Reproduction

and
Growth
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 02 03
Introduction Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

04 05
The Menstural Cycle Pregancy and Development
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
06 07 08
Prenatal Care Posnatal Care Methods of
Reproduction and Growth Contraception

09 10
Sexually Transmitted Growth Patters in Living
Infections Organisms
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
11 12
Human Population Growth Review Questions
01 Introduction
Reproduction and Growth
 Reproduction and Growth

All living organisms must. produce offspring

in order for their species to survive There are
two types of reproduction:

● asexual reproduction

● sexual reproduction.

Offspring produced during reproduction

must then grow and develop before they in
turn can reproduce.
02 Asexual
Reproduction
 Asexual Reproduction

Identical Offspring
02 Offspring are genetically
identical to the parent, no
variation. Offspring are
produced by a type of cell
One Parent, No Gametes
Involves only one parent 01 disivion known as mitosis.

and does not require

gametes (sex cells).
Fast Process
03 Rapid reproduction,
producing large numbers of
offspring quickly.
 Cell Division and Asexual Reproduction

During cell division known as mitosis, each chromosome in the nucleus of the parent cell
duplicates itself. The nucleus then divides, with the chromosomes split equally between the two
newly formed nuclei. The cytoplasm then divides to form two genetically identical cells, known as
daughter cells..
Cell Division and Asexual Reproduction
 Methods of Asexual Reproduction
There are several different methods of asexual reproduction, and all offspring produced asexually from one parent
are collectively called a clone. Asexual reproduction in plants is known as vegetative reproduction and humans can
make use of this process to artificially propagate (produce) plants.

• Budding. This occurs in some unicellular organisms, e.g., yeast and bacteria, and some simple animals, e.g., coral
polyps, jellyfish and hydra. In these animals, the new individuals develop from buds produced by cells dividing
repeatedly by mitosis in specialized areas of the animal’s body.
 Methods of Asexual Reproduction
• Storage organs. Some plants use underground storage organs to reproduce, including corms, e.g., eddo,
rhizomes, e.g., ginger, bulbs, e.g., onion, and tubers, e.g., sweet potato and yam. These contain stored food and
allow plants to survive during unfavorable conditions, e.g., the dry season or winter. When conditions improve,
several new plants can grow from a single organ using the stored food.
 Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Runners: Some plants produce runners, e.g., savannah grass and spider plant. These are horizontal stems that grow
from the base of the parent plant and have buds at their tips that develop into new plants.
 Methods of Asexual Reproduction
• Cuttings. Farmers and gardeners can artificially propagate plants such as sugar cane and hibiscus by taking
cuttings. These are parts of plants, usually stems, which develop roots and shoots to become new plants if
given suitable conditions.

• Grafting. Farmers and gardeners can graft a shoot, known as the scion, from a plant showing a desirable
characteristic, such as bearing large fruits, onto the stem of an established root system, known as the rootstock.
Citrus and mango trees are usually grafted.

• Tissue culture is used to artificially propagate plants such as orchids, potatoes and tomatoes. Small pieces of
tissue called explants are taken from a parent plant and grown in a nutrient-rich culture medium, under sterile
conditions, to form cell masses known as calluses. Each callus is then stimulated with appropriate plant
hormones to grow into a new plant.

If cuttings, the scion and rootstock, or explants are taken from plants with desirable characteristics, e.g., a high yield,
high quality, resistance to disease or fast growth rate, then all plants produced will have the same desirable
characteristics. This is useful to farmers when producing crops.
 Cloning in Animals

To clone an animal, a nucleus is removed from an ovum of a female donor. A cell, still containing its nucleus, is taken
from the animal to be cloned and is fused with the ovum. This new ovum is placed into a surrogate mother where it
is stimulated to develop into an embryo. The surrogate then gives birth to a new individual that is genetically
identical to the animal from which the original cell came. A very low percentage of cloned embryos survive to birth,
and those that do often have health problems.
03 Sexual
Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction
Variation in
Offspring
02 Offsprings inherit genes
from both parents, so they
show variations.
Two Parent, Gametes
Involves male and female 01
parents with gametes (sex
cells)
Slow Process
03 Takes more time, fusion of
male and female gamete,
fertillisation to form a single
cell zygote and embryo
developent, so fewer
offspring.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Flowering plants produce flowers for sexual reproduction. A flower consists of an expanded stem tip, the receptacle,
which usually bears four whorls (rings) of flower parts: sepals, petals, stamens and one or more carpels in the center.

Most flowers contain both female and male reproductive parts. The female parts are the carpels. These produce one
or more ovules, which contain the female gametes. The male parts are the stamens. These produce pollen grains,
which contain the male gametes.
 Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of flowers.

There are two types of pollination

• Self- Pollination : occurs when a pollen grain is transferred from an anther to a stigma of the same flower
or to a stigma of another flower on the same plant.

• Cross- Pollination : occurs when a pollen grain is transferred from an anther of a flower on one plant to a
stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species.

Cross-pollination has certain advantages over self-pollination:

• It leads to greater variation within the offspring, which increases their chances of survival in changing
environments.

• Some offspring may have superior characteristics to both parents, e.g. greater resistance to disease.

• The seeds produced tend to be more viable, meaning they can survive longer before germination and are
more likely to germinate.
 Pollination
Agents of pollination carry the pollen grains between flowers. These include the wind, insects and some birds, e.g.
hummingbirds. Flowers are usually adapted to be pollinated either by wind or by insects.
 Fertilization
After pollination has occurred, the male gamete has to reach the female gamete for fertilization to occur.
 What Happens after Fertilization
After fertilization:

• Each ovule develops into a seed. The zygote divides by mitosis forming the embryo which is composed of three
parts: the plumule or embryonic shoot, the radicle or embryonic root, and one or two cotyledons that usually
store food. The embryo is surrounded by the seed coat or testa. Water is withdrawn from the seed, and it
becomes dormant.

• The ovary wall develops into the fruit which may be succulent (fleshy), e.g., mango and tomato, or dry, e.g., pride
of Barbados and pigeon pea. A fruit contains one or more seeds. Fruits protect the seeds, and they help to
disperse (spread) the seeds they contain.
 Sexual Reproduction in Humans
The female gametes are called ova, and they are produced in two ovaries which form part of the female
reproductive system. Usually, one mature ovum is released from one of the ovaries each month between puberty
and menopause
Production of an Ovum in an Ovary
 The Male Reproductive Organ
The male gametes are called sperm or spermatozoa, and they are produced continuously from puberty in the testes,
which form part of the male reproductive system.
The Structure of an Ovum and a Sperm Cell
04 The Menstural Cycle
 The Menstrual Cycle
This is a cycle of about 28 days which begins when a female reaches puberty. The cycle comprises two main events:

• Ovulation, which is the release of an ovum from an ovary.

• Menstruation, which is the loss of the uterus lining from the body. This starts to occur about 14 days after
ovulation if fertilization has not occurred

The start of each cycle is taken from the start of menstruation, and it is controlled by several hormones, including
• Oestrogen
• Progesterone

These hormones are responsible for the synchronization of the production of an ovum in and ovary with the uterus
lining being made ready to receive it if fertilized.
 The Menstrual Cycle
Oestrogen:

• Produced by the Graafian Follicle, in the second week of the cycle

• Stimulates the uterus lining to thicken and its blood supply to increase after menstruation

Progesterone:

• Produced by the corpus luteum during the third week of the cycle.

• It causes the uterus lining to increase slightly in thickness and remain thick.

• In the event that fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates during the forth week.

• This causes reduction in the secretion of progesterone., which in turn causes the uterus lining to break down.
A Summary of the
Events during the
Menstrual Cycle
Menopause
Menopause occurs in females in the age range of 40 to 50 years
old.

During menopause, there is a decrease in the secretion of

Oestrogen and Progesterone, which means that the production
of a mature ova and menstruation stops, and a female can no
longer become pregnant.
 Pregnancy and
05 Development
How Pregnancy Occurs
Bringing sperm and ova together

As a male becomes sexually excited, blood spaces in the penis fill with blood.

Semen, which is composed of sperm and secretions from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland is
ejaculated into the top of the vagina by muscular contractions of the tubules of the epididymis
and sperm duct.

The sperm swims through the cervix and uterus and into the fallopian tubes.

Fertilization:

If an ovum is present in one of the fallopian tubes, one sperm enters, leaving its tail outside. A
fertilization membrane immediately develops around the ovum to prevent other sperm from
entering and the nuclei of the ovum and successful sperm fuse to from a zygote.
How Pregnancy Occurs
Implantation:

The zygote divides and repeatedly

to from a ball of cells called the
embryo, which moves down the
fallopian tube and sinks into the
uterus lining. This process is called
implantation.

Food and Oxygen diffuse from the

mother’s blood into the embryo,
and carbon dioxide and waster
diffuse back into the mother’s
blood.
Pregnancy and Development
The cells of the embryo continue to
divide, and some develop in the placenta,
which is a disc of tissue with finger-like
projections called villi projecting into the
uterus lining.

The embryo is joined to the placenta by

the umbilical cord, which has umbilical
artery and umbilical vein running through
it. These connect the capillaries in the
embryo with capillaries that run
throughout the placenta.

The role of the placenta is to allow the

exchange materials between the mother’s
blood and the embryo’s blood.

The developing embryo is surrounded by

thin, tough membrane called amnion
which forms a sac containing amniotic
fluid.
BIRTH
The process of birth
How Babies are Born

The fetus turns so it lies head down. Secretion of progesterone by

the placenta is reduced and this stimulates the pituitary gland to
secrete the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates muscles in the
uterus wall to start contracting, i.e., labor begins. The amnion
bursts and the contractions strengthen and cause the cervix to
gradually dilate. When fully dilated, strong contractions push the
baby, head first, through the cervix and vagina. The baby starts to
breathe, and the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. The placenta is
then expelled as the afterbirth by further contractions of the
uterus wall.
Prenatal and
Postnatal Care
Prenatal Care 06
Prenatal care, or care before birth, is essential to ensure the fetus grows and develops normally and healthily, and
that the mother remains healthy throughout her pregnancy. During pregnancy, the mother must:

• Attend regular prenatal checkups with her doctor or clinic to monitor her health and the development of her
baby.

• Have two ultrasound scans, if possible, one at about 6 to 8 weeks and the other at about 18 to 20 weeks. These
scans use high-frequency sound waves to create an image of the baby to monitor its growth and development,
and to detect any abnormalities.

• Eat a balanced diet which contains adequate quantities of protein, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals,
especially calcium and iron, to ensure the fetus obtains all the nutrients it needs to grow and develop.

• Not use drugs of any kind, especially alcohol, cigarettes and illegal drugs, which will harm the developing fetus,
and she must protect herself against harmful X-rays and infectious diseases.

• Exercise regularly to maintain fitness.

• Prepare her body for the birth by attending prenatal classes which teach correct exercises and breathing rhythms
as well as how to care for her baby after the birth.
Postnatal Care 07
Postnatal care, or care after birth, is essential to ensure the baby grows and develops healthily, and that the mother
remains both physically and emotionally healthy.

• The newborn baby should be breastfed, if possible, for a minimum of 6 months because: Breast milk contains all the
nutrients the baby needs in the correct proportions.

• Breast milk contains antibodies that protect the baby against bacterial and viral diseases.

• Breast milk is sterile so reduces the risk of infection, is at the correct temperature and is available whenever needed.

• Breastfeeding lowers the baby’s risk of developing asthma, allergies and other non-communicable diseases as it
grows older.

• Breastfeeding creates a strong emotional bond between mother and baby.

• The newborn baby should be kept warm and clean, have plenty of interaction with both parents and its
surroundings, and be taken for regular check-ups with the doctor. As the baby grows it should be vaccinated to
immunize it against infectious diseases, weaned onto semi-solid and solid food, cared for physically and
emotionally, and given continual teaching.

• The mother should continue to eat a balanced diet, not use drugs of any kind, exercise regularly andbe given both
physical and emotional support.
Birth Control
(Contraception) 08
Methods of Contraception
Various methods are available to
prevent pregnancy from occurring.
They are designed to prevent
fertilization or to prevent
implantation, and they can be natural,
barrier, hormonal or surgical. Two
methods, abstinence and the
condom, also protect against the
spread of sexually transmitted
infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS.

When choosing a method, its

reliability, availability, side effects and
whether both partners are
comfortable using it must be
considered.
Note that one disadvantage of all
methods except abstinence and
condoms is that they do not protect
against sexually transmitted
infections.
 Sexually Transmitted
09 Infections (S.T.I.s)
Infections passed on during sexual intercourse are called sexually transmitted infections or STIs. When controlling any of
these diseases, the aim is to prevent further development and spread of the disease so that its incidence in the
population is gradually reduced. Treating a disease is always one method to control it.

Methods of preventing and controlling STIs vary; however, some methods can be used to prevent and control all STIs.
These include:

• Set up education programmed.

• Abstain from sexual intercourse or keep to one, uninfected sexual partner.

• Use condoms during sexual intercourse.

• Trace and treat all sexual contacts of infected persons.

 Growth Patters in
10 Living Organisms
 Growth is a permenent increase
in the size of an organism.
Growth can be measured by measuring changes in various
growth parameters, e.g., height, length, mass or number of
organisms in a population over time. If the parameter is
then plotted against time, a growth curve is obtained that
is similar for most organisms and populations and is
described as being sigmoid or S-shaped.
 Germination and Growth in
Annual Plants
Germination is the process by which the embryonic plant in
a seed grows into a seedling.

A seed contains the embryo of the plant, which consists of

the radicle and plumule joined to one or two cotyledons.
In a seed such as a bean or pea seed, the two cotyledons
contain stored food that is used by the radicle and
plumule (embryonic plant) during germination.
 Germination and Growth in Annual Plants
Seeds require three conditions to germinate:

• Water to activate the enzymes so that chemical reactions can occur.

• Oxygen for aerobic respiration to produce energy.
• A suitable temperature, usually between about 5 °C and 40 °C, to activate enzymes.

Water is absorbed through the micropyle causing the seed to swell and activating enzymes. The
enzymes break down stored insoluble food in the cotyledons into soluble food that the radicle and
plumule use for respiration and growth. As the radicle grows, it emerges from the testa and grows
downwards. The plumule then emerges and grows upwards.
 Germination and Growth in Annual Plants
Annual plants complete their life cycle in one year, e.g. balsam and marigolds. Their seeds
germinate at the beginning of the growing season, usually the summer months or rainy
season. After germination, growth continues through the growing season as the plants
make their own food by photosynthesis, produce flowers and reproduce. Once seeds have
been produced and dispersed, the plants die, and their seeds remain dormant (inactive)
until the next growing season when they germinate. Many crops are annuals, e.g. beans,
peas, maize (corn) and other grains.
 Growth of Humans
Humans have two phases when growth is rapid, one whilst in the womb and during infancy
up to about 2 years, and the other during puberty somewhere between 11 and 16 years.
Between infancy and puberty, growth is slower, but steady, and once adulthood is reached,
growth stops. Most people then become slightly shorter in old age because the discs in
their vertebral column (see page 63) compress slightly.
Human Population
Growth 11
The world human population is currently in the phase of rapid growth. It is growing at about
1.1% per year and has grown from 1 billion in 1804 to 7 billion in 2011. It is expected to reach
just over 9 billion by 2040.

The effect of human population growth\

Predictions are that if this rapid growth of the human population continues it will:
• Cause shortages of food, water, other natural resources, and land for housing, crops and
livestock.
• Increase pollution and the destruction of the environment.
• Increase overcrowding and the spread of disease.
• Increase unemployment and poverty.
• Decrease living standards and the quality of life.
Education and using birth control can help to reduce population growth, which should
increase the availability of food, water and other natural resources, reduce pollution, the
destruction of the environment, overcrowding, the spread of disease, unemployment and
poverty, and increase living standards and the overall quality of life.
 Effects of Teenage Pregnancy
Teenage pregnancy is contributing significantly to human population growth; it is estimated that about 16
million girls under 18 years of age give birth every year. Teenage pregnancy is also associated with risks to
both the teenage mother and her baby including:

• Increased health risks for mother and baby, usually due to inadequate prenatal care and the teenager’s
body not being fully mature.
• Babies being born prematurely and often with low birth weights, leading to several health issues.
• Children born to teenage mothers growing up with increased social, emotional and health problems.
• Teenage mothers suffering social consequences such as not finishing their education, being single
parents, and abusing alcohol and other drugs.
Revision Question
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