CHAPTER 1 Chemical Reactions and Equations

 Whenever a chemical change occurs, we can say that a chemical reaction has taken place.
 magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame and changes into a white powder. This
powder is magnesium oxide.
 any of the following observations helps us to determine whether a chemical reaction has taken
place :- change in state , change in colour ,evolution of a gas , change in temperature.
 Zn + H2 SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
 Types of reaction
o Combination Reaction :- a reaction in which a single product is formed from two or more
reactants
 CaO(s) (Quick lime) + H2 O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) (Slaked lime) + Heat
 A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction 1.13 is used for whitewashing
walls. Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a
thin layer of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is formed after
two to three days of whitewashing and gives a shiny finish to the walls.
 Burning of coal , Formation of water
o Exothermic :- Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products
are called exothermic chemical reactions.
o Other examples of exothermic reactions are
 (i) Burning of natural gas CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O (g)
 (ii) Respiration C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (aq) → 6CO2 (aq) + 6H2 O(l) +
energy (Glucose)
 The decomposition of vegetable matter into compost
o Decomposition :- a single reactant breaks down to give simpler products
 2FeSO4 (s) Heat  →  (Ferrous sulphate) Fe2 O3 (s) + SO2 (g) + SO3
(g) (Ferric oxide)
 CaCO3 (s) (Limestone) Heat  →  CaO(s) + CO2 (g) (Quick lime)
 Cao is used in the manufacture of cement.
 2Pb(NO3 )2 (s) Heat  →  (Lead nitrate) 2PbO(s) (Lead oxide) + 4NO2
(g) + O2 (g) (Nitrogen (Oxygen) dioxide)
 NO2 :- brown fumes
 white silver chloride turns grey in sunlight. 2AgCl(s)  Sunlight  →
2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
 2AgBr(s) Sunlight   → 2Ag(s) + Br2 (g) used in black and white
photography.
 decomposition reactions require energy either in the form of heat, light
or electricity for breaking down the reactants.

o endothermic : Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic

reactions.
o Displacement:-
 Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → (Copper sulphate) FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) (Iron
sulphate)
  Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) (Copper sulphate →) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) (Zinc
sulphate)
 Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace
copper from its compounds
o Double Displacement Reaction:-
 reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants
are called double displacement reactions.
 Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be called a precipitation
reaction
 Na2 SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl(aq)
o Oxidation and Reduction:-
 Oxidation of copper to copper oxide(Black) 2Cu + O2 Heat → 2CuO
 one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced during a reaction. Such
reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.
 ZnO + C → Zn+ CO
 When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture, acids, etc., it
is said to corrode and this process is called corrosion. The black coating on silver
and the green coating on copper are other examples of corrosion.
 Rancidity :- When fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell
and taste change. Usually substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are
added to foods containing fats and oil. Keeping food in air tight containers helps
to slow down [Link] chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with
gas such as nitrogen to prevent the chips from getting oxidised .

CHAPTER 2 Acids, Bases and Salts

 acids are sour in taste and change the colour of blue litmus to red, whereas, bases are
bitter and change the colour of the red litmus to blue.
 Litmus is a natural indicator, turmeric is another such indicator.
 synthetic indicators such as methyl orange and phenolphthalein.
 Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the
division Thallophyta, and is commonly used as an indicator. When the litmus solution is
neither acidic nor basic, its colour is purple. There are many other natural materials like
red cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals of some flowers such as Hydrangea,
Petunia and Geranium, which indicate the presence of acid or base in a solution. These
are called acid-base indicators or sometimes simply indicators.
 There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media. These are
called olfactory indicators- vanilla, onion and clove
 Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
 2NaOH(aq) + Zn(s) → Na2 ZnO2 (s) + H2 (g) - again that hydrogen is formed in the
reaction. However, such reactions are not possible with all metals.
 Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogencarbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
 a neutralisation reaction can be written as Base + Acid → Salt + Water
 Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
 Since metallic oxides react with acids to give salts and water, similar to the reaction of a
base with an acid, metallic oxides are said to be basic oxides.
 Calcium hydroxide, which is a base, reacts with carbon dioxide to produce a salt and
water. Since this is similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude
that non metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
 Since the cation present in acids is H+, this suggests that acids produce hydrogen ions,
H+(aq), in solution, which are responsible for their acidic properties.
 Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water molecules.
Thus hydrogen ions must always be shown as H+(aq) or hydronium ion (H3 O+).
 Bases generate hydroxide (OH–) ions in water. Bases which are soluble in water are
called alkalis.
 All bases do not dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water. They are
soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
 The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is a highly exothermic one. The acid
must always be added slowly to water with constant stirring.
 A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH scale has been
developed. The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power. On the pH scale
we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).


 Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.

 When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
 The atmosphere of venus is made up of thick white and yellowish clouds of sulphuric
acid.
 our stomach produces hydrochloric acid.
 During indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and
irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids (Magnesium hydroxide
(Milk of magnesia)).
 Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than [Link] enamel, made up
of calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form of calcium phosphate) is the hardest
substance in the body. does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the
mouth is below 5.5. Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of
sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth after eating.
 Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like baking
soda on the stung area gives relief. Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid
causing burning pain. A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock
plant, which often grows beside the nettle in the wild.


 Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral with pH value of 7. On the other
hand, salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with pH value less than 7 and those
of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature, with pH value more than 7.
 Beds of rock salt were formed when seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock salt is mined like
coal.
 Sodium hydroxide
o When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride
(called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called
the chlor-alkali process because of the products formed chlor for chlorine and
alkali for sodium hydroxide.
 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2 O(l) ® 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
 Chlorine gas is given off at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the cathode.
Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
 Bleaching Powder :-
o chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder
is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2 ]. Bleaching
powder is represented as Ca(ClO)2 , though the actual composition is quite
complex.
 2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2  Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2 O
o Uses:-
 bleaching cotton and linen, wood pulp, washed clothes
 oxidising agent in many chemical industries
 drinking water free from germs.
 Baking soda : sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3 )
o for making tasty crispy pakoras, faster cooking, used to neutralise an acid(an
ingredient in antacids.), making baking powder(mixture of baking soda (sodium
hydrogencarbonate) and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid.), soda-acid fire
extinguishers.
o formation :- NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH4Cl + NaHCO3
o a mild non-corrosive basic salt.
 oWhen baking powder is heated or mixed in water, the following reaction takes
place NaHCO3 + H+ → CO2 + H2 O + Sodium salt of acid
 Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction can cause bread or cake to
rise making them soft and spongy.
 Washing soda Na2 CO3 .10H2 O
o sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda; recrystallisation of
sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.


o Uses :-
 glass, soap and paper industries, manufacture of sodium
compounds such as borax, a cleaning agent for domestic
purposes, removing permanent hardness of water.
o Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain water of crystallisation.
When we heat the crystals, this water is removed and the salt turns white. If you
moisten the crystals again with water, you will find that blue colour of the
crystals reappears.
o Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one
formula unit of a salt. Eg:- hydrated copper sulphate is Cu SO4 . 5H2 O, gypsum
(CaSO4 .2H2 O)
 Plaster of Paris :-
o On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes 1 calcium sulphate

hemihydrate =POP
o substance which doctors use as plaster for supporting fractured bones in the right
position.
o Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum once
again giving a hard solid mass.
o Uses: -
 making toys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.

CHAPTER 3 Metals and Non-metals

 Properties of Metal :-
o Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called metallic lustre.
o Malleable(can be beaten into thin sheets) - gold and silver are the most malleable
metals
o The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility. Gold is the most
ductile.
o metals are good conductors of heat and have high melting points. best conductors of
heat are silver and copper. Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
gallium and caesium have very low melting points. These two metals will melt if you
keep them on your palm.
 o Metals are good conductors of electricity.
o All metals except mercury exist as solids at room temperature.
o Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be cut with a knife.
They have low densities and low melting points
 Non-metals
o Examples :- carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
o either solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid.
o Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
o Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each form is called an allotrope.
Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the hardest natural substance known and has a very
high melting and boiling point. Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of
electricity.
 Most non-metals produce acidic oxides when dissolve in water. On the other hand, most metals,
give rise to basic oxides.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
o Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. For example, when copper
is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper(II) oxide, a black oxide.
o some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide show both acidic as well as basic
behaviour. Such metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce
salts and water are known as amphoteric oxides.
o Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but some of these dissolve in water to form
alkalis. Sodium oxide and potassium oxide dissolve in water to produce alkalis.

o Metals such as potassium and sodium react so vigorously that they catch fire if kept in
the open. Hence, to protect them and to prevent accidental fires, they are kept
immersed in kerosene oil. At ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals such as
magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead, etc., are covered with a thin layer of oxide. The
protective oxide layer prevents the metal from further oxidation. Iron does not burn on
heating but iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled in the flame of the burner.
Copper does not burn, but the hot metal is coated with a black coloured layer of
copper(II) oxide. Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.

o Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium. Aluminium develops a

thin oxide layer when exposed to air. This aluminium oxide coat makes it resistant to
further corrosion. The resistance can be improved further by making the oxide layer
thicker. During anodising, a clean aluminium article is made the anode and is
electrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid. The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts with
aluminium to make a thicker protective oxide layer. This oxide layer can be dyed easily to
give aluminium articles an attractive finish.

o Metals like potassium and sodium react violently with cold water. In case of sodium and
potassium, the reaction is so violent and exothermic that the evolved hydrogen
immediately catches fire.
 o The reaction of calcium with water is less violent. The heat evolved is not sufficient for
the hydrogen to catch fire.

o Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface
of the metal. Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water to form
magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen. It also starts floating due to the bubbles of
hydrogen gas sticking to its surface. Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react
either with cold or hot water. But they react with steam to form the metal oxide and
hydrogen. Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.

o metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen [Link] gas is not evolved
when a metal reacts with nitric acid. It is because HNO3 is a strong oxidising agent. It
oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself gets reduced to any of the nitrogen oxides
(N2 O, NO, NO2 ). But magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react with very dilute
HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.

o Order of reactivity with dilute HCl (Except Na and K ) :- Mg > Al > Zn > Fe. copper does
not react with dilute HCl.

o Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1. It can dissolve gold,
even though neither of these acids can do so alone. Aqua regia is a highly corrosive,
fuming liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.

o Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in solution or
molten form.

 Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B

 The reactivity of elements as a tendency to attain a completely filled valence shell.

 sodium chloride does not exist as molecules but aggregates of oppositely charged ions.
 The compounds formed in this manner by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal
are known as ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds.
 Properties of Ionic Compounds
o Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat hard because of the
strong force of attraction between the positive and negative ions. These compounds are
generally brittle and break into pieces when pressure is applied.

o Melting and Boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points (see
Table 3.4). This is because a considerable amount of energy is required to break the
strong inter-ionic attraction.

o Solubility: Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in

solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.

o Conduction of Electricity: The conduction of electricity through a solution involves the

movement of charged particles. A solution of an ionic compound in water contains ions,
which move to the opposite electrodes when electricity is passed through the solution.
Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because movement of ions
in the solid is not possible due to their rigid structure. But ionic compounds conduct
electricity in the molten state. This is possible in the molten state since the electrostatic
forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions are overcome due to the heat.
Thus, the ions move freely and conduct electricity.

 The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are known as minerals.
 Extraction of Metals
o
o Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities
such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue. The processes used for removing the gangue from
the ore are based on the differences between the physical or chemical properties of the
gangue and the ore.
o Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series
 Metals low in the activity series are very unreactive. The oxides of these metals
can be reduced to metals by heating alone. For example, cinnabar (HgS) is an ore
of mercury. When it is heated in air, it is first converted into mercuric oxide
(HgO). Mercuric oxide is then reduced to mercury on further heating. copper
which is found as Cu2 S in nature can be obtained from its ore by just heating in
air.
o Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series
 Roasting :- The metals in the middle of the activity series such as iron, zinc, lead,
copper, are moderately reactive. These are usually present as sulphides or
carbonates in nature. It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide, as compared to
its sulphides and carbonates. Therefore, prior to reduction, the metal sulphides
and carbonates must be converted into metal oxides. The sulphide ores are
converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of excess air. This
process is known as roasting.
 calcination :- The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in
limited air. This process is known as calcination.
 

 The metal oxides are then reduced to the corresponding metals by using
suitable reducing agents such as carbon. For example, when zinc oxide is heated
with carbon, it is reduced to metallic zinc.
 Obtaining metals from their compounds is also a reduction process.

Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to metals, sometimes


displacement reactions can also be used. The highly reactive metals such as
sodium, calcium, aluminium, etc., are used as reducing agents because they can
displace metals of lower reactivity from their compounds. For example, when
manganese dioxide is heated with aluminium powder, the following reaction
takes place
 3MnO2 (s) + 4Al(s) → 3Mn(l) + 2Al2 O3 (s) + Heat
 These displacement reactions are highly exothermic. The amount of
heat evolved is so large that the metals are produced in the molten
state. In fact, the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2 O3 ) with aluminium is
used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts. This reaction is
known as the thermit reaction.
o Fe2 O3 (s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al2 O3 (s) + Heat
o Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series
 The metals high up in the reactivity series are very reactive. They cannot be
obtained from their compounds by heating with carbon. For example, carbon
cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc., to
the respective metals. This is because these metals have more affinity for oxygen
than carbon. These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction. The metals are
deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode), whereas, chlorine
is liberated at the anode (the positively charged electrode).
o Refining of Metals
 Electrolytic Refining :- impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure
metal is made the cathode. A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
On passing the current through the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode
dissolves into the electrolyte. An equivalent amount of pure metal from the
electrolyte is deposited on the cathode. The soluble impurities go into the
solution, whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of the
anode and are known as anode mud.
 CORROSION
o Silver articles become black after some time when exposed to air. This is because it
reacts with sulphur in the air to form a coating of silver sulphide.
o Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown
surface and gains a green coat. This green substance is basic copper carbonate.
o iron rusts when are exposed to both air and water.
o The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome
plating, anodising or making alloys.
o Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with
a thin layer of zinc.
o iron is the most widely used metal. But it is never used in its pure state. This is because
pure iron is very soft and stretches easily when hot. But, if it is mixed with a small
amount of carbon (about 0.05 %), it becomes hard and strong.
o When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium, we get stainless steel, which is hard and
does not rust.
o An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non metal. It
is prepared by first melting the primary metal, and then, dissolving the other elements in
it in definite proportions. It is then cooled to room temperature.
o An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non metal. It
is prepared by first melting the primary metal, and then, dissolving the other elements in
it in definite proportions. It is then cooled to room temperature.
o If one of the metals is mercury, then the alloy is known as an amalgam.
o The electrical conductivity and melting point of an alloy is less than that of pure metals.
For example, brass, an alloy of copper and zinc (Cu and Zn), and bronze, an alloy of
copper and tin (Cu and Sn), are not good conductors of electricity whereas copper is
used for making electrical circuits. Solder, an alloy of lead and tin (Pb and Sn), has a low
melting point and is used for welding electrical wires together.

CHAPTER 4 Carbon and its Compounds

 The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03% of
carbon dioxide.
 boiling and melting points of the carbon compounds, we find that these
compounds have low melting and boiling points as compared to ionic
compounds
 Methane is widely used as a fuel and is a major component of bio-gas and
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
 Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two
atoms are known as covalent bonds. Covalently bonded molecules are seen to
have strong bonds within the molecule, but inter molecular forces are weak.
This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these compounds. Since
the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are formed,
such covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
 Both diamond and graphite are formed by carbon atoms, the difference lies in
the manner in which the carbon atoms are bonded to one another. In diamond,
each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid three-
dimensional structure. In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other
carbon atoms in the same plane giving a hexagonal array. One of these bonds is
a double-bond, and thus the valency of carbon is satisfied. Graphite structure is
formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in layers one above the other.
These two different structures result in diamond and graphite having very
different physical properties even though their chemical properties are the
same. Diamond is the hardest substance known while graphite is smooth and
slippery. Graphite is also a very good conductor of electricity unlike other non-
metals that you studied in the previous Chapter.
 Diamonds can be synthesised by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure
and temperature. These synthetic diamonds are small but are otherwise
indistinguishable from natural diamonds.
 Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be identified
was C-60 which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football. Since this
looked like the geodesic dome designed by the US architect Buckminster Fuller,
the molecule was named fullerene.
 The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of
compounds. Two factors noticed in the case of carbon are
o (i) Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of
carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This property is called catenation.
These compounds may have long chains of carbon, branched chains of
carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings. In addition, carbon
atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds. Compounds of
carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the carbon
atoms are called saturated compounds. Compounds of carbon having
double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called
unsaturated compounds. No other element exhibits the property of
catenation to the extent seen in carbon compounds. Silicon forms
compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or eight
atoms, but these compounds are very reactive. The carbon-carbon bond
is very strong and hence stable. This gives us the large number of
compounds with many carbon atoms linked to each other.

o Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four

other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulphur, chlorine and many other elements giving rise to compounds
with specific properties which depend on the elements other than
carbon present in the molecule.
 o Again the bonds that carbon forms with most other elements are very
strong making these compounds exceptionally stable. One reason for
the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size. This enables
the nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons strongly. The
bonds formed by elements having bigger atoms are much weaker.

o Friedrich Wöhler disproved this in 1828 by preparing urea from

ammonium cyanate.

o Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

 compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between

the carbon atoms are known as unsaturated carbon compounds
and they are more reactive than the saturated carbon
compounds
 compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are called
structural isomers.

o
 All these carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons. The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double
bonds are called alkenes. Those containing one or more triple bonds are called
alkynes.


 Homologous Series
o a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes
for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
o As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation
in physical properties is seen. This is because the melting and boiling
points increase with increasing molecular mass. Other physical
properties such as solubility in a particular solvent also show a similar
gradation. But the chemical properties, which are determined solely by
the functional group, remain similar in a homologous series.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
o Combustion
 Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while
unsaturated carbon compounds will give a yellow flame with
lots of black smoke.
 a flame is only produced when gaseous substances burn. When
wood or charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present
vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning.
 Formation of coal and petroleum
 o Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which has been
subjected to various biological and geological processes. Coal is the
remains of trees, ferns, and other plants that lived millions of years ago.
These were crushed into the earth, perhaps by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions. They were pressed down by layers of earth and rock. They
slowly decayed into coal. Oil and gas are the remains of millions of tiny
plants and animals that lived in the sea. When they died, their bodies
sank to the sea bed and were covered by silt. Bacteria attacked the dead
remains, turning them into oil and gas under the high pressures they
were being subjected to. Meanwhile, the silt was slowly compressed
into rock. The oil and gas seeped into the porous parts of the rock, and
got trapped like water in a sponge.
 Oxidation:-
o some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others. These
substances are known as oxidising agents. Alkaline potassium
permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate are oxidising alcohols
to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting material. Hence they are
known as oxidising agents.


 Addition Reaction
o Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts
such as palladium or nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
o This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils
using a nickel catalyst. Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated
carbon chains while animal fats have saturated carbon chains.
o Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are said to be
harmful for health. Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be
chosen for cooking.
 Substitution Reaction
o Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the
presence of most reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight,
chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction. Chlorine can
replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution
reaction because one type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place
of another.
 SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS – ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID
o ETHANOL
 a good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as tincture
iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
 To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it
is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances like
 methanol to it. Dyes are also added to colour the alcohol blue so
that it can be identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.
 Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of
hydrogen. With ethanol, the other product is sodium ethoxide.
 Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at
443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in the
dehydration of ethanol to give ethene.


 Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can

cause death. Methanol is oxidised to methanal in the liver.
Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of cells. It
coagulates the protoplasm, in much the same way an egg is
coagulated by cooking. Methanol also affects the optic nerve,
causing blindness.
 Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight into
chemical energy.
 Properties of Ethanoic Acid
o commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called
carboxylic acids.
o 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely
as a preservative in pickles.
o The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often
freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial
acetic acid.
o Reactions of ethanoic acid:
 Esterification reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by
reaction of an acid and an alcohol. Ethanoic acid reacts with
absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give an
ester.
 esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making
perfumes and as flavouring agents. On treating with sodium
hydroxide, which is an alkali, the ester is converted back to
alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is
known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of
soap. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain
carboxylic acid.
 SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
o Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have differing properties,
one is hydrophilic, that is, it interacts with water, while the other end is
hydrophobic, that is, it interacts with hydrocarbons. When soap is at the
surface of water, the hydrophobic ‘tail’ of soap will not be soluble in
water and the soap will align along the surface of water with the ionic
end in water and the hydrocarbon ‘tail’ protruding out of water. Inside
 water, these molecules have a unique orientation that keeps the
hydrocarbon portion out of the water. Thus, clusters of molecules in
which the hydrophobic tails are in the interior of the cluster and the
ionic ends are on the surface of the cluster. This formation is called a
micelle. Soap in the form of a micelle is able to clean, since the oily dirt
will be collected in the centre of the micelle. The micelles stay in
solution as a colloid and will not come together to precipitate because
of ion-ion repulsion. Thus, the dirt suspended in the micelles is also
easily rinsed away. The soap micelles are large enough to scatter light.
Hence a soap solution appears cloudy.
 the calcium and magnesium salts, which cause the hardness of water.
 Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts
with chlorides or bromides ions, etc. Both have long hydrocarbon chain. The
charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the
calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard
water. Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning
clothes.

CHAPTER 5 Life Processes

 The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and to use it in the process of break-
down of food sources for cellular needs, is what we call respiration.
 NUTRITION
o Heterotrophic organisms include animals and fungi.
o Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled by
photosynthesis.
o The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch,
which serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when required by the
plant. A somewhat similar situation is seen in us where some of the energy derived from
the food we eat is stored in our body in the form of glycogen.
o Autotrophic Nutrition
 The following events occur during this process of photosynthesis :-
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
 stomata which are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Massive
amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves through these pores for
the purpose of photosynthesis.
 The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells. The guard
cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open.
Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
  materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are taken up from the
soil. Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds. This is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is
taken up as organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from
atmospheric nitrogen.
o Heterotrophic Nutrition
 Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then
absorb it. Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
 Some other organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing
them. This parasitic nutritive strategy is used by a wide variety of organisms like
cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
 Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface
which fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole Inside the food
vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler ones which then
diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested material is moved to the
surface of the cell and thrown out.
 Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite shape
and food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the
movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of the cell.
o Nutrition in Human Beings
 The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch
which is a complex molecule to give simple sugar.
 From the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through the food-pipe or
oesophagus.
 The digestion in stomach is taken care of by the gastric glands present in the wall
of the stomach. These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme
called pepsin, and mucus.
 The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of
the enzyme pepsin.
 The mucus protects the inner lining of the Figure 5.6 Human alimentary canal
stomach from the action of the acid under normal conditions.
 The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which
releases it in small amounts into the small intestine.
 Small Intestine -the longest part of the alimentary canal which is fitted into a
compact space because of extensive coiling.
 Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be
digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter
small intestine.

 The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates,

proteins and fats. It receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas for this
purpose. The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made
alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes to act. Bile juice from the liver accomplishes
this in addition to acting on fats. Fats are present in the intestine in the form of
 large globules which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts
break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of enzyme
action. This is similar to the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt. The pancreas
secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting
proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the small
intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it
finally convert the proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose
and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

 Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine. The inner lining of the
small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which increase
the surface area for absorption. The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels
which take the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body, where it is
utilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old tissue.

 The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where its wall absorb more
water from this material. The rest of the material is removed from the body via
the anus. The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.

 Dental caries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine. It
begins when bacteria acting on sugars produce acids that softens or
demineralises the enamel. Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles
stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. Saliva cannot reach the tooth surface to
neutralise the acid as plaque covers the teeth. Brushing the teeth after eating
removes the plaque before the bacteria produce acids. If untreated,
microorganisms may invade the pulp, causing inflammation and infection.




 ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The energy released
during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and
inorganic phosphate. Endothermic processes in the cell then use this ATP to
 drive the reactions. When the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using
water, the energy equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol is released.

 Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of
oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than
that seen in terrestrial organisms.

 In human beings , air is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air passing
through the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. The passage is
also lined with mucus which helps in this process. From here, the air passes
through the throat and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in the
throat. These ensure that the air-passage does not collapse.

 Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which
finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli (singular–
alveolus). The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take
place. The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels. As
we have seen in earlier years, when we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten
our diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger as a result. Because of this,
air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli. The blood brings
carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the
oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be
transported to all the cells in the body. During the breathing cycle, when air is
taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that
there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to
be released.

 When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take
care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the body. Instead, respiratory pigments
take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which are
deficient in oxygen before releasing it. In human beings, the respiratory pigment
is haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen. This pigment is present
in the red blood corpuscles. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen
is and hence is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our blood.

 The upper part of respiratory tract is provided with small hair-like structures
called cilia. These cilia help to remove germs, dust and other harmful particles
from inhaled air. Smoking destroys these hair due to which germs, dust, smoke
and other harmful chemicals enter lungs and cause infection, cough and even
lung cancer.

 If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 m2. If diffusion
were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take 3 years for a
 molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs. Aren’t you glad that we
have haemoglobin?

 TRNSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEINGS:-

o blood transports food, oxygen and waste materials in our bodies.
o blood being a fluid connective tissue. Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in
which the cells are suspended. Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous
wastes in dissolved form. Oxygen is carried by the red blood corpuscles.
o

o Because both oxygen and carbon dioxide have to be transported by the blood, the heart
has different chambers to prevent the oxygen-rich blood from mixing with the blood
containing carbon dioxide.

o Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of the heart
on the left, the left atrium. The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood. It then
contracts, while the next chamber, the left ventricle, relaxes, so that the blood is
transferred to it. When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is
pumped out to the body. De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper
chamber on the right, the right atrium, as it relaxes. As the right atrium contracts, the
corresponding lower chamber, the right ventricle, dilates. This transfers blood to the
right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. Since ventricles have
to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker muscular walls than the atria do.
Valves ensure that blood does not flow backwards when the atria or ventricles contract.

o The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep
oxygenated and de oxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation allows a highly
 efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This is useful in animals that have high energy
needs, such as birds and mammals, which constantly use energy to maintain their body
temperature. In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature
depends on the temperature in the environment. Such animals, like amphibians or many
reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and
de-oxygenated blood streams. Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to
their hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there, and passes
directly to the rest of the body. Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the fish
during one cycle of passage through the body. On the other hand, it goes through the
heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates. This is known as double circulation.

o Blood pressure :-

 The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.
This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood
inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic
pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called
diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and
diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
 Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High
blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of
arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the
rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.
o
o