The Orbital Region

Preparation:- Dr. Adnan H. M.

Presentation:- Dr. Anas Alhamed & tayf M. A.
College of Medicine.
University of Anbar.
 The Orbital Region
• The orbits are a pair of bony cavities that contain the eyeballs; their associated muscles,
nerves, vessels, and fat; and most of the lacrimal apparatus.
• The orbital opening is guarded by two thin, movable folds, the eyelids.
 Eyelids
• The eyelids protect the eye from injury and excessive light by their closure.
• The upper eyelid is larger and more mobile than the lower, and they meet each other at the medial
and lateral angles.
• The palpebral fissure is the elliptical opening between the eyelids and is the entrance into the
conjunctival sac.
• The superficial surface of the eyelids is covered by skin, and the deep surface is covered by a mucous
membrane, called the conjunctiva.
Eyelashes
• The eyelashes are short, curved hairs on the free edges of the eyelids.
• They are arranged in double or triple rows at the mucocutaneous junction.

Gland of the Eyelids

• The sebaceous glands (glands of Zeis) open directly into the eyelash follicles.
• The ciliary glands (glands of Moll) are modified sweat glands that open separately between
adjacent lashes.
• The tarsal glands are long, modified sebaceous glands that pour their oily secretion onto the
margin of the lid; their openings lie behind the eyelashes.
• This oily material prevents the overflow of tears and helps make the closed eyelids airtight.
Medial Angle of the Eye
• The medial angle is separated
from the eyeball by a small
space, the lacus lacrimalis, in
the center of which is a small,
reddish yellow elevation, the
caruncula lacrimalis.
• A reddish semilunar fold,
called the plica semilunaris,
lies on the lateral side of the
caruncle.
• Near the medial angle of the
eye a small elevation, the
papilla lacrimalis, is present.
• On the summit of the papilla is
a small hole, the punctum
lacrimalis, which leads into
the canaliculus lacrimalis.
 conjunctiva
• The conjunctiva is a thin mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and is reflected at the superior
and inferior fornixes onto the anterior surface of the eyeball.
• Its epithelium is continuous with that of the cornea.
• The upper lateral part of the superior fornix is pierced by the ducts of the lacrimal gland.
• The conjunctiva thus forms a potential space, the conjunctival sac, which is open at the palpebral
fissure.
• Beneath the eyelid is a groove, the subtarsal sulcus, which runs close to and parallel with the margin
of the lid. The sulcus tends to trap small foreign particles introduced into the conjunctival sac and is
thus clinically important.
 framework of the eyelids
• It is formed by a fibrous sheet, the orbital septum.
• This is attached to the periosteum at the orbital margins.
• The orbital septum is thickened at the margins of the lids to form the superior and inferior tarsal plates.
• The lateral ends of the plates are attached by a band, the lateral palpebral ligament, to a bony tubercle
just within the orbital margin.
• The medial ends of the plates are attached by a band, the medial palpebral ligament, to the crest of the
lacrimal bone. The tarsal glands are embedded in the posterior surface of the tarsal plates.
 Muscles of the Eye and Eyelid
Muscle Origin Insertion Nerve Supply Action
Extrinsic Muscles of Eyeball (Striated Skeletal Muscle)
Superior Tendinous ring on Superior surface of Oculomotor nerve Raises cornea upward
rectus posterior wall of orbital eyeball just posterior (third cranial and medially
cavity to corneoscleral nerve)
junction
Inferior Tendinous ring on Inferior surface of Oculomotor nerve Depresses cornea
rectus posterior wall of orbital eyeball just posterior (third cranial downward and medially
cavity to corneoscleral nerve)
junction
Medial Tendinous ring on Medial surface of Oculomotor nerve Rotates eyeball so that
rectus posterior wall of orbital eyeball just posterior (third cranial cornea looks medially
cavity to corneoscleral nerve)
junction
Lateral Tendinous ring on Lateral surface of Abducent nerve Rotates eyeball so that
rectus posterior wall of orbital eyeball just posterior (sixth cranial cornea looks laterally
cavity to corneoscleral nerve)
junction
Superior Posterior wall of orbital Passes through pulley Trochlear nerve Rotates eyeball so that
oblique cavity and is attached to (fourth cranial cornea looks downward
superior surface of nerve) and laterally
eyeball beneath
superior rectus
Inferior Floor of orbital cavity Lateral surface of Oculomotor nerve Rotates eyeball so that
oblique eyeball deep to lateral (third cranial cornea looks upward and
rectus nerve) laterally
 Muscles of the Eye and Eyelid
Muscle Origin Insertion Nerve Supply Action
Intrinsic Muscles of Eyeball
Sphincter pupillae of Parasympathetic via Constricts pupil
iris oculomotor nerve
Dilator pupillae of iris Sympathetic Dilates pupil
Ciliary muscle Parasympathetic via Controls shape of lens;
oculomotor nerve in accommodation,
makes lens more
globular
Muscles of Eyelids
Orbicularis oculi
Levator palpebrae Back of orbital cavity Anterior surface and Striated muscle Raises upper lid
superioris upper margin of oculomotor nerve,
superior tarsal plate smooth muscle
sympathetic
Muscles of the Eye
Extrinsic Muscles of Eyeball (Skeletal
Muscle):
• Superior rectus.
• Inferior rectus.
• Medial rectus.
• Lateral rectus.
• Superior oblique.
• Inferior oblique.

Intrinsic Muscles of Eyeball (Smooth

Muscle):
• Sphincter pupillae of iris.
• Dilator pupillae of iris.
• Ciliary muscle.

Muscles of Eyelids:
• Orbicularis oculi .
• Levator palpebrae superioris.
 Lacrimal Apparatus
Lacrimal Gland
• The Lacrimal Gland consists of a large orbital part and a small palpebral part, which are continuous
with each other around the lateral edge of the aponeurosis of the levator palpebrae superioris.
• It is situated above the eyeball in the anterior and upper part of the orbit posterior to the orbital
septum.
• The gland opens into the lateral part of the superior fornix of the conjunctiva by 12 ducts.
 Innervation of Lacrimal Gland
parasympathetic nerve
• The parasympathetic secretomotor nerve supply is derived from the lacrimal nucleus of the facial
nerve.
• The preganglionic fibers reach the pterygopalatine ganglion (sphenopalatine ganglion) via great
petrosal branch of the facial nerve and via the nerve of the pterygoid canal.
• The postganglionic fibers leave the ganglion and join the maxillary nerve. They then pass into its
zygomatic branch and the zygomaticotemporal nerve.
• They reach the lacrimal gland within the lacrimal nerve.

sympathetic postganglionic nerve

• The sympathetic postganglionic nerve supply is from the internal carotid plexus and travels in the
deep petrosal nerve, the nerve of the pterygoid canal, the maxillary nerve, the zygomatic nerve,
the zygomaticotemporal nerve, and finally the lacrimal nerve
Innervation of Lacrimal Gland
Lacrimal Ducts
• The tears circulate across the cornea and accumulate in the lacus lacrimalis. From here, the tears
enter the canaliculi lacrimalis through the puncta lacrimalis.
• The canaliculi lacrimalis pass medially and open into the lacrimal sac, which lies in the lacrimal groove
behind the medial palpebral ligament and is the upper blind end of the nasolacrimal duct.
• The nasolacrimal duct is about 1.3 cm long and emerges from the lower end of the lacrimal sac.
• The duct descends downward, backward, and laterally in a bony canal and opens into the inferior
meatus of the nose.
• The opening is guarded by a fold of mucous membrane known as the lacrimal fold. This prevents air
from being forced up the duct into the lacrimal sac on blowing the nose.
 The Orbit
The Orbit
• The orbit is a pyramidal cavity with its base in front and its apex behind.
The orbital margin
• It is formed above by the frontal bone.
• The lateral margin is formed by the processes of the frontal and zygomatic bones.
• The inferior margin is formed by the zygomatic bone and the maxilla.
• the medial margin is formed by the processes of the maxilla and the frontal bone.
 The orbital walls
 Roof: Formed by the orbital plate of the frontal bone, which separates the orbital cavity from the
anterior cranial fossa and the frontal lobe of the cerebral hemisphere
 Lateral wall: Formed by the zygomatic bone and the greater wing of the sphenoid.
 Floor: Formed by the orbital plate of the maxilla, which separates the orbital cavity from the
maxillary sinus
 Medial wall: Formed from before backward by the frontal process of the maxilla, the lacrimal bone,
the orbital plate of the ethmoid (which separates the orbital cavity from the ethmoid sinuses), and
the body of the sphenoid
 Openings Into the Orbital Cavity
 Orbital opening: Lies anteriorly, about one-sixth of the eye is exposed; the remainder is protected by
the walls of the orbit.
 Supraorbital notch (Foramen): The supraorbital notch is situated on the superior orbital margin. It
transmits the supraorbital nerve and blood vessels.
 Infraorbital groove and canal: Situated on the floor of the orbit in the orbital plate of the maxilla; they
transmit the infraorbital nerve (a continuation of the maxillary nerve) and blood vessels.
 Nasolacrimal canal: Located anteriorly on the medial wall; it communicates with the inferior meatus
of the nose. It transmits the nasolacrimal duct.
 Inferior orbital fissure: Located posteriorly between the maxilla and the greater wing of the sphenoid; it
communicates with the pterygopalatine fossa. It transmits the maxillary nerve and its zygomatic branch, the
inferior ophthalmic vein, and sympathetic nerves.
 Superior orbital fissure: Located posteriorly between the greater and lesser wings of the sphenoid; it
communicates with the middle cranial fossa. It transmits the lacrimal nerve, the frontal nerve, the trochlear
nerve, the oculomotor nerve (upper and lower divisions), the abducent nerve, the nasociliary nerve, and the
superior ophthalmic vein.
 Optic canal: Located posteriorly in the lesser wing of the sphenoid; it communicates with the middle cranial
fossa. It transmits the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery.
 The zygomaticotemporal and the zygomaticuofacial foramina are two small openings in the lateral wall that
transmit the zygomaticotemporal and zygomaticuofacial nerves, respectively. These nerves are sensory to the
skin of the face.
 The anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina are located on the medial wall in the ethmoidal bone. They
transmit the anterior and posterior ethmoidal nerves, respectively.
 Nerves of the Orbit
Optic Nerve
• The optic nerve enters the orbit from the
middle cranial fossa by passing through the
optic canal.
• It is accompanied by the ophthalmic artery.
The nerve is surrounded by sheaths of pia
mater, arachnoid mater, and dura mater.
• It runs forward and laterally within the cone
of the recti muscles and pierces the sclera at a
point medial to the posterior pole of the
eyeball.
• Here, the meninges fuse with the sclera so
that the subarachnoid space with its
contained cerebrospinal fluid extends forward
from the middle cranial fossa, around the
optic nerve, and through the optic canal, as far
as the eyeball.
• A rise in pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid
within the cranial cavity is transmitted to the
back of the eyeball.
Lacrimal Nerve
• The lacrimal nerve arises from the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve.
• It enters the orbit through the upper part of the superior orbital fissure and passes forward along
the upper border of the lateral rectus muscle.
• It is joined by a branch of the zygomaticotemporal nerve, which later leaves it to enter the lacrimal
gland (parasympathetic secretomotor fibers).
• The lacrimal nerve ends by supplying the skin of the lateral part of the upper lid.
Frontal Nerve
• The frontal nerve arises from the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve.
• It enters the orbit through the upper part of the superior orbital fissure and passes forward on the
upper surface of the levator palpebrae superioris beneath the roof of the orbit.
• It divides into the supratrochlear and supraorbital nerves that wind around the upper margin of the
orbital cavity to supply the skin of the forehead; the supraorbital nerve also supplies the mucous
membrane of the frontal air sinus.
Trochlear Nerve

• The trochlear nerve enters the orbit through the upper part of the superior orbital fissure .
• It runs forward and supplies the superior oblique muscle.
Oculomotor Nerve

The superior ramus of the oculomotor nerve

• It enters the orbit through the lower part of the superior orbital fissure.
• It supplies the superior rectus muscle, then pierces it, and supplies the levator palpebrae superioris
muscle.
The inferior ramus of the oculomotor nerve
• It enters the orbit in a similar manner and supplies the inferior rectus, the medial rectus, and the
inferior oblique muscles.
• The nerve to the inferior oblique gives off a branch that passes to the ciliary ganglion and carries
parasympathetic fibers to the sphincter pupillae and the ciliary muscle.
Nasociliary Nerve

• The nasociliary nerve arises

from the ophthalmic
division of the trigeminal
nerve.
• It enters the orbit through
the lower part of the
superior orbital fissure.
• It crosses above the optic
nerve, runs forward along
the upper margin of the
medial rectus muscle, and
ends by dividing into the
anterior ethmoidal and
infratrochlear nerves.
Branches of the Nasociliary Nerve
The communicating branch to the ciliary
ganglion is a sensory nerve.

 The sensory fibers from the eyeball

pass to the ciliary ganglion via the
short ciliary nerves, pass through the
ganglion without interruption, and
then join the nasociliary nerve by
means of the communicating branch.

The long ciliary nerves, two or three in

number, arise from the nasociliary nerve
as it crosses the optic nerve.

 They contain sympathetic fibers for

the dilator pupillae muscle.

 The nerves pass forward with the

short ciliary nerves and pierce the
sclera of the eyeball.

 They continue forward between the

sclera and the choroid to reach the
iris.
Branches of the Nasociliary Nerve

 The posterior ethmoidal nerve supplies the

ethmoidal and sphenoidal air sinuses.

 The infratrochlear nerve passes forward

below the pulley of the superior oblique
muscle and supplies the skin of the medial
part of the upper eyelid and the adjacent
part of the nose.

 The anterior ethmoidal nerve passes

through the anterior ethmoidal foramen and
enters the anterior cranial fossa on the
upper surface of the cribriform plate of the
ethmoid. It enters the nasal cavity through a
slitlike opening alongside the crista galli.
After supplying an area of mucous
membrane, it appears on the face as the
external nasal branch at the lower border of
the nasal bone, and supplies the skin of the
nose down as far as the tip.
Abducent Nerve

• The abducent nerve enters the orbit

through the lower part of the superior
orbital fissure.
• It supplies the lateral rectus muscle.
 Ciliary Ganglion

• The ciliary ganglion is a parasympathetic

ganglion about the size of a pinhead
and situated in the posterior part of the
orbit.
• It receives its preganglionic
parasympathetic fibers from the
oculomotor nerve via the nerve to the
inferior oblique.
• The postganglionic fibers leave the
ganglion in the short ciliary nerves,
which enter the back of the eyeball and
supply the sphincter pupillae and the
ciliary muscle.
• A number of sympathetic fibers pass
from the internal carotid plexus into the
orbit and run through the ganglion
without interruption.
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic of the Eyeball
 Blood Vessels and Lymph Vessels of the Orbit

Ophthalmic Artery

• The ophthalmic artery is a

branch of the internal carotid
artery after that vessel emerges
from the cavernous sinus.
• It enters the orbit through the
optic canal with the optic nerve.
• It runs forward and crosses the
optic nerve to reach the medial
wall of the orbit.
• It gives off numerous branches,
which accompany the nerves in
the orbital cavity.
Branches of the Ophthalmic Artery

Branches of the Ophthalmic Artery

• The central artery of the retina is a
small branch that pierces the
meningeal sheaths of the optic nerve
to gain entrance to the nerve. It runs
in the substance of the optic nerve
and enters the eyeball at the center of
the optic disc. Here, it divides into
branches, which may be studied in a
patient through an ophthalmoscope.
The branches are end arteries.
• The muscular branches
• The ciliary arteries can be divided into
anterior and posterior groups. The
anterior group enters the eyeball near
the corneoscleral junction; the
posterior group enters near the optic
nerve.
• The lacrimal artery to the lacrimal
gland
• The supratrochlear and supraorbital
arteries are distributed to the skin of
the forehead.
Ophthalmic Veins
• The superior ophthalmic vein communicates in front with the facial vein.
• The inferior ophthalmic vein communicates through the inferior orbital fissure with
the pterygoid venous plexus.
• Both veins pass backward through the superior orbital fissure and drain into the
cavernous sinus.

Lymph Vessels

No lymph vessels or nodes are present in the orbital cavity.

 Fascial Sheath of the Eyeball
• The fascial sheath surrounds the
eyeball from the optic nerve to the
corneoscleral junction.
• It separates the eyeball from the
orbital fat and provides it with a
socket for free movement.
• It is perforated by the tendons of
the orbital muscles and is reflected
onto each of them as a tubular
sheath.
• The sheaths for the tendons of the
medial and lateral recti are attached
to the medial and lateral walls of
the orbit by triangular ligaments
called the medial and lateral check
ligaments.
• The lower part of the fascial sheath,
which passes beneath the eyeball
and connects the check ligaments, is
thickened and serves to suspend
the eyeball; it is called the
suspensory ligament of the eye.
• By this means the eye is suspended
from the medial and lateral walls of
the orbit, as if in a hammock.
 The Eye

Terms Used in Describing Eye Movements

• Elevation is the rotation of the eye upward,
• depression is the rotation of the eye downward,
• abduction is the rotation of the eye laterally, and
• adduction is the rotation of the eye medially.
• Rotatory movements of the eyeball use the upper rim of the cornea (or pupil) as the marker. The
eye rotates either medially or laterally.
Structure of the Eye

• The eyeball is embedded in

orbital fat but is separated from
it by the fascial sheath of the
eyeball.
• The eyeball consists of three
coats, which, from without
inward, are the fibrous coat, the
vascular pigmented coat, and
the nervous coat.
 Coats of the Eyeball
Fibrous Coat
• The fibrous coat is made up of a posterior opaque part, the sclera, and an anterior transparent
part, the cornea.

The Sclera

• The opaque sclera is composed of dense fibrous

tissue and is white.
• Posteriorly, it is pierced by the optic nerve and is
fused with the dural sheath of optic nerve.
• The lamina cribrosa is the area of the sclera that
is pierced by the nerve fibers of the optic nerve.
• The sclera is also pierced by the ciliary arteries
and nerves and their associated veins, the venae
vorticosae.
• The sclera is directly continuous in front with the
cornea at the corneoscleral junction, or limbus.

The Cornea

• The transparent cornea is largely responsible for the refraction of the light entering the eye.
• It is in contact posteriorly with the aqueous humor.
 The Cornea
Blood Supply
• The cornea is avascular and devoid of lymphatic drainage.
• It is nourished by diffusion from the aqueous humor and from the capillaries at its edge.

Nerve Supply
• Long ciliary nerves from the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve

Function of the Cornea

• The cornea is the most important refractive medium of the eye.
• This refractive power occurs on the anterior surface of the cornea, where the refractive index
of the cornea (1.38) differs greatly from that of the air.
• The importance of the tear film in maintaining the normal environment for the corneal
epithelial cells should be stressed
 Vascular Pigmented Coat
• The vascular pigmented coat consists, from behind forward, of the choroid, the ciliary body, and the iris.

The Choroid
• The choroid is composed of an outer pigmented layer and an inner, highly vascular layer.

The Ciliary Body

• The ciliary body is continuous posteriorly with the
choroid, and anteriorly it lies behind the peripheral
margin of the iris.
• It is composed of the ciliary ring, the ciliary
processes, and the ciliary muscle.
• The ciliary ring is the posterior part of the body
• The ciliary processes are radially arranged folds, or
ridges, to the posterior surfaces of which are
connected the suspensory ligaments of the lens.
• The ciliary muscle is composed of meridianal and
circular fibers of smooth muscle. The meridianal
fibers run backward from the region of the
corneoscleral junction to the ciliary processes. The
circular fibers are fewer in number and lie internal to
the meridianal fibers.
 The ciliary muscle
Nerve supply
 The ciliary muscle is supplied by
the parasympathetic fibers from
the oculomotor nerve.
 After synapsing in the ciliary
ganglion, the postganglionic
fibers pass forward to the
eyeball in the short ciliary
nerves.

Action
• Contraction of the ciliary muscle,
especially the meridianal fibers,
pulls the ciliary body forward.
• This relieves the tension in the
suspensory ligament, and the
elastic lens becomes more
convex.
• This increases the refractive
power of the lens.
 The Iris and Pupil
The iris

• It is a thin, contractile, pigmented diaphragm

with a central aperture, the pupil.
• It is suspended in the aqueous humor
between the cornea and the lens.
• The periphery of the iris is attached to the
anterior surface of the ciliary body.
• It divides the space between the lens and the
cornea into an anterior and a posterior
chamber.

The muscle fibers of the iris

• They are involuntary and consist of circular
and radiating fibers.
• The circular fibers form the sphincter pupillae
and are arranged around the margin of the
pupil.
• The radial fibers form the dilator pupillae and
consist of a thin sheet of radial fibers that lie
close to the posterior surface.
 The muscle fibers of the iris
Nerve supply
 The sphincter pupillae is supplied by parasympathetic fibers from the oculomotor nerve.
 After synapsing in the ciliary ganglion, the postganglionic fibers pass forward to the eyeball in the
short ciliary nerves.
 The dilator pupillae is supplied by sympathetic fibers, which pass forward to the eyeball in the long
ciliary nerves.

Action
 The sphincter pupillae constricts the pupil in
the presence of bright light and during
accommodation.
 The dilator pupillae dilates the pupil in the
presence of light of low intensity or in the
presence of excessive sympathetic activity
such as occurs in fright.
 Nervous Coat
The Retina
• The retina consists of an outer pigmented layer and an inner nervous layer.
• Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid, and its inner surface is in contact with the
vitreous body.
• The posterior three fourths of the retina is the receptor organ.
• Its anterior edge forms a wavy ring, the ora serrata, and the nervous tissues end here.
• The anterior part of the retina is non receptive and covers the ciliary processes and the back
of the iris.
 The Retina
• At the center of the posterior part of
the retina is an oval, yellowish area,
the macula lutea, which is the area of
the retina for the most distinct vision.
• It has a central depression, the fovea
centralis.
• The optic nerve leaves the retina about
3 mm to the medial side of the macula
lutea at the optic disc.
• The optic disc is slightly depressed at
its center, where it is pierced by the
central artery of the retina.
• At the optic disc is a complete absence
of rods and cones so that it is
insensitive to light and is referred to as
the blind spot. ‌
• On ophthalmoscopic examination, the
optic disc is seen to be pale pink in
color, much paler than the surrounding
retina.
 Contents of the Eyeball

The contents of the eyeball consist of

the refractive media:
• the aqueous humor.
• the vitreous body.
• the lens.
 the refractive media
Aqueous Humor:
• The aqueous humor is a clear fluid that fills the
anterior and posterior chambers of the eyeball.
• It is believed to be a secretion from the ciliary
processes, from which it enters the posterior
chamber.
• It then flows into the anterior chamber through the
pupil and is drained away through the spaces at the
iridocorneal angle into the (venous sinus) canal of
Schlemm.
• Obstruction to the draining of the aqueous humor
results in a rise in intraocular pressure called
glaucoma.
• This can produce degenerative changes in the retina,
with consequent blindness.

The function of the aqueous humor:

• support the wall of the eyeball by exerting internal pressure and thus maintaining its optical
shape.
• It also nourishes the cornea and the lens and removes the products of metabolism.
• these functions are important because the cornea and the lens do not possess a blood supply.
 The refractive media

Vitreous Body

• The vitreous body fills the eyeball

behind the lens and is a transparent
gel.
• The hyaloid canal is a narrow
channel that runs through the
vitreous body from the optic disc to
the posterior surface of the lens; in
the fetus, it is filled by the hyaloid
artery, which disappears before birth.

The function of the vitreous body

• is to contribute slightly to the magnifying power of the eye.

• It supports the posterior surface of the lens and assists in holding the neural part of the
retina against the pigmented part of the retina.
 The Lens

• The lens is a transparent, biconvex

structure enclosed in a transparent
capsule.
• It is situated behind the iris and in
front of the vitreous body and is
encircled by the ciliary processes.
• The lens consists of an elastic capsule.
• circumference, of the lens is attached
to the ciliary processes of the ciliary
body by the suspensory ligament.
• The pull of the radiating fibers of the
suspensory ligament tends to keep the
elastic lens flattened so that the eye
can be focused on distant objects.
 Accommodation of the Eye

• To accommodate the eye for close objects, the ciliary muscle contracts and pulls the ciliary body
forward and inward so that the radiating fibers of the suspensory ligament are relaxed.
• This allows the elastic lens to assume a more globular shape.
• With advancing age, the lens becomes denser and less elastic, and, as a result, the ability to
accommodate is lessened (presbyopia)(far-sightedness caused by aging)
• This disability can be overcome by the use of an additional lens in the form of glasses to assist the
eye in focusing on nearby objects.