2.
Properties of Materials
2.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Atoms and Their Structure:
Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter
An atom consists of:
❖ Nucleus: Contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (no charge)
❖ Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in shells/energy levels
In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons
❖ Atomic number = Number of protons
❖ Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Electron Arrangement:
● Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus
● First shell can hold up to 2 electrons
● Second shell can hold up to 8 electrons
● Third shell can hold up to 8 electrons (for elements we're studying)
➢ The electron arrangement determines an element's chemical properties
The Periodic Table:
● Organized by atomic number
➔ Elements in the same column (group) have similar properties
➔ Elements in the same row (period) have the same number of electron shells
Main groups we study:
Group 1: Alkali metals (1 electron in outer shell)
Group 2: Alkaline earth metals (2 electrons in outer shell)
Group 7: Halogens (7 electrons in outer shell)
Group 8/0: Noble gases (full outer shell - very stable)
2.2 Trends in Groups Within the Periodic Table
Group 1 - Alkali Metals:
Include: Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), etc.
Properties:
● Soft metals that can be cut with a knife
● Low density (some float on water)
● Low melting and boiling points (decrease down the group)
● Highly reactive (reactivity increases down the group)
● Form +1 ions by losing their single outer electron
● React vigorously with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas
Example: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
Group 7 - Halogens:
Include: Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I)
Properties:
● Exist as diatomic molecules (F₂, Cl₂, etc.)
● Color becomes darker down the group (F₂: pale yellow gas, Cl₂: greenish gas, Br₂:
reddish-brown liquid, I₂: dark gray solid)
● Melting and boiling points increase down the group
● Reactivity decreases down the group
● Form -1 ions by gaining one electron
● React with metals to form metal halides
Example: 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
Group 8/0 - Noble Gases:
Include: Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), etc.
Properties:
● Colorless gases at room temperature
● Very low boiling points
● Chemically inert (unreactive) due to full outer electron shells
● Used in applications where non-reactivity is needed (e.g., light bulbs)
2.3 Why Elements React to Form Compounds
The Octet Rule:
● Atoms tend to react in ways that give them a full outer shell of electrons (usually 8)
● This makes them more stable
● Elements achieve this through:
● Transferring electrons (forming ionic bonds)
● Sharing electrons (forming covalent bonds)
Ionic Bonding:
❖ Occurs between metals and non-metals
❖ Metal atoms lose electrons to become positively charged ions (cations)
❖ Non-metal atoms gain electrons to become negatively charged ions (anions)
❖ Opposite charges attract, forming ionic bonds
Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium (Na) loses 1 electron: Na → Na⁺ + e⁻
Chlorine (Cl) gains 1 electron: Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻
Na⁺ and Cl⁻ attract to form NaCl
Covalent Bonding:
● Occurs between non-metals
● Atoms share electrons to complete their outer shells
Example: Water (H₂O)
● Each hydrogen shares 1 electron with oxygen
● Oxygen shares 1 electron with each hydrogen
● This gives oxygen a full outer shell and each hydrogen a full outer shell
2.4 Simple and Giant Structures
Simple Molecular Structures:
●
● Consist of discrete molecules with strong covalent bonds within molecules
● Weak forces between molecules (intermolecular forces)
● Properties:
● Low melting and boiling points (weak forces between molecules)
● Often gases or liquids at room temperature
● Don't conduct electricity (no free electrons or ions)
Examples: Water (H₂O), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄)
Giant Ionic Structures:
❖ Consist of a regular lattice of positive and negative ions
❖ Strong electrostatic forces between all ions
Properties:
● High melting and boiling points (strong forces throughout)
● Often crystalline solids
● Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in solution (ions are free to move)
Examples: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Giant Covalent Structures:
● Consist of a network of atoms bonded together by strong covalent bonds
Properties:
● Very high melting and boiling points (strong bonds throughout)
● Usually hard and rigid
● Poor conductors of electricity (except graphite)
Examples: Diamond (carbon), Silicon dioxide (SiO₂)
Special Case - Graphite:
❖ Giant covalent structure of carbon atoms in layers
❖ Strong covalent bonds within layers, weak forces between layers
Properties:
● High melting point
● Soft and slippery (layers can slide)
● Good conductor of electricity (delocalized electrons between layers)
5. Reactivity
5.1 Reactivity and Displacement Reactions
Reactivity Series:
● A list of metals in order of their reactivity (from most to least reactive)
● Common series (most reactive to least reactive):
● Potassium > Sodium > Calcium > Magnesium > Aluminum > Zinc > Iron > Tin > Lead
> Copper > Silver > Gold
Displacement Reactions:
● A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its compound
● Example: Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
● Zinc is more reactive than copper, so it displaces copper from copper sulfate
● The further apart two metals are in the reactivity series, the more vigorous the
reaction
● Reactions with Water and Acids:
● Metals high in the reactivity series react with cold water
Example: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
Metals in the middle of the series react with steam (but not cold water)
Example: Mg + H₂O (steam) → MgO + H₂
Metals lower in the series react with acids (but not water)
Example: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
● Metals very low in the series don't react with acids
5.2 Using the Reactivity Series and Displacement Reactions
Practical Applications:
Extraction of metals: The method used depends on reactivity
● Very reactive metals (like aluminum) are extracted by electrolysis
● Less reactive metals (like iron) are extracted by reduction with carbon
● Unreactive metals (like gold) exist as elements and can be found directly
● Corrosion prevention: More reactive metals can be used as sacrificial anodes
Example: Zinc blocks on ships to prevent rusting of iron
Predicting reactions: The reactivity series helps predict if displacement reactions will occur
Experiment to Determine Reactivity:
Observe reactions of metals with water, steam, and dilute acids
Perform displacement experiments
Observe the vigor of reactions
Rate the metals based on these observations
5.3 Salts
What are Salts?
● Ionic compounds formed when acids react with bases, metals, or carbonates
● Consist of positive ions (from metal or ammonium) and negative ions (from acid)
● General formula: Metal ion + Acid ion = Salt
Types of Salts:
Normal salts: Formed when all hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced
Example: NaCl from HCl
Acidic salts: Formed when only some hydrogen ions are replaced
Example: NaHSO₄ from H₂SO₄
Basic salts: Contain hydroxide or oxide ions along with the metal and acid ions
Example: Zn(OH)Cl
Naming Salts:
● Metal name first, then acid-derived name
Examples:
● From hydrochloric acid: chlorides (e.g., sodium chloride)
● From sulfuric acid: sulfates (e.g., copper sulfate)
● From nitric acid: nitrates (e.g., potassium nitrate)
5.4 Other Ways of Making Salts
Direct Combination:
Metal + Non-metal → Salt
Example: 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
Neutralization:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Reaction with Carbonates:
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example: 2HCl + CaCO₃ → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂
Precipitation Reactions:
Two soluble salts react to form an insoluble salt (precipitate)
Example: AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl↓ + NaNO₃
5.5 Rearranging Atoms
Chemical Reactions:
● Involve breaking bonds in reactants and forming new bonds in products
● Atoms are rearranged but not created or destroyed (Law of Conservation of Mass)
● Represented by chemical equations
Balancing Equations:
Ensure the same number of each type of atom on both sides
Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
● 4 hydrogen atoms on both sides
● 2 oxygen atoms on both sides
Types of Reactions:
Synthesis/Combination: A + B → AB
Decomposition: AB → A + B
Single Replacement/Displacement: A + BC → AC + B
Double Replacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
Combustion: Fuel + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
8. Rates of Reaction
8.1 Measuring the Rate of Reaction
What is Reaction Rate?
● The speed at which reactants are converted into products
Can be measured as:
● Change in concentration of reactants per unit time
● Change in concentration of products per unit time
● Volume of gas produced per unit time
● Mass of product formed per unit time
● Time taken for a visible change (e.g., color change, precipitate formation)
Methods of Measurement:
Gas Collection: Measuring volume of gas produced over time
Mass Change: Measuring decrease in mass as gas escapes
Color Change: Using colorimeters or observing with the naked eye
Precipitation: Measuring time for precipitate to form or disappear
Temperature Change: Measuring heat released or absorbed
Graphical Representation:
● Reaction rate can be shown as a graph of concentration vs. time
● Steeper slope = faster reaction
● As reaction proceeds, rate usually decreases as reactants are used up
8.2 Surface Area and the Rate of Reaction
Effect of Surface Area:
● Increasing surface area increases reaction rate
● More particles are exposed and available for collision
Example: Powdered zinc reacts faster with acid than a solid piece of zinc
Collision Theory:
● Reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy and proper orientation
● Increasing surface area increases frequency of collisions
● More frequent collisions = faster reaction
Practical Applications:
Powdered vs. solid forms: Medications often come in powdered form for faster absorption
Catalysts: Often have large surface areas to maximize effectiveness
Explosives: Fine powders react extremely rapidly
8.3 Temperature and the Rate of Reaction
Effect of Temperature:
● Increasing temperature generally increases reaction rate
● For many reactions, rate approximately doubles for every 10°C increase in
temperature
Why Temperature Affects Rate:
Increased Kinetic Energy: Particles move faster at higher temperatures
More Frequent Collisions: Faster particles collide more often
More Successful Collisions: More particles have energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy
Activation Energy:
● Minimum energy required for a reaction to occur
● Temperature increase means more particles have energy ≥ activation energy
● Can be visualized on an energy profile diagram
Practical Applications:
Food preservation: Lower temperatures slow down spoilage reactions
Cooking: Higher temperatures speed up cooking reactions
Industrial processes: Often performed at optimal temperatures to balance rate and cost
8.4 Concentration and the Rate of Reaction
Effect of Concentration:
● Increasing concentration of reactants generally increases reaction rate
● More particles in the same volume lead to more frequent collisions
Example: More concentrated acid reacts faster with metal than dilute acid
Collision Theory and Concentration:
● Higher concentration means more particles per unit volume
● This increases the frequency of collisions between reactant particles
● More collisions = higher probability of successful reactions = faster rate
Gas Pressure and Reaction Rate:
● For reactions involving gases, increasing pressure has a similar effect to increasing
concentration
● Higher pressure means more gas particles in the same volume
Example: Haber process for ammonia production is performed at high pressure
Limitations:
● For zero-order reactions, concentration has no effect on rate
● For very fast reactions, other factors may become rate-limiting
● In heterogeneous reactions, surface area may be more important than concentration
Exam Preparation Tips
● Understand the concepts rather than memorizing facts
● Practice writing and balancing chemical equations
● Draw diagrams to visualize atomic structures and reactions
● Work through past exam questions to familiarize yourself with question styles
● Create summary notes for each topic
● Explain concepts to someone else - this helps solidify your understanding
● Remember key definitions and be able to apply them
● For calculations, practice showing all your working steps
Key Definitions to Remember
● Atom: The smallest unit of an element that can exist
● Element: A substance made of only one type of atom
● Compound: A substance made of two or more elements chemically combined
● Mixture: Two or more substances physically combined, not chemically bonded
● Ion: An atom or group of atoms with an electrical charge
● Molecule: A group of atoms bonded together
● Reaction rate: The speed at which reactants are converted into products
● Catalyst: A substance that increases reaction rate without being consumed
● Activation energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur