MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

• Born in April 1759, in London

Influences

• French Revolution: Rightfully celebrated as the “Child of French Revolution”

• John Locke: admired Locke’s concept of individuals as ‘blank states’, believing that we are born devoid of
preconceived notions, and our beliefs and character are largely shaped by our upbringing and education.
• Religious: Under the influence of Richard Price, Wollstonecraft became an active participant in the
movement of Rational dissenters.

Writings

• Thoughts on Education of Rights (1786)

• Mary: A Fiction (1788)
• A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790): critique of Edmund Burke’s famous text “reflections on the
revolution in France’
• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792): inspired by Charles Maurice’s 1791 report to the National
Assembly.
• Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798)
• Historical and Moral View of French Revolution

Major Themes of Political Thought of Mary Wollstonecraft

1. On Women: Criticized Rousseau’s belief that men and women inherently differed in their virtues, asserting
that these differences were largely result of unequal education and rights.

She encouraged women to develop “Manliness” in order to be equal to men and stand out as bold for their
interests.

Her work sparked debates on the concept of “Equality versus Difference”

She also gave the concept of Sophie-Natural Perfect Women.

2. On the Importance of Education: Everyone ,must know three things at least- Reading, Writing, and
Arithmetic.
3. On Liberty and Equality: Liberty is the mother of virtue
“ I do not wish women to have power over men, but over themselves”, Wollstonecraft declared. For her,
equality was not about dominance but about empowerment, particularly for women.
In line with thinkers like Locke and Smith, Wollstonecraft endorsed the spirit of free enterprise and held
unwavering faith in the progressive potential of the middle class.
4. On Rights and Representation: She viewed women’s rights within the broader context of human rights. She
saw the liberation of women intricately linked to the liberation of men, both groups subjugated to the state.

FRANTZ FANON

Algerian political theorist, born in the French colony of Martinique. He was also a part of the Algerian War of
Independence and had volunteered for the French army during World War-II.

Writings

• Black Skin, White Masks (1952): dehumanizing effects of colonialism on native populations, to the extent
that the black individual can only perceive themselves as a reflection of the white colonizer.
• A Dying Colonialism (1959)
• The Wretched of the Earth (1961): impact of Colonialism on the psyche, culture and politics of societies.
• Toward the African Revolution (1964)
Major Themes of Franz Fanon’s Political Thought

• Dehumanization Thesis: Frantz Fanon contends that colonial masters rule through violence, leading to to
segregation between colonizers and natives. This violent environment can lead to post-traumatic disorders
among the oppressed. Native societies are thus dehumanized and stripped of their cultural identities.
• Decolonization: He argues that because colonialism was established and perpetuated through violence, only
a violent revolution can effectively bring about its end. “Violence is not only justified, it is required”.
• The Concept of “Implantation”: Fanon coined the term Implantation to describe the Algerian occupation by
colonial powers. This term encapsulates the idea of an irrelevant society being forcefully imposed upon a
colonized people through violent means.
• Double Consciousness: Frantz Fanon’s work resonates with WEB Du Bois concept of “Double
Consciousness,” which involves individuals constantly viewing themselves through the lens of others, making
it challenging to develop a coherent self-identity.

MAO ZEDONG

• Father of Modern Communist China

• Played a pivotal role in giving Marxism an Asian identity.
• It was under his leadership that the Communist Party of China came into existence in 1921.
• The Historic Long March played a very important role in establishing power of Mao. It was strategic retreat
by the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao, from 1934 to 1935.

Literary Legacy

• On Contradiction (1937): Mao delved into the philosophy of Dialectical Materialism, applying it to analyze
different events in China through the lens of contradiction.
• On Guerilla Warfare: Mao expounded the necessity of employing guerilla warfare tactics during the Second
Sino-Japanese War.
• On Practice and Contradictions (1937): Mao expressed his support for Marxism and discussed the
establishment of a distinct Chinese brand of communist philosophy.
• On Protracted War (1938)
• On New Democracy (1940)
• On Coalition Government (1945): This was a crucial political report by Mao Zedong to the Seventh National
Congress of Communist Party of China.
• On People’s Democratic Rule (1949): written to commemorate the 28th anniversary of the CCP, highlighted
Mao’s evolving political philosophy.

POLITICAL IDEOLOGY OF MAO

Modification of Marxism for Chinese Context

In contrast to Marx and Lenin, who advocated for workers leading the revolution, Mao asserted that the leadership
should come from the peasants, who comprised seventy percent of China’s rural population.

Belief in Permanent Revolution

He asserted that the Revolution on the economic front must be accompanied by the political and ideological
revolution as well. Mao thus believed in the perpetual character of the revolution.

People’s war
He argued that revolution was required on two fronts: The overthrow of imperial powers and the end of feudal
landlord rule. Mao stressed that people, not weaponry, were the decisive factor in warfare. Mao thus stressed on
the theory of a total revolution by the totality of the masses – Mass line populism. Principle of “People’s Democratic
Dictatorship.”
On Contradiction
He identified two types of contradictions: Antagonistic and Non-Antagonistic
Antagonistic contradictions involve opposing forces in direct conflict, such as the class struggle between the
peasants and aristocrat class. These contradictions can only be resolved through revolutionary means.
Non-Antagonistic contradictions are less intense and can be resolved through non-violent methods, such as
negotiation and persuasion.
Emphasized the dynamic and evolving nature of contradictions.

Guerilla Warfare: A Prolonged Revolution

The primary goal was not just to defeat the enemy but also to win the support of the people.
In his words, “The most important victory is to win over the people.”

“Political power grows out of the Barrel of Gun”

New Democracy: A Different Democratic Version

His new democracy involved the participation of four social blocs: The Peasantry, Proletariat (working class), petite
bourgeoisie (middle class), and national bourgeoisie (national capitalists). This model, often called the “Dictatorship
of Four Classes,” aimed to create a new form of democracy tailored to the needs of these countries. He believed that
the function of the state is to remove obstacles to freedom.

Cultural Revolution: Empowering the Masses (1965-66): This revolutionary movement sought to protect Chinese
Marxist society from the Industrialization and Bureaucratization trends prevalent in western societies. Mao’s
supporters known as the RED GUARDS.

Great Leap Forward: socio-economic campaign initiated by Mao Zedong, the leader of the PRC, in the late 1950s. It
aimed to rapidly transform China from an agrarian society into an industrial and collective farming powerhouse.
However, in reality, it resulted in a humanitarian disaster. Between 1958 and 1962, tens of millions of people died
due to starvation.

Let Hundred Flowers Bloom: A cultural revolution Endeavor : It aimed to foster open debate, but quickly led to
criticism of the Communist regime. In response, the government cracked down, marking the shift to the Anti-Rightist
Movement.

CONFUCIOUS
• Also known as Kung Fu-Tzu or Kong Fu-Zi which translates to “Master Kung”, was born in the cradle of
ancient China in 551 B.C.
• He held the esteemed tittle of China’s first teacher and was the founding luminary of the Ru school of
Chinese thought.

Primary Sources of Confucian Thought

• The I Jing (Book of Changes)
• The Shu Jing (Book of History)
• The Shih Jing (Book of Odes [poetry])
• The Li Ji (Book of Rites)
• The Ch’un-ch’iu (Spring and Autumn Annals)

“The Four Books”(Ssu-chu), a compendium of Confucious’ teachings and those of devoted disciples:
1. Analects
2. Doctrine of Mean
3. The great learning
4. Book of Meng-Tzu
Views on Education: The light of education should shine upon all irrespective of the social status.
• Universal education
• Moral education

The Five Constant Virtues

• Benevolence/Humanity (Ren)
• Propriety (Li)
• Righteousness/ Justice (Yi)
• Wisdom/ Knowledge (zhi)
• Trustworthiness/Integrity (Xin)

Universal Golden Rule

In Confucious’ ethical framework, the virtue of Ren, or humanity, takes center stage, harmonizing with two essential
principles:
• Zhong: The embodiment of the positive practice or the “Golden Rule” of Ren, advocating treating others as
we wish to be treated.
• Shu: The embodiment of the negative practice or the “silver rule” of Ren, cautioning against treating others
in ways we would not desire for ourselves.

The Five Relationships

• Father Son
• Ruler Subject
• Elder Brother younger Brother
• Husband Wife
• Friend Friend
“A country would be well-governed when all the parties performed their parts alright in these relationships”.

The Gentleman (Junzi): An exemplary figure: The Junzi possess a deep understanding of the intricacies of these
relationships and uphold the proper rituals associated with them. He is not a commander or ruler, but rather a moral
paragon who leads by virtue of his character and conduct.

Good Government: The Rule of Virtue

According to his teachings, a good government embodies the following principles:
• Humane Government
• Guided by virtue
• Government by moral example

PLATO

• Peloponnesian war
• Aristocratic family
• In 387 BCE, Plato founded the Academy in Athens. Plato’s inscription on its entrance famously read, “Those
having no knowledge of mathematics need not enter here.”

Influences

1. Defeat of Athens from Sparta

2. Pythagoras: Immortality of human soul, sexual equality, idea of the philosopher king, universe is based on
mathematical and logical principles.
3. Heraclitus: Nothing was permanent in this sensory world.
4. Parmenides: concept of permanence (something is permanent) which led to the concept of idea.
 5. Socrates: Dialectical method, 3 fundamental doctrines (i) virtue is knowledge (ii) The theory of reality (iii)
Theory of knowledge.
George Sabine in A History of Political Theory (1973): fundamental idea of The Republic came to
Plato through his master’s doctrine that virtue is knowledge.

Notable Works
1. “The Republic” : Justice, education, communism, philosopher king, ideal state. It was basically a dialogue
between Socrates, Cephalus and his sons- Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, Glaucon, and Adeimantus. In
Republic Plato also gave the concept of “Kallipolis” – A utopian city.
Note: “Republic of Plato is all about Education” – Rousseau.

2. “The Statesman” (360 BC): Reflects Plato’s stance on democracy, featuring classification of states and
constitutions. In this book he gave preference to “Rule of Law”.

3. “Apology” – satirical version of Socrates’ defence trial, “know thyself”.

4. “The Law” (347 BC): Demonstrates Plato’s evolving thoughts, moving away from the concept of the
philosopher-king to embrace the Rule of Law. This is the Plato’s longest dialogue.

• In Laws Plato also described Magnesia, the envisioned settlement on Crete, an independent
agricultural community positioned approximately nine to ten miles away from the coast. Its isolated
location is designed to discourage the influence of outsiders who might disrupt Magnesia’s cultural
integrity. Nevertheless, Magnesia will still accommodate a population of enslaved individuals and
foreigners responsible for tasks that citizens are prohibited from engaging in, such as trade and
menial labor.

The political structure of Magnesia will be a hybrid, combining elements of Democracy and Authoritarianism.
This is evident in the management of political offices, with the most prestigious being the “Nocturnal
Council”. This council’s primary responsibility will involve delving into the philosophical underpinnings of law
and providing insights on how these principles can be applied within the Magnesian society.
Note – Al-farabi wrote the summary of Plato’s laws.

Some other important works are:

• The Symposium – Metaphysics of love
• Apology – Novel
• Phaedo – theory of soul
• Gorgias
• Crito
• Critias
• Meno
• Sophist
• Timaeus – The sphere of physics
• Noble Life

Plato’s Methodology

1. Deductive: starting with general principles and ap[lying them to specific situations. This approach contrasts
with induction, where conclusions arise from observation.
2. Dialectics
3. Teleological: every phenomenon has an inherent purpose.
4. Historical: by examining historical contexts.

Theory of souls: influenced from Pythagoras.

Theory of Justice: justice (“Dikaiosyne”)
Cephalus (paying one’s debts)
Polemarchus (“good to friends and harm to enemies”)
Thrasymachus (a sophist, interests of the strong, realist view)
Glaucon ( Pragmatic, interest of weak, social contract tradition)

Theory of Education:
Stage I (0-18 years): primary and secondary education, involving music, gymnastics, moral stories, and basic
education in various disciplines.
Stage II (18-20 years): Compulsory military education and the first filtration process, where those who fail join the
producer class.
Higher education (20-35 years): In depth education in various disciplines, second filtering process. Those with logical
aptitude will continue, while others join the soldier class. The age of 30-35 involves dialectical method training.
Practical Training (35-50 years): Individuals become eligible to become philosopher-kings at the age of 50.

Quotes by Plato

• “Human behaviour flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge.”
• “Ideas are the source of all things”
• “Ignorance, the root and steam of all evil”
• “No Law or ordinance is mightier than understanding.”
• “Those states are best governed where the ruler is least interested to govern”

Conclusion

• “ The entire European philosophical tradition is nothing but footnotes of plato and Aristotle. – Whitehead
• “ One can be either Platonic, or anti-platonic, but can never be non platonic. – Karl Popper
• “Plato is Philosophy, Philosophy is Plato” – RW Emerson

Commentaries on Plato

1. Justice for Plato is at once a part of human virtue and the bond which joins men together in the states –
Barker
2. Virtually all socialistic and communistic thought has its root in Plato – Maxey
3. Plato may not be everybody’s saint, but undoubtedly he is everybody’s teacher – R.N. Berki
4. Modern communist totalitarianism has been derived from Plato’s communism – popper
5. Plato introduced authoritarianism in politics – Bertrand Russell
6. Plato’s justice is a bound which holds the society together – Sabine
7. Plato was cynical, reactionary, inhumane, and highly imaginative – Toynbee
8. Plato was wrong for his time and ours – Crossman
9. Plato as Father of Philosophy, Politics and Literary Idealism – Benjamin Jowett

Important Books On Plato

1. ‘’In Defense of Plato” – Levinson

2. “Plato’s Modern enemies and theory of Natural law” – John Wild
3. “Plato today” – Crossman
4. “The man and his works” – AE Taylor
5. “Lectures on the Republic of Plato” – RL Nettleship
6. “Platonic Legend” – W. Fites
 ARISTOTLE

• Father of Political Science

• Greatest disciple and critic of Plato
• Father of Comparative Politics
• Father of Political Sociology
• Father of Constitutionalism (Rule of Law)
• 1st professor
• Conservative, Functionalist, Utilitarian and Pragmatic.

Early Life of Aristotle

• Born in 384 B.C. in Stagira, northern Greece and was not an Athenian by Birth.
• Aristotle moved to Athens at the age of 17 and joined Plato’s Academy, where he studied for a nearly two
decades (367-347 BC)
• After Plato’s death, Aristotle entered what is often referred to as his “journeyman period”.
• Aristotle became the Tutor of Alexander The Great.
• Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, The Lyceum.
• Plato’s political idealism and Aristotle’s political realism.
• Coleridge (Scholar) noted that people are either naturally Platonists and Aristotelians.

Plato and Aristotle

According to Foster, Aristotle is regarded as “the greatest of all Platonists”

Similarities

I. Socratic tradition, critics of sophists tradition

II. State > Individual
III. Believe in Natural Inequality
IV. Lack faith in masses

Differences

I. Idealist, Pragmatic
II. Perfectionist, Golden Mean
III. Radical, Conservative
IV. Sexual Equality-PQ, Deny Citizenship
V. [Link] vs Rule of law
VI. Communism of Family and wives – Regressive idea
VII. Ultimate knowledge, common sense
VIII. Idea>Matter, Interdependent.
IX. Plato’s theories are based on imaginations, observation of the real constitution.
X. Dialectical, Empirical
XI. Deductive, Inductive

Politics and Ethics

• Aristotle's political philosophy is closely tied to his ethical views. He believed every phenomenon consists of
form and matter, with form guiding matter toward ethical ends. Unlike plato, Aristotle value the visible
world scene it as composed of Essential elements. He also believe the human soul had both logical and
illogical parts and through ethical virtues the logical part could be developed.
• For Aristotle Politics and Ethics are inseparable. Politics exist to achieve moral ends, promoting happiness
and the good life. The state evolving from the family is a moral organization that fosters ethical living. In
Nichomachean ethics, he argues that the goal of politics is a good and honourable life, making politics an
extension of ethics.
 Key points
1. The state is a moral and ethical entity that helps individuals lead a good life.
2. Moral qualities in individuals and citizens, such as cooperation and self control developed through
practice.
3. Politics enable the pursuit of moral virtues through action.
4. Human Rationality allows individuals to seek what is good for themselves and the community.
5. Justice, for Aristotle, is an ethical virtue, with politics ensuring distributive justice based on quality. Ethics
underpins his entire political theory.

Important Works of Aristotle

• Nicomachean Ethics: Human beings can be happy only if they fulfil their basic function. Gave term for
Happiness – Eudaimonia. Gave idea of Golden Mean.
• Metaphysics: rejected Plato’s theory of forms. Metaphysics characterized by the study of “being qua being”-
being in general rather than specifically of this or that sort.
• Politics : Defines ‘polis’ or city as a ‘koinonia’ or a political association. Maxey called Aristotle “1st Political
Scientist” because of his work Politics.
• Physics
• Rhetorics
• On the soul- 3 types of soul- (i) Nutritive soul (ii) Sensible soul (iii) Rational soul
• Eudemian Ethics
• De Anima

Perspective of Aristotle as a thinker

• Conservative: Aristotle advocates for the preservation and rectification of existing institutions over their
complete elimination.
• Teleological Approach

Theory of State

• Man is by nature, a political animal

• State comes into existence for sake of life and continues for sake of good life.
• State is highest of all associations
• One who can live without state is either a beast or god, he cannot be a man.
• Chronologically Man came before state, but logically State came before man.

Rule of Law

• Law is a Reason without Passion

• Law is an outward manifestation of reason
• Key elements of constitutional rule
o Rule in the common interest
o Governance guided by regulations
o Rule by consent and not force

Theory of Constitution: Aristotle used the term constitution, state and government interchangeably. For him, it is a
way of life that determined the moral character of the state.
Aristotle believed that Polity, a government by the middle class with moderate property and wisdom, was the most
suitable and practicable form of government. It represented the golden mean between Oligarchy and Democracy.
Polity incorporated three essential elements:

• A Deliberative body (Legislature)

• The Official or Magistrate (Executive)
• The Judicial System (Judiciary)

Theory of Citizenship: equated citizenship with duty

• Includes: Native, adult, male, propertied class.
• Excludes: Slaves, children, women, old people, foreigners.

Theory of Slavery: utility and functionalist perspective

• Categorized slaves into two types: those enslaved by law (such as prisoners of war) and those enslaved by
nature.

Theory of Property
• Individual ownership and individual use (dangerous)
• Common ownership and individual use (could lead to capitalism)
• Common ownership and common use (impractical)
• Individual ownership and common use (generally acceptable).

Family: Husband, wife, children, slaves, and property.

Theory of Justice: Based on proportional equality

Examined justice at three levels: Distributive, Rectificatory, and Corrective.
“Justice is to do the rightness and wrongness of our actions”
“When perfected, man is the best of animals, but when separated from law and justice, he is the worst of all.”
“The good in the sphere of politics is justice, and justice contains what tends to promote the common interest.
He categorised justice into general and particular forms representing complete virtue. Justice in body is goodness
towards one self and others while particular justice involves observing laws without demanding more than one
deserve. Particular justice is divided into distributive and corrective types. Distributive justice allocate Honours based
on merit, treating equals equally and unequals unequally. Corrective justice seeks to restore balance by compensating
the disadvantage regardless of the parties position.
Concept of Knowledge
Aristotle also believed the all knowledge can be classified into three classes –
• Theoretical Knowledge
• Practical knowledge
• Productive Knowledge

Theory of Causation
Aristotle's theory of causation explains how and why things happen, identifying four types of causes that together
explain the existence of any object or event. These are:
1. Material Cause: Refers to the physical substance or matter from which something is made. For example, the material
cause of a statue is marble or bronze.
2. Formal Cause: This is the form or pattern of a thing—its design or structure. In the case of the statue, the formal
cause is the shape or design it represents.
3. Efficient Cause: This refers to the agent or process that brings something into being. For the statue, the efficient
cause is the sculptor or the tools used.
4. Final Cause: The final cause is the purpose or end goal for which something is made. The statue's final cause is the
artist's intention to create a work of art or convey a particular message.
These four causes are interdependent in explaining the full reality of an object. Aristotle's focus on the final cause
(teleology) distinguishes his view, as he believed everything in nature has a purpose or goal.

Theory of Revolution: Politics

Revolution for Aristotle signifies any change in governance, whether significant (like a shift from monarchy to
aristocracy) or minor (a decline in democracy). Aristotle advocated for maintaining the status quo, fearing that political
changes could lead to catastrophic outcomes.
Specific causes related to different governance types:
• In Democracies, demagogues targeting the wealthy can incite unrest.
• Oligarchies can face internal strife if certain members gain undue influence.
• In aristocracies0, widening wealth disparities can trigger revolts.
Preventive measures
• Upholding the Rule of Law
• Avoiding discrimination
• Fostering Patriotism
• Mitigating Discontent
• Educating the youth in accordance with the constitution.
Aristotle perspective tended to view revolutions solely as destructive forces, neglecting their potential as catalysts for
positive transformation.

Important Quotes by Aristotle

• Man is by nature a political animal
• Virtue of justice consists in moderation, as regulated by wisdom.
• Authority of statesman is different from that of masters
• I will not allow the Athenian to commit another sin.

Important Commentaries on Aristotle

• Aristotle’s conception of Slavery is more a justification of a necessity than a deduction from disinterested
observation of facts. – Barker
• Aristotle’s ideal state is Plato’s second best state. – Sabine
• “Plato found the corrective to his thinking in his own student. – Ebenstein
• “the ideas expressed by Plato as suggestions, illusions or illustrations are taken up by Aristotle” – Dunning
• “Aristotle’s methodology is scientific; his work is systematic, his writings are analytical. Aristotle’s each essay
begins with the words: “Observation show” – Barker.
 MACHIAVELLI
• Born in Florence, Italy in 1469.
• Champion of Civic Republicanism
• Gramsci commends him for distinguishing politics from ethics.
• Maxey designated him the “First Modern Political Thinker”

Influences
• “Machiavelli was the child of his times” – Dunning
• “The whole of Renaissance is in Machiavelli” – laski
• “Machiavelli was narrowly dated and narrowly located” – Sabine
• “Machiavelli stood on the borderline between the Middle Ages and the Modern Ages – Dunning

Renaissance
• Rebirth of logic
• Scientific inventions and innovations
• Transition from barter to monetary systems
Reformation: separation of the public and private spheres in religion, separation of church and state. Machiavelli
“Father of European Secularism”
Breakdown of Feudalism: Rise of Nation State: making Italian unification a primary objective
Rise of Capitalism: Emergence of bourgeois class.

Important Works
1. Art of War (1521): explains relation between war and politics
2. History of Florence (1525)
3. The Discourses (1531): Described Republicanism. Criticised feudal order and nobility.
4. The Prince (1532) : on statecraft.
• The Prince on state security, while The Discourses delves into liberty.

Methodology
• Empirical observation reaffirmed by history (Cyclical)
• Study of Human Psychology
• Father of Political Realism

POLITICAL IDEAS OF MACHIAVELLI

On Human Nature/ Universal Egoism
• “Man is selfish, coward, fickle minded, ungrateful, fearful and avaricious.”
• “A wise prince’ never confiscates rather execute”
• “Man can forget the loss of his father, but will never forget the loss his patrimony.”

On Morality
• Ends justify means
• Autonomy of politics
• “Dual Morality”: The morality of a prince differs from that of a common person
• “Flexible Disposition”: states that Prince must act as per demand of fate and circumstances.
• “There is nothing like ethics for Prince. He is everything”. – The originality of Machiavelli written by Berlin.

On Religion
• Church: corrupt entity
• Utilitarian perspective towards religion: utilize religion in the interest of the nation.
• People preferred their rulers to be religious.
On State
• State has the highest authority
 • In the Prince, supports Monarchy, whereas in his another book Discourses, he supports Republican form of
Government.
• Society corrupt: suggest the rule of Prince
• Society virtuous have civic sense, responsibility: Republic
• “Wherever necessary monarchy, wherever possible republic , nut in no situation oligarchy or aristocracy”.
• Prioritizing state preservation over constitutional excellence.
• Sabine noted “ The purpose of politics is to preserve and increase political power”.

On The Amount of Power

• “It is better for the Prince to be feared than loved”
• Power has 2 dimensions, force and love – force should not be 1st option – requires lot of resources. If Force
used then completely crush the enemy – not leave him alive to take revenge – revenge is a powerful
sentiment.
On Prince: should be clever like a fox and brave like a lion.
On Fortune: took fortune in negative sense, associating it with bad luck. He advocated his idea of fortune to a
woman who embrace or disfavor men unpredictably.
On AGGRANDISEMENT: Presented in both “The Prince” and “Discourses”. Subjugating multiple states under single
ruler or commonwealth.

Quotes of Machiavelli
 HOBBES

• Context: Spanish Armada, Puritan Revolution,1641

• Born in 1588 in England.
• Century of Genius
• Famously called the “Monster of Malmesbury’ due to widespread criticism to Atheism and impiety.
• His philosophy combined Mechanical materialism, radical individualism, and psychological egoism.
• Michael Oakeshott calling Leviathan a masterpiece.
• Karl Marx: Hobbes was the Father of us all.
• Contemporary to Galileo, Kepler, and Descartes.
• Hobbes became convinced that human behaviour and political structures could be understood through the
laws of motion.
• In 1640 fled to France, where he stayed for 11 years. During this time he wrote De Cive (1642) and his
masterpiece Leviathan (1651)
• Returned to England in 1651.
• Hobbes translated works like Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.

Major Works

• Thucydides’ History of Peloponnesian war (1628): Hobbes English translation of this work aimed to critique
Athenian democracy. It was his first work.
• De Cive “On the Citizens” (1642): discussed natural laws and the necessity of stable govt.
• Elements of law, natural, and politic (1650): An exploration of legal and political concepts.
• Leviathan (1651): social contract and the rule of an absolute sovereign. The original source of leviathan is
“The book of Job”.
• De Corpore (1655): Explored concepts related to body and matter.
• De Homine (1658): Human nature
• Behemoth (1681): Causes of English civil war.

On Human Nature
• Concept of “moral relativism”.
• Felicity: continuous fulfilment of desires.
• Humans operate on two types of emotions: Appetite and Aversion.
• Although, humans possessed Reason
• “Life of a man is a continuous and restless search for power, after power, which ceases only with his death”
• “Man is hedonistic i.e. pleasure seeking by nature – Resolutive Compositive Method”

On State of Nature
• Perpetual conflict, insecurity, and a constant state of warfare
• “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”
• “war of all against all”

The Role of Power and Conflict

• Unlimited desires and limited resources – restless search for power.
• 3 main causes for restless search for power
o Competition: Individuals fought for gain.
o Diffidence: People sought security.
o Glory: Individuals sought reputation.

Natural Rights and Morality

• In the state of nature, Hobbes introduced the concept of natural rights, which he defined as the liberty of
each individual to use their own power to preserve their life.
• Hobbes argued that natural right was about self preservation.
 • Legal rather than moral.

Theory of Natural Laws: Hobbes argues that the only way out this state of nature is through the creation of civil
society governed by a powerful sovereign. The foundation of this escape lies in the Laws of Nature, which Hobbes
defines as rational principles that guide human beings toward peace and self-preservation.
Hobbes explains that the Laws of nature exist even in the absence of formal authority as they are discussed through
reason.
Hobbes outlines 19 laws of nature:
First Law of Nature (Self-preservation): The first law is that every individual should seek peace and follow it, but
when peace cannot be obtained, one has the right to defend oneself by any means necessary.
Second Law of Nature (Mutual transfer of rights): The second law states that individuals should be willing to give up
certain freedoms, as long as others do the same, in order to achieve peace and security. This is the foundation of
social contracts.
Third Law of Nature (Keeping covenants): The third law is that individuals should honor the agreements they make
(covenants). Without the observance of agreements, peace is impossible, and society will collapse into chaos.
Nineteenth Law of Nature (Equity): The nineteenth law asserts that in adjudicating disputes, no one should be given
more leniency or preferential treatment than others. Everyone should be treated equally, to maintain justice and
fairness within society.

Hobbes differentiates between “obligation in foro interno” (the internal desire for peace) and “in foro externo”
(external actions driven by fear).
Critics like Adam Smith argues Hobbes’ doctrine lacks moral authority.

Social Contract and The Sovereign

• Hobbes emphasised that the sovereign authority was established through “legal sovereignty” because it was
legitimized through this social contract.
• He described social contract as a mutual agreement where individuals authorized and surrendered their self-
governing rights to the sovereign, with the conditions that others would do the same.
• The sovereign created by the contract was not a party to it but rather a beneficiary.
• This meant that individuals surrendered their natural rights permanently, except for the right to self
preservation.
• Unlike Aristotle, who believed state is natural, Hobbes argued that state is mechanical.
• Rejection of the right to revolt: “unlimited political obligation”.
• If the sovereign fails to protect an individual’s life, that individual retains the right to resist the Sovereign’s
authority.
• Hobbes made distinction between a contract and covenant: A contract in his view was the mutual
transferring of rights, whereas a covenant implied a promise and trust between parties regarding future
performance.
• “covenants without sword are mere words and of no strength to secure a man at all”.
• Macpherson: “Hobbes begin as an individualist but ends as absolutist.”
• Oliver Cromwell’s rule: emphasising that effective power is crucial for legitimate governance.

Rights and Duties

• “Liberty is where law is silent”
• “Liberty signifies properly the absence of opposition in external impediments to motion”.

Church and State: In Hobbes' view, the church should be subordinate to the state. He believed that the church’s
authority could not be independent of or above the sovereign. According to him, religious leaders could wield
dangerous power if left unchecked, potentially inciting rebellion or civil disorder. Therefore, the church must be
under the control of the sovereign to maintain peace and order.
Women and Gender Question: acknowledged the idea of gender equality, he did not oppose the prevailing
patriarchy.

LOCKE
• Born in Wrington, England in 1632
• Father of Liberalism due to his significant impact on Enlightenment thought.
• Father of Enlightenment
• Justifying Glorious Revolution of 1688 which transitioned England from absolute monarchy to a
constitutional one.

Major Works
1. A letter concerning toleration (1689): Religious toleration as the path to civil peace , opposing the policy of
religious toleration as the path to civil peace, opposing the policy of religious uniformity.
2. Two Treatises of Government (1689): critiqued Filmer’s theory and explained the true nature and purpose
of civil government.
3. Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): Concept of “Tabula Rasa” – human mind is like white paper
void of all characters.
4. Some thoughts concerning education (1693)
5. The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695)
6. Of the Conduct of the Understanding (1706): Guidance on self education
7. Important Book on John Locke – “Political thought of John Locke” – John Dunn.

Conflict Between Ideas

• All knowledge comes from experience – This is called Empiricism.
• Natural law suggests that there are universal moral laws that everyone should follow. (Two treatises of
govt.)
• Critics like CE Vaughan and George H. Sabine argue that these two views don’t match.
• Locke says that because he doesn’t believe in innate ideas, it doesn’t mean he rejects natural law.

Pleasure and Morality

• “Utility is not the basis of law or the ground of obligation, but the consequence of obedience to it”. This
means that just because something is useful or brings pleasure doesn’t mean it’s the right thing to do.

Paternal Authority and Political Power

• Filmer’s theory justified absolute power in monarchy through a patriarchal inheritance from Adam.
• Locke argued that paternal authority could not be equated with political authority.
 • Locke advocated three types of political power: Legislative (Supreme Power), Executive and Federative (
later equated with foreign policy).
• Unlike paternal authority, political power could be transferred from one government to another through the
consent of the governed if a government failed to fulfil its responsibilities.

On State of Nature
• Glorious Revolution – Peaceful change – more balanced view of human nature.
• State of Nature – peaceful, people are enjoying natural rights because of the presence of reason. i.e. the
natural law.
• Locke makes a critical distinction between liberty and license, arguing that true liberty involves acting in
accordance with natural law.
• SoN is pre-political, it is not pre-social, as humans are inherently social beings.
• Natural Rights emerge as central to Locke’s theory, particularly the rights to life, liberty and property.

The Social Contract: Transition to Civil Society

• SoN – absence of common authority to make law, execute law and adjudicate law – hence everyone was
interpreting the natural law according to his own preference.
• 1st contract: Civil society: formal recognition of fellow men.
• 2nd contract: common authority – government: people transferred 3 of their natural rights to government
i.e. legislation, execution, adjudication.
• Right to life, liberty, property are inalienable rights.
• Concept of government by consent – majoritarian + representative
• Govt. - Not a necessity, matter of convenience.
• 2 kinds of consent:
o Express or direct: at time of contract
o Tacit consent
• Locke describes the state as “Fiduciary trust”, operates under the community’s trust, bound to act within
constitutional limits.
• Locke: political power can be defined as the Right of making laws with Penalties of Death.

Right To Property
• Absolute right to property – property is the product of one’s labour – labour is part of one’s personality:
scholar of possessive individualism.
• State cannot deprives a person from his absolute right to property – right to revolt.
• Limitations on Right to property:
o Labour limitation
o No right to deprive others of their right to property.
o No right to spoil property.
Limits on Government:
• State cannot make laws which deprives man from his natural rights
• Governance through established impartial law
• Laws designed for the common good
• No property taxation without consent
• No transfer of legislative power
“No Law, No Liberty”

Right to Revolt
• Establishment of Arbitrary rule
• Obstruction of legislature
• Alterations of elections without consent
• Submission to foreign powers
• Neglect of laws
 Locke asserted that right to revolt could be exercised by the majority than the isolated individuals or small groups.

On Toleration
• No one listens to the magistrate in the matter of conscience
• State to adopt the principle of toleration towards the follower of different religion
• State should not tolerate Atheists.

As Feminist: Locke’s advocacy for mutual consent in marriage and his support for women’s education, though limited
by the era’s norms, reflected progressive views for his time. His critique of patriarchal power in politics indirectly
challenged male dominance. While Locke did not explicitly argue for women’s rights, his philosophy of individual
equality influenced later feminist thinkers like Mary Wollstonecraft, who expanded on his ideas to advocate for gender
equality.

HEGEL

• “King of Philosophers” and the “Philosopher of Kings”.

Influences

• Dialectical method of Socrates.

• Aristotle’s Teleology.
• Immanuel Kant: Hegelian notion that the state is founded on reason and that its laws are expressions of pure
reason bears striking resemblance to Kant’s philosophical stance.
• Rousseau: Hegel’s concept of Idea, Spirit or Reason share a similarity with Rousseau’s notion of the general
will, both positing infallibility in these overarching ideas.
o Like Rousseau, hegel prioritized the public interest over private concerns.

Important works

1. The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807): often referred to as “The Phenomenology of Mind” : evolution of
consciousness: tracing its path from mere sense perception to the attainment of absolute knowledge.
2. Science of Logic (1811-1816): profound exploration of the intricacies of his philosophical system.
3. Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1816):
4. Elements of Philosophy of Right (1817): role of state and rights of citizens.
5. Lectures on Philosophy of History (1837): published posthumously by his son
6. Lectures on the Philosophy of religion
7. English Reform Bill: last script written by Hegel.

Absolute Idealism

• Ontology: nature of reality or study of what is real.

• Epistemology: the study of knowledge.
• Hegel’s Idealism categorizes human experiences – pleasure and pain – through universal ideas.
 • Ideas drive Historical progress: society, culture, and politics change as ideas eveolve. He termed this process
as Unfolding of Ideas.
• Hegel argued that the “world spirit” consists of art, philosophy, and religion, which shape history and
humanity’s development.

Dialectics

• Hegel argued that the Absolute Idea or Spirit Progresses through a process that moves from thesis (an idea)
to antithesis (its opposite), and finally to synthesis (a resolution that combines both).
• Some examples Hegel provided include:
o Family as the Thesis, civil society as the antithesis, and the state as the synthesis.
o Despotism as the Thesis, Democracy as the antithesis, and constitutional monarchy as synthesis.
o The inorganic world as the thesis, the organic world as antithesis, and human being as the synthesis.

Stages of History

Inorganic world – Organic world – Human Being – Family System – Civil Society – The State

Theory of State

• “what is rational is real, and what is real is rational”

• Referred State as the “March of God on Earth,” signifying that it represents the highest manifestation of
Reason. State as Universal Altruism.
• State is the synthesis of Family and Civil Society.

Characteristics of Hegelian State

• Divine Origin
• Statism: State is an end in itself
• Holism: State as whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
• Infallibility
• Inequality: women should not participate in political sphere.
• Greater being: described by Hobhouse.

Theory of Freedom of Individual

• Real freedom can only be realized within the state; therefore the only means for individuals to experience
freedom is to willingly obey the laws of the state

ON War

• Rejected Immanuel Kant’s notion of perpetual peace, arguing that instead that war could serve as a
mechanism for resolving competing claims of rights without adhering to doctrine of just war.

Critics

• Karl Marx criticized him as a precursor to 20 th century fascism.

• Kaufmann countered Hegel was neither radical individualist nor a totalitarian figure.
 ROUSSEAU
• TH
18 Century French Philosopher
• Born in 1712, in the city of Geneva.
• Father of the French Revolution.

Major Works

1. Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750):

2. Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality (1755):
3. Discourse on Political Economy (1755): explained the concept of democratic ideals.
4. Emile (1762): Treatise on Education.
5. The Social Contract (1762): Concept of general will.
6. Essay – “Has the progress of sciences and arts contributed to corrupt or purify morals” – won award.
7. The Confession – Autobiography of Rousseau

Revolt against Reason:

• Rousseau believed that the “thinking animal is a depraved animal” arguing that reason suppressed natural
feelings like sympathy and compassion. He contended that the reason led to pride, which conflicted with
sympathy, and he viewed pride as inherently evil.
• “our minds have been corrupted in proportion as the arts and sciences have improved”.

State of Nature:

• Individuals were guided by instinct rather than reason, free from artificial desires that reason often gave
birth to.
• “A happy individual was not much a thinking being”.

Emergence of Private Property

• Advent of civilization, marked by the discovery of metals and agriculture, brought about the division of labor
and the rise of private property. With the concept of property came inequality and resulted into the
formation of civil society.

Analyzing Inequality

• Classified inequality into two types: Natural inequality (Based on birth, skills, talent, age, sex, etc) and
Conventional equality (constructed by society primarily with the advent of private property).

Concept of General Will

• General will should serve as the foundation for all laws.

• He distinguished between the actual will, driven by immediate self interest, and the real will, which is
motivated by the collective good.
• Critics have described General Will as “forced to be free”.
• Jacob Talmon labelled Rousseau a “totalitarian democrat”.

The Social Contract Theory

It is a method to reconcile liberty with authority, where consent served as the foundational principle. He emphasized
that a community exists to serve the individual by safeguarding their freedom. This community reflects the
collective best interest of all its members, operating in harmony with general will, which represents the shared will
of individuals thinking beyond their self-interests.

Popular Sovereignty

• Rousseau’s sovereign is the people, formed into a political community through the social contract.
• “The moment there is a master, there is no longer a sovereign”
• “voice of the people” embodies the “voice of the god”.
Challenging Representative Democracy: Call for Direct Democracy: Rousseau championed Participatory
Democracy.

On Women: subordinate both in family and society, should be represented by men in liberal democracy.

Ebenstein points out that Rousseau was the first modern thinker to attempt to synthesize good governance with
self governance through the general will.

J.S. Mill

• Born in 1806, in London, he was the eldest son of James Mill.

• Gray: If anyone is liberal it is surely JS Mill.

Major Works

• A System of Logic (1843)

• Principles of Political Economy (1848)
• On Liberty (1859)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
• Utilitarianism (1863)
• The Subjection of Women (1869)
• Philosophy of J.S. Mill – R.P Anschertz

An Equal Freedom for Women

Mill refuted four main arguments for women’s inequality:

1. Universal Tradition
2. Natural Inferiority
3. Voluntary Acceptance
4. Family leadership

Society will benefit if granted equal rights

1. Family would no longer be “school of despotism and hierarchy” – good democratic citizens.
2. Doubling of the mass of mental faculties
3. Competition – efficiency
4. Would satisfy the utilitarian principle of GHGN.

Concept of Liberty: advocated three specific liberties.

 1. Liberty of thought and expression: “If all but one has difference of opinion, majority should listen to that
person. Just like tyranny of one cannot be accepted on the tyranny of all…………”
a. Result – majority opinion is not taken for granted and becomes a “living truth” rather than a “dead
dogma”.
2. Liberty of Action: Mill introduced the Harm Principle: Self regarding actions and others regarding actions:
Barker: Prophet of empty liberty and scholar of abstract . individualism: provided huge scope for state
intervention.
3. Liberty of Association: personal and social development.

“No state become great by dwarfing its own people.”

Critique of Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism, with its economic foundations rooted in Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776), was
politically developed by Bentham, who applied a rationalistic approach to societal issues. He famously
declared, “pushpin is as good as poetry” suggesting that all pleasures are of equal value and can be
measured quantitatively.
• Mill: “Peter who denied his master”: He introduced the idea that all pleasures are not of equal value.
• “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied……..”
• Mill also rejected the idea of Bentham’s “felcific calculus” – the notion that pleasures and pains could be
objectively measured and compared.

Economy and State Intervention: preferred laissez faire to state intervention in matters of social and economic
policy. “Political liberty in absence of economic liberty is myth”.

“I was a democrat, but not least of a socialist”.

 BENTHAM

Bentham’s concept of sinister interests refers to the idea that certain individuals or groups may have personal or
private interests that conflict with the public good. These interests lead them to act in ways that undermine
collective welfare, even though they might benefit from such actions. Bentham used this concept to critique
corruption and self-serving behaviors in political and institutional settings.

GRAMSCI

• Godfather of Cultural Marxism

• Benedetto Croce: The Philosophy of Praxis: Human beings shape their reality through practical, material
activity, or "praxis”.
• Gramsci called Fascism as Passive Revolution.

Books

• A Great and Terrible World: The Pre-prison letters (1908-1926)

• The Prison Notebooks (3 volumes) (1929-1935)
• The Southern Question
• The Modern Prince: And Other Writings (1949)

Essays

• Newspapers and The Workers (1916)

• Men or Machines (1916)
• One Year of History (1918)

Workers Council

• Championed the concept of “Government by Councils” as opposed to government by a single party.

HANNAH ARENDT

Influences

• Existentialism
• Martin Heidegger
• Karl Jaspers

Important Writings

• The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)

• The Human Condition (1958)
• Between Past and Future (1961)
• On Revolution (1963)
• Eichmann in Jerusalem (1965)
• On Violence (1970)
 • “The latter half of the 20th century”.
• “Man in dark themes”
• “Crisis of the Republic”
• “Lectures on the Kant’s political philosophy”
• “Existent Philosophy”

Revolution: A Mental Transformation

• She asserts that true revolution transcends changes in material conditions; it’s a revolution of the mind.
Rather than relying on violence, Arendt advocates for peaceful means of transformation.
• Comparison of American and French Revolution: American Revolution serves as a superior civic freedom
upon its citizens. Conversely, the French revolution primarily focused on addressing “social and economic
question” while neglecting civic freedom.
• For Hannah Arendt, the essence of a revolution lies in the attainment of civic freedom – a “political
question”.

JOHN RAWLS

Key Works

• The Theory of Justice (1971)

• Justice as Fairness (1985)
• Political Liberalism (1993)
• The Laws of People (1993): espoused the idea of “Global Society”.
o Explained 5 types of political regimes
i. Liberal society
ii. Hierarchal society
iii. Outlaws society
iv. Burdened societies
v. Benevolent Absolutism
• Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (2001)
• Some other works
o Two concepts of rule (1955)
o Ideas of Overlapping Consensus (1987)
o Distributive Justice.

John Rawls methodology of Social Contract: Individuals act as representatives who come together to formulate the
principles emerge from rational dialogue and deliberation rather than being imposed from external sources.

He basically conceived “society as a cooperative venture for mutual advantage