Chapter 84: Voting Behaviour

Voting behaviour, also known as electoral behaviour, is a specific form of political behaviour. It
refers to the manner in which voters respond to electoral choices in a democratic political
system. It encompasses not only the act of voting but also the attitudes, preferences,
motivations and decision-making processes that guide voters during elections.
Scholars have defined voting behaviour from different perspectives:
• Plano and Riggs describe it as a field of study concerned with the ways in which people
tend to vote in public elections and the reasons behind their voting choices.
• Gordon Marshall emphasises that the study focuses on determinants that shape why
people vote as they do and how electoral decisions are formed.
• Oinam Kulabidhu views voting behaviour as the explicit expression of voters’ choices,
preferences, ideologies, concerns, agreements and programmes regarding societal and
national issues.
Thus, voting behaviour represents a bridge between individual political
attitudes and collective democratic outcomes.
Psephology and the Study of Voting Behaviour
The scientific study of voting behaviour is known as psephology, a branch of political science.
Key aspects:
• The term psephology is derived from the Greek word “psephos”, meaning a piece of pottery
used in ancient Greece for recording votes.
• The recorded history of voting dates back to the Greek Polis, where citizens voted directly
on public matters.
• The modern discipline of psephology was popularised by American political scientists and
sociologists.
Psephology applies empirical methods to analyse:
• Voting patterns
• Electoral trends
• Behavioural shifts across elections
It helps explain how social structure, political culture and leadership influence electoral
outcomes.
Significance of the Study of Voting Behaviour
The study of voting behaviour is significant for understanding both democracy and society.
It helps in:
• Understanding the process of political socialisation and how political attitudes are formed.
 • Examining the extent to which democracy is internalised as a value by both elites and
masses.
• Highlighting the transformative power of the ballot box as an instrument of peaceful
political change.
• Assessing whether electoral politics represents continuity or change from past political
traditions.
• Measuring whether political development is driven by modern factors or primordial
loyalties.
According to N. G. S. Kini, voting behaviour can be viewed as:
• A mode of legitimising democratic rule
• An act of political participation and integration into the political community
• A decision-making act
• A role-action shaped by political culture
• A direct relationship between citizens and formal government
Thus, voting behaviour is central to democratic legitimacy and governance.
Determinants of Voting Behaviour in India
Indian society is highly diverse in its social composition. As a result, voting behaviour in India is
influenced by multiple factors, which can broadly be grouped into socio-economic
factors and political factors.
Caste
Caste is one of the most influential determinants of voting behaviour in India.
Key features:
• The politicisation of caste and casteisation of politics is a defining feature of Indian
democracy.
• Political parties design electoral strategies by carefully considering caste equations.
Rajni Kothari observed that:
• Indian politics is casteist, and caste itself has become politicised.
Paul Brass highlighted that:
• At the local level, caste solidarity remains the most decisive factor.
• Large castes tend to support candidates from their own caste or parties aligned with their
caste interests.
Caste-based voting has contributed to:
• Rise of caste-oriented parties
• Fragmentation of electoral mandates
Religion
Religion significantly influences voting behaviour despite India’s secular constitutional
framework.
Characteristics:
• Political parties often exploit religious sentiments during elections.
• Communal propaganda and mobilisation affect voter preferences.
• The existence of communal and religion-based parties reinforces religious voting patterns.
Thus:
• No major political party completely ignores religious considerations in electoral politics.
Language
Language plays an important role in shaping electoral preferences.
Key aspects:
• Political parties appeal to linguistic identities during elections.
• Linguistic reorganisation of states in 1956 and later strengthened language-based political
consciousness.
Impact:
• Emergence of regional parties like:
◦ DMK in Tamil Nadu
◦ TDP in Andhra Pradesh
Language thus acts as a powerful marker of political identity.
Region
Regionalism and sub-regionalism strongly influence voting behaviour.
Features:
• Regional parties mobilise voters based on:
◦ Regional identity
◦ Local grievances
• Sub-national sentiments may sometimes dominate national considerations.
In extreme cases:
• Secessionist or extremist groups may even call for election boycotts.
Regional voting patterns reflect India’s federal diversity.
Personality of Leaders
Charismatic leadership is a major determinant of voting behaviour.
Characteristics:
• Voters are often influenced more by leaders than by party ideology.
• Charisma creates emotional appeal and personal loyalty.
Examples at national level:
• Jawaharlal Nehru
• Indira Gandhi
• Rajiv Gandhi
• Jayaprakash Narayan
 • Atal Bihari Vajpayee
• Narendra Modi
At the state level:
• Charismatic regional leaders play a similar role in shaping electoral outcomes.
Money Power
Money plays a significant role in influencing voting behaviour.
Key aspects:
• Large sums of money are spent during elections despite legal expenditure limits.
• Voters may be induced through:
◦ Cash
◦ Liquor
◦ Goods
This leads to:
• Vote-buying practices
• Distortion of democratic choice
However:
• Money is less effective during wave elections, where broader political sentiments
dominate.
Wave Elections
A wave election refers to an election characterised by a strong, uniform trend in favour of a
party or leader.
According to Paul Brass:
• A wave election develops when issues transcend local considerations.
• Voters across regions shift in one direction due to:
◦ National issues
◦ Leadership appeal
◦ Mass political communication
In such elections:
• Local factors like money and caste become relatively less influential.
Performance of the Ruling Party
The electorate evaluates the ruling party based on its performance.
Key elements:
• Election manifestos act as benchmarks for evaluation.
• Failure to fulfil promises leads to voter dissatisfaction.
The anti-incumbency factor refers to:
• Public dissatisfaction with the ruling party’s governance.
Examples:
 • Defeat of Congress in 1977
• Defeat of Janata Party in 1980
Thus, governance outcomes directly affect voting behaviour.
Party Identification
Party identification refers to:
• Emotional and psychological attachment of voters to a political party.
Features:
• Long-term loyalty
• Voting irrespective of party performance
Such voters:
• Support their preferred party despite shortcomings.
This factor provides stability to party support bases.
Ideology
Ideology influences voters who hold strong political beliefs.
Examples of ideological commitments:
• Communism
• Capitalism
• Democracy
• Secularism
• Nationalism
• Decentralisation
Such voters:
• Prefer parties aligned with their ideological worldview.
However:
• Ideological voting is limited to a relatively smaller section of the electorate.
Other Influencing Factors
In addition to major determinants, several other factors affect voting behaviour:
• Political events preceding elections:
◦ Wars
◦ Assassination of leaders
◦ Corruption scandals
• Economic conditions:
◦ Inflation
◦ Unemployment
◦ Food shortages
• Factionalism within parties
• Candidate-specific factors
 • Election campaign strategies
• Political family background
• Role of mass media and social media
These factors often operate together rather than in isolation.
Analytical and Exam-Relevant Observations
Voting behaviour in India reflects:
• Social diversity
• Political pluralism
• Interaction between tradition and modernity
Indian electoral behaviour cannot be explained by a single theory:
• It is shaped by caste, class, ideology, leadership, performance and context.
For UPSC mains answers, voting behaviour is relevant to:
• Democratic participation
• Electoral reforms
• Political culture
• Role of identity in politics
Understanding voting behaviour is essential to understand how Indian democracy actually
functions on the ground, beyond constitutional and institutional structures.