of the positive elements of your teaching and one paragraph on those elements in
need of improvement.

1) A summary of positive elements.

2) A summary of elements in need of improvement.

 Lesson 25 227
Name:_________________Instrument:___________Date:________Grades____/____

CLASSROOM TEACHING RUBRIC

First, watch your video and read your instructor’s evaluation of your playing. Afterwards
watch your video again and fill out the below rubric. Leave correct items blank, mark any
exceptional element by a plus sign and any element in need of improvement by a minus sign.
You will receive a grade for full and accurate completion, and timely submission of this form.
The form is due as per your instructor’s directions.

_____ speech clarity and volume

_____ use of body and facial expressions to engage students in a confident manner
_____ model as required
_____ proper use of terminology
_____ interaction and rapport with students
_____ clear instruction of the task to be performed
_____ speech is kept to less than 15 seconds at a time
_____ all ensemble members are engaged, whether they are performing at the time or not
_____ recognize and correct all important issues
_____ follow proper teaching cycle pattern
_____ clear directions both in praise and criticism when offering feedback

Evaluation Summary: provide a summary of your classroom teaching by writing one

paragraph of the positive elements of your teaching and one paragraph on those elements in
need of improvement.

1) A summary of positive elements.

2) A summary of elements in need of improvement.

228 Lesson 25
Assignment
1) Complete Individual Lesson Rubric and Classroom Teaching Rubric, to be turned in
next class.

2) Review final test preparation prior to next class.

Conclusion

Having completed this textbook, every student should have a basic understanding of all four
orchestral string instruments and be conversant in matters related to teaching strings at the
secondary level. Each student shall consider this experience as a “license to learn” as study of
string teaching is a never-ending pursuit. It is most beneficial for string teachers to take
lessons on all string instruments as part of their continuing education efforts, as gaining
deeper knowledge in every aspect of strings, the craft of conducting, and keeping up with the
latest research in pedagogy affords the teacher to be a more effective educator.
Whether a person sets out to become a string teacher from the very beginning, or has found
one’s calling later in one’s education, or was called upon to teach strings after having started
a career in a different discipline, the gift of teaching strings is a truly unique experience. It is
undoubtedly among the most rewarding careers, helping students make discoveries on these
instruments that allow them to “sing” and express themselves. In the words of master luthier
Anton Krutz, “the uniqueness of the violin family is that even though they are wood boxes with
synthetic strings the sound produced, at least on the very top level instruments, resembles
a voice quality more than any other type of instrument.”1
When it comes to building a string program and to be relevant in a community, wisdom
Jacquelyn Dillon-Krass imparts is as follows:

Basically, a good string program needs two very important ingredients — quantity and
quality. Strong programs need to have many students at many levels, and high-quality
teaching and playing are a must. There also needs to be much visibility of the program in
the community. The director needs to do much more than having students play concerts
for their parents. You need to get groups out into the local area to play for civic events,
and have them play music that appeals to the average taxpayer. If there are lots of
students playing well and loving it, your program will be on fairly solid ground.2

Finally, in the words of Shin’ichi Suzuki, “[t]alent is no accident of birth,”3 and as string
teachers we make a difference in the lives of students every day. In some cases orchestra class
is the only motivation for an at-risk student to come to school, the only band of friends the
student has, and the string teacher is the only person who facilitates this connection. There is
no greater joy, official recognition, or monetary compensation that could eclipse that knowl­
edge. Perhaps the true mission of a string teacher is to work tirelessly to foster string
education in the pursuit of providing the greatest positive influence on students to last
a lifetime.
230 Conclusion
Notes
1 Anton Krutz, email message to author, July 15, 2018.
2 Wilcox, “Music is Key,” 10.
3 Suzuki, Nurtured by Love, ix.
Appendix A

Instrument Sizing Chart

Arm length to be measured from base of neck to middle of palm while the arm is fully
stretched out. As a rule of thumb, a slightly smaller instrument is preferred to a too-large
instrument for the student. The below chart is provided as a starting point or an approxima­
tion guide, since proper fitting of an instrument will require an instructor’s scrutiny in the
pursuit of student’s comfort.

Violin Size Instrument’s Body Length1 Student’s Arm Length Student’s Likely Age

1/4 11” 18–20” 6–7

1/2 12-1/2” 20–22” 8–10
3/4 13-1/4” 22–23” 10–13
4/4 14” 24”–up 14–up

Viola Size (Body Length) Student’s Arm Length Student’s Likely Age

12” 20” 7–9

13” 21” 9–11
14” 23” 11–14
15” 24” 12–up
15-1/2” 26” 12–up
16” 26” 12–up
16-1/2” 27”–up 12–up

Cello Size Instrument’s Body Length Student’s Arm Length Student’s Likely Age

1/4 22-7/8” 18–20” 6–7

1/2 25-1/2” 20–22” 8–10
3/4 27-5/16 22–24” 10–13
4/4 29-5/8” 24”–up 14–up
232 Appendix A

Bass Size Instrument’s Body Length Student’s Arm Length Student’s Likely Age

¼ 37-1/2” 20–22” 8–10

½ 41-1/4” 22–24” 10–13
¾ 43-1/4–44-1/2” 24”–up 13–up

Figure A.1 Instrument Sizing Chart

Note
1 Knilling MENC instrument measurements from “Average Body Length in Instruments” table in
Knilling String Reference Guide, 22.
Appendix B

One and Two Octave Scales in D Major, G Major, and C Major for
a String Ensemble

Figure B.1 One octave D major scale for a string ensemble

Figure B.2 One octave G major scale for a string ensemble

Figure B.3 One octave C major scale for a string ensemble

Figure B.4 Two octave D major scale for a string ensemble

Figure B.5 Two octave G major scale for a string ensemble

Figure B.6 Two octave C major scale for a string ensemble
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Index

Ability Development from Age Zero (Suzuki) 181 Bartók pizzicato see snap pizzicato
accessories 89–94; bass stool 28; bridge 5, 93–94; bass: accessories 93; carrying and opening the case
case 16–18, 24, 111; chinrest 8–9, 25, 26, 33, 87, 16–19; finger patterns 66–68; left hand and arm
89–91, 93, 94, 105, 109, 148; C-string extension shape 29–32, 128; parts 5–9, 112; pizzicato
7; endpin 16, 21, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 87, 93, 94, position 37–38; posture 33–34; sizing 21–23;
102, 103, 105, 112, 151, 158, 159, 198, 199, 220, sitting position 28–29, 103; standing position 29,
221; endpin anchor and stop 93, 94; endpin rod 103; student suitability 18; teaching 176–79;
93, 105, 112; fine tuner (or string adjuster) tuning 23, 25, 49, 79, 81–83, 85
47–49, 87, 91; humidifier 105, 111; mute 13, 87, bass bar see internal parts of string instruments
92, 93; pegs 5–6, 23, 47, 74, 83–86, 87, 94, 95, bass bows 78, 138–39; French (Bottesini) 78;
106, 108–9, 110; peg compound 87, 94, 108, German (Simandl or Butler) 78
109; rosin 11, 13, 16, 17, 59, 62, 69, 87, 92, 94, bass stool see accessories
105, 107–8, 111; Roth-Caspari mechanical pegs Bayreuth Festspielhaus 99
7; shoulder rest 9, 13, 17, 25, 26, 33, 87, 89–90, Beethoven, Ludwig van 98–99, 135
93, 94, 148; strings 25, 108–9, 135; tailgut 8, 23, belly see instruments, parts of
87, 91; wolf tone suppressor 87, 92–93 Bergonzi (violin maker) 57
adjuster see bow, parts of blocks see internal parts of string instruments
Albinoni, Tomaso 97 bow, balance point 71
Alexander, Frederick Matthias 182 bow care 11, 16, 107–8, 111
Alexander Technique 182 bow exercises see preparatory bow exercises
all’ottava 169, 172, 176 bow grip 37–44, 50, 63, 71, 73, 74, 78, 88, 95, 111,
Amati, Andrea 56, 58 136, 139, 152, 153, 184, 185, 211, 213; see also
Amati, Giuseppe ‘del Gesù’ 56 bow hold
Amati, Nicolò 56, 57 bow hair see bow, parts of
Applebaum, Samuel 172, 175, 176, 179, 185, 206 bow hair maintenance 16, 107–8
An A to Z of Instrument Care for Players of the Violin bow hold 37–44, 50, 59–60, 63–66, 69–71, 74–76,
Family (Dorner) 107 138–39, 152–53, 165; bass 37–43, 138–39, 183;
arco exercises 99, 112, 116, 127, 137, 146, 155, cello 37–40, 139, 183; upper strings 37–43,
179, 185, 189, 195, 200, 206, 214, 217 74–76, 138–39, 183
arco playing 11, 62, 69, 74, 75, 94, 95, 96 bow maintenance see bow care
arpeggiando see bow strokes and expressions bow management 58, 106
The Art of Playing on the Violin (Geminiani) 132, 137 bow motions 11–12, 63, 146; see also bow strokes
artificial harmonics see left-hand techniques, and expressions
extended bow, parts of 10–11, 75, 78; bow hair (or hair) 11,
16, 17, 52, 59, 92, 106, 107–8; button (or
Bach, Johann Sebastian 97–98, 99, 114–15, 142, adjuster) 11; ferrule 11, 41, 69, 78, 111, 139; frog
176, 210 11–12, 34, 59, 69, 70, 71, 78, 101, 102, 104, 106,
back see instruments, parts of 107, 111, 117, 121, 139, 140, 143, 152, 157, 158,
back plate see instruments, parts of 160, 165, 187; grip 11, 71, 75, 111; slide 11, 78;
balance point see bow, balance point stick 11, 17, 59, 69, 71, 75, 78, 101, 102, 103,
bariolage see bow strokes and expressions 104, 107, 111, 138, 139, 157, 158, 159, 160, 165,
Bartók, Béla 203 197, 198, 199, 204, 219, 220, 221, 222;
240 Index
tightening screw 10, 11, 78, 93, 111; tip Collé Bowing Exercise 117–23
11, 12, 59, 70, 105, 106, 111, 139, 140, 143, Common Core 205
164, 187, 204; winding 11, 111; see also bow, common technical problems and their remedies see
balance point technical problems and their remedies
bow placement exercise 105–6, 152 concerto form 97, 168
bow selection 111 concerto grosso 97
bow schools see bow hold contact point 34, 59, 60, 69, 70, 71, 75, 102, 103,
bow strokes and expressions 4, 78, 95, 106, 117, 104, 108, 109, 113, 146, 151, 158, 159, 160, 165,
133–36, 138, 139–45, 146, 175; arpeggiando 198, 199, 220, 221, 222; sul tasto 146, 151; sul
142; bariolage 142; brush stroke 140; collé 116, ponticello 146
117–23, 124, 127, 142, 213; détaché 4, 140, 187; contest preparation 215–16, 217
hooked bowing 95, 106, 143, 209; legato slur consort 43, 97
140, 186–87; legato 139, 140, 152, 186–89; course outline 1, 4
martelé 4, 117, 140, 142; multiple stops 143; course requirements 4–5
ondeggiando 133, 139, 142, 143, 175; portato or course timeline for bow application 13
louré 139, 140, 143; retakes 143, 145, 152; Cremonese school of violin making 56–57
ricochet 141, 142, 209; sautillé 139, 141; slow or crwth 55 see also Welsh crwth
artificial spiccato 140; spiccato 4, 117, 139, 140, C-string extension see accessories
141, 146, 152, 183, 208, 209, 211–13; staccato 4,
139, 140, 209; staccato volante 141; string ‘del Gesù’ see Amati, Giuseppe ‘del Gesù’
crossings 96, 102, 104, 105, 106, 113, 128, détaché see bow strokes and expressions
132–33, 143, 149, 150, 152, 158, 159, 160, 168, Dillon-Krass, Jacquelyn 45, 123, 207, 215,
175, 198, 199, 200, 220, 221, 222; slurred 217, 229
staccato 95, 140, 141; tremolo 136, 139, 143, Dodd, John (Kew) 78
144, 146, 209; see also left-hand techniques double bass see bass
bow techniques, extended 201, 204; col legno double bass viol 97, 203
battuto and tratto 204–5 double stops see left-hand techniques
bowed chordophones 5, 51, 75
boxwood 5, 8, 90
ebony see instruments, parts of
Brahms, Johannes 99
Emergency String Repair Manual for School Orchestra
Brandenburg Concerto, Number 5 (Bach/Isaac)
Directors (Bearden) 107
114–15
end button see instruments, parts of
brazilwood 10, 111
endpin see accessories
Brescian school of violin making 46, 54–56
endpin anchors see accessories
bridge see accessories
endpin rod see accessories
bridge care 110–11
endpin stop see accessories
Bruckner, Anton 99
error detection in string conducting 113–14
brush stroke see bow strokes and expressions
button see bow, parts of
factory-made instruments 46, 58
carbon fiber 8, 9, 10, 90, 91, ferrule see bow, parts of
93, 111 f-holes see instruments, parts of
case see accessories fiddle 52
cello: accessories 93; carrying and opening the case fine tuner see accessories
16–17; finger patterns 66, 68; left hand and arm fingerboard see instruments, parts of
shape 29–32, 128; parts 5–9, 112; pizzicato fingerboard maintenance 112
position 36, 38; posture 33–34, 102, 124; sizing finger patterns 66–68
21–22; sitting position 27–28; student suitability finger tremolos see left-hand techniques
18; teaching 172–76; tuning 23, 25, 49, 79, first year teaching 205, 215–16
81–83, 85–86 Five Steps to Instrument Posture 15, 31–34, 43, 45,
chinrest see accessories 46, 47, 49, 60, 62, 73
chinrest tightening 105, 109 Flesch, Carl 59–60, 117, 127, 129, 130, 137,
chords see left-hand techniques 166, 169
Classens, Henri 172 Florentine intermedi 97
classroom setup see string orchestra setup Florida Orchestra Association 209–10, 213, 214
col legno see bow techniques, extended flying staccato see bow strokes and expressions
collé see bow strokes and expressions French (Bottesini) bow see bass bows
 Index 241
frog see bow, parts of machine head 7, 49, 85, 91; maple 5, 7, 8, 11,
fundamentals of string instruments 1, 3, 13, 60 107; neck 5, 7, 9, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 28, 29, 31,
33, 34, 51, 58, 81, 82, 90, 102, 107, 130, 148,
Gagliano 57 149, 151, 154, 158, 162, 163, 164, 165, 174, 182,
Gearhart, Fritz 59, 61, 69, 152 194, 198, 220, 231; nut (or string nut) 5, 7, 8, 23,
Geminiani, Francesco 132, 137, 237 66, 81, 86, 106, 108, 162; pegbox 5, 7, 23, 84,
German (Simandl or Butler) bow see bass bows 85, 94, 108, 109; pegs (or tuning pegs) 5–7, 23,
gigue (string instrument) 52, 54 47, 74, 83–84, 85, 87, 94, 95, 106, 108, 109, 110;
Gillespie, Robert 124, 206, 214 purfling 8, 23; ribs (or sides) 5, 7, 8, 23, 90, 151;
glissando see left-hand techniques saddle 5, 8, 23; scroll 5, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 26,
glue see internal parts of string instruments 28, 34, 101, 157, 162, 194, 197, 219; spruce 5, 7,
Gordon, Edwin E. 181, 185 9, 16, 107; strings 8, 13, 25, 51, 52, 54, 58, 59,
graded orchestra repertoire selection 208–10 92, 105, 106, 107, 108–9, 110, 111, 112, 139,
grip (bow part) see bow, parts of 183, 202, 238; tailgut 8, 23, 87, 91; tailpiece 8, 9,
Guadagnini 57 23, 91, 93, 109, 110; top plate (or belly) 5, 7, 8, 9,
Guarneri, Andrea 56 23, 92, 93; varnish 5, 7, 8, 111, 165
gut strings 139; see also accessories internal parts of string instruments: bass bar 5, 9,
25, 107; blocks 5, 7, 9, 25; glue 7, 9, 16, 107, 111;
hair see bow, parts of label 7, 9, 21, 25, 57, 61; linings 5, 7, 9, 25;
harmonics see left-hand techniques sound post 5, 7, 9, 16, 25, 105, 106, 107, 108,
Hamann, Donald H. 124 111, 112
Handel, George Frideric 98, 99
Hanslick, Eduard 125 Jaques-Dalcroze, Émile 180
hard case see accessories Joachim, Joseph 25, 45
Havas, Kató 25, 45, 182 Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series for Strings
Haydn, Joseph 98, 175 (Gordon) 181
Helmholtz, Hermann von 59
history of the string instruments 51–58 Klotz, Mathias 57
hooked bowing see bow strokes and expressions Kreisler, Fritz 132
Hřímalý, Jan 150, 166 Kriechbaum Jr., Casimer B. 124
humidifier see accessories Kodály, Zoltán 180–81

Isaac, Merle J. 114 label see internal parts of string instruments

inégales, notes (unequal notes) 139 left-hand finger patterns see finger patterns
instrument assignment 15, 16, 18–23, 183 left-hand pizzicato see left-hand techniques,
instrument case see accessories extended
instrument overview and care 15–18; how to carry left-hand techniques 128–36, 184, 210; chords
a low-strings soft instrument case 16–17; how to 134–35; double stops 133; finger tremolos
carry an upper-strings hard instrument case 16; 132–33; glissando 131; natural harmonics 133;
how to open and close a low-strings soft case 17; portamento 130–31; positions 128; shifting
how to open and close an upper-strings 128–29; shifting (teaching) 130; sulla corda 132;
instrument case 17 trills 132; vibrato 131–32
instrument sizing 162–63, 231–32 left-hand techniques, extended 201–4; artificial
instruments, parts of 5–9, 23, 25; back (or back harmonics 201; left-hand pizzicato 203–4;
plate) 5, 7, 8, 9, 23; bridge 5, 7–8, 9, 16, 17, 23, scordatura 201–2; snap pizzicato 203
26, 29, 33, 34, 59, 60, 63, 65, 70, 71, 75, 81, 86, legato see bow strokes and expressions
87, 92, 93–94, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, legato playing and its exercises 186–89; Finger
110–111, 134, 146, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163, 197, Dragging exercise 187–88; Rubber Band
198, 199, 219, 220, 221, 220, 221, 222; chinrest exercise 187–89
8–9, 25, 26, 33, 87, 89, 90–91, 93, 94, 105, 109, legato slur see bow strokes and expressions
148; C-string extension 7; ebony 5, 7, 8, 10, 78, lesson plan writing 215, 216–17; classroom
90, 93, 107, 112; end button 5, 8, 25, 33; endpin teaching 217; individual teaching 216–17
(or spike) 8, 13, 16, 21, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 87, 93, linings see internal parts of string instruments
94, 102, 103; endpin rod 93, 105, 112; f-holes 5, lira da braccio 54
7, 9, 23, 28, 29, 93, 103, 110, 111, 159, 163, 198, louré see bow strokes and expressions
199, 221; fingerboard 7, 23, 105, 112, 164; lyra 52
242 Index
machine head see instruments, parts of pedagogical understanding of string teaching
Maggini, Gio[vanni] Paolo 56 180–82
Mahler, Gustav 99 pegbox see instruments, parts of
Mannheim school 98 peg compound see accessories
maple see instruments, parts of peg maintenance 105, 109
Markneukirchen 58 pegs see accessories
martelé see bow strokes and expressions “Pendulum” exercise 46, 49–50, 51, 60, 62–63,
method books 205–7; for the heterogeneous string 73, 148
class 201, 205–7; use of classroom method books Performing Arts Medicine Association (PAMA)
in the studio 166 127, 182
Mirecourt 57, 58 Pernambuco 8, 10, 14, 111
Mittenwald school of violin making 58, 61 Phillips, Bob 206, 208
Montichiaro, Peregrino 56 pizzicato 15, 34–38, 62, 94, 101, 102, 103, 136,
Montichiaro, Zanetto da 54–56 157, 158, 159, 197, 198, 199, 216, 219, 220, 221;
moving students between instruments 180, cello 36, 49, 102, 158, 198, 220; double bass
182–84; cello and bass 183–84; upper strings 36–38, 49, 50, 94, 103, 159, 199, 221; upper
and low strings 184; violin and viola 183 strings 35, 47–49, 101, 157, 197, 219
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 98, 142, 179 181, pizzicato exercises 43, 46, 60, 73, 86, 94, 99, 104,
202, 204 112, 116, 127, 137, 146, 155, 160, 179, 185, 189,
multiple stops see bow strokes and expressions 195, 200, 206, 214, 217
Musical Aptitude Profile (Gordon) 181 point of contact 60; see also contact point
A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children portamento see left-hand techniques
(Gordon) 181, 185 portato see bow strokes and expressions
mute see accessories positions see left-hand techniques
posture and instrument hold 4, 5, 15, 25–26, 27,
Nanny, Edouard 153, 176, 177, 179 31–33, 45, 46, 47, 49, 60, 62, 73, 75, 100, 101,
Nanny system 177–78 102, 113, 124, 147, 148, 151–52, 156, 157, 158,
National Association of Schools of Music 182, 184, 196, 197, 198, 205, 216, 217, 218, 219,
(NASM) 127 220, 225; cello left hand and left arm shape 29,
natural harmonics 78, 79–83, 86, 87, 133 32, 68, 173; cello sitting position 27–28, 151;
neck see instruments, parts of double bass left hand and left arm shape 29, 32,
A New Approach to Violin Playing (Havas) 182 68; double bass sitting position 28–29, 198, 221;
New York Philharmonic 99 double bass standing position 29, 199, 221;
“nose-scroll-elbow-toe” 26, 34, 101, 157 upper strings left hand and left arm shape 29–31;
197, 219 upper strings sitting position 25, 26–27, 147;
Nurtured by Love: The Classic Approach to Talent upper strings standing position 25–27, 45; see also
Education (Suzuki) 181, 230 Five Steps to Instrument Posture
nut see instruments, parts of practice skills 1, 3
pre-bowing exercises 60, 190; see also preparatory
observing a secondary-school string program 5, bow exercises
180, 184–85, 186; a presentation and preparatory bow exercises 13, 15, 37–45, 50–51,
a discussion of the observation 186 60, 63–66, 71, 73, 74–75, 86, 94, 99, 104, 112,
ondeggiando see bow strokes and expressions 152; Air Drawing exercise 50, 71, 74, 75, 76;
orchestral performance practices 127, 128, Opening and Closing the Imaginary File
135, 143 Cabinet exercise 63, 64, 88, 95; Swimming
Orff, Carl 181 Octopus Exercise 50–52, 63, 71, 75, 88, 95, 187;
Orff-Schulwerk: Music for Children (Orff and Three-Step Low-String, and Four-Step Upper-
Keetman) 181 String Pencil Bow Hold exercise 37–41, 43,
over-programming, how to avoid 208, 50, 63, 74–75, 88, 95
210–11 Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing (Flesch) 59,
overtones 93, 146 117, 127
publishers 208; Alfred 208, 114, 206; Carl
Fischer 153, 173, 179, 206; Highland/Etling
Paganini, Nicolò 56, 61, 141, 142, 202, 204
114; Schott 171
paper towel roll exercise 63–66, 71, 88–89, 95–96,
purchasing 13–14
151, 152
purfling see instruments, parts of
 Index 243
Rabbath, François 177 sound post see internal parts of string instruments
Rabbath system 177–178 sound post adjustment 105, 106, 107, 112
rebab 52 spiccato see bow strokes and expressions
rebec 52, 54, 75 spiccato exercises 211–13
rehearsal planning 116 spike see accessories
rehearsal techniques 113–15; see also error detection spike fiddles 51–52, 60, 75
in string conducting Spohr, Louis 75, 90, 91, 94, 131, 139, 167
repertoire selection see graded orchestra repertoire spruce see instruments, parts of
selection staccato see bow strokes and expressions
retakes see bow strokes and expressions staccato volante see bow strokes and expressions
ribs see instruments, parts of Stage Fright: Its Causes and Cures, with Special Reference to
Richter, Franz Xaver 98 Violin Playing (Havas) 182
ricochet see bow strokes and expressions Stainer, Jacob 57, 98
Rimsky-Korsakov 133, 136, 141, 143, Stamitz, Johann 98
145, 204 stick see bow, parts of
ritornello 97, 114 stick-and-slip cycle 59
Rolland, Paul 25, 26, 45, 124, 148, 181–182 Stokowski, Leopold 125
rosewood 5, 8, 10, 90 Stradivari, Antonio 56, 57, 61, 75
rosin see accessories Stradivarius see Stradivari, Antonio
rosining the bow 17, 69 string adjuster see accessories
Roth-Caspari mechanical pegs see accessories string bass see bass
Rugeri 57 string class setup, heterogeneous 15, 17–18; see also
seating and classroom setup
Sacconi, Fernando 8 string crossings see bow strokes and expressions
Sacconi tailpiece adjuster 8, 91 string crossing exercises 88, 96, 106
saddle see instruments, parts of string instrument vendors 58, 107; Knilling 107,
Salò, Gasparo da 56 232; Scherl & Roth 107; Shar 107; Southwest
Sarasate, Pablo de 204 Strings 107; Yamaha 107
Sautillé see bow strokes and expressions string maintenance 105, 108
scales for a string ensemble 233–36 string nut see instruments, parts of
Schmidt, Rodney 105, 112 string orchestra setup 123–27
Schubert, Franz 99 string quartet 98–99, 203
Schumann, Robert 99, 172 String Reference Guide (Knilling) 107
scordatura see left-hand techniques, extended string replacement 105, 108–9, 110
scroll see instruments, parts of strings see accessories
selection and maintenance of string instruments, sulla corda see left-hand techniques
bows, and strings 105, 106–7 Suzuki method 181
Ševčík, Otakar 132, 153, 155, 166, 169, Suzuki, Shin’ichi 25, 45, 181
170, 174 symphony form 98
Seybold, Arthur 150, 167, 168, 170, 171
shifting 4, 113, 128–30, 132, 137, 150, 168, 177, 195, tailgut see accessories
209; shifting exercises 190–91; pre-shifting tailpiece see accessories
exercises 34, 154, 190–191; see also left-hand Teaching Cycle 115–16
techniques The Teaching of Action in String Playing: Developmental
shifting problems see technical problems and their and Remedial Techniques [for] Violin and Viola
remedies (Rolland and Mutschler) 45, 182
shoulder rest see accessories teaching shifting 130, 190
sides see instruments, parts of teaching trills 194–95
Simandl, Franz 78, 153, 176, 177, 178 teaching vibrato 190
Simandl system 177–78 technical problems and their remedies 3, 147–55;
Sitt, Hans 150, 170 bow hold issues 152–53; intonation issues 153;
slide see bow, parts of left hand and arm issues with low strings 151; left
slow spiccato see bow strokes and expressions hand and arm issues with upper strings 148–50;
slurred staccato see bow strokes and expressions posture and instrument setup issues of upper
snap pizzicato see left-hand techniques, extended strings 147–48; setup issues of low strings 151;
soft case see accessories shifting issues 154; tone production issues
151–52; trill issues 154–55; vibrato issues 153–54
244 Index
tightening screw see bow, parts of Viennese Classicism 98–99
tightening the bow 69 viol 43, 52, 53, 139
tip see bow, parts of viola: accessories 89–93; carrying, opening and
tone production 4, 5, 37, 46, 58–60, 69, 100, 107, closing the case 16–17; finger patterns 66–67;
117, 121, 127, 132, 147, 151, 152, 156, 183, 184, left hand and arm shape 29–31; parts 5–9;
196, 218, 223 pizzicato position 35; posture 33–34, 101, 124;
top plate see instruments, parts of sizing 18–20; sitting position 26–27; standing
Tourte, François Xavier 75, position 25–26, 27; student’s suitability 18;
78, 139 teaching 169–72; tuning 23, 25, 47–49, 81,
Tourte, Nicolas Léonard 75 84–85
Tourte, Pierre 75 viola da braccio 54
Tourte-style mute 92, 93; see also accessories viola da gamba 54, 98
tremolo see bow strokes and expressions violin: accessories 89–93; carrying, opening and
trill exercises 154–55, 190, 194–95 closing the case 16–17; finger patterns 66–67;
trill problems see technical problems and their left hand and arm shape 29–31; parts 5–9;
remedies pizzicato position 35; posture 33–34, 101, 124;
trills see left-hand techniques sizing 18–20; sitting position 26–27; standing
tuning 5, 7, 23, 46, 47–50, 54, 60, 62, 73, 74, position 25–26, 27; student suitability 18;
78–86, 87, 95, 109, 110, 133, 165, 174, teaching 166–69; tuning 23, 25, 47–49, 81,
179, 183, 201, 202–3; arco tuning 47, 87, 84–85
95; natural-harmonic tuning with first Violinschule (Spohr) 75–78, 131
through third partials 82–83; pizzicato violoncello see cello
tuning 47, 50, 60, 62, 73, 81, 87; tuning violone see double bass viol
with the first partial 80–81, 174, 179; tuning Vivaldi, Antonio 97, 179
with pegs 47, 83–86, 87 Vuillaume, Jean-Baptiste 57
tuning pegs see parts of string instruments
The Twelve Lesson Course: A New Approach to Violin Wagner, Richard 99
Playing (Havas) 182 Welsh crwth 52; see also crwth
Whistler, Harvey S. 150, 166, 168, 171, 172, 174,
varnish see instruments, parts of 176, 183
vibrato 4, 34, 60, 131–32, 149, 153–55, 169, 183, Wohlfahrt 166, 167, 170
190, 192–95, 209, 210; pre-vibrato exercises wolf tone 92–93
190, 192–93; vibrato exercises 34, 154, 155, wolf tone suppressor see accessories
193–94 WS&P recipe 59, 69–70
vibrato problems see technical problems and their
remedies
Vienna Philharmonic 99 Young, Phyllis 173