Lecture-4

Internal Combustion Engines

Dr. K. S. Patel,
Department of MechanicalEngineering
NationalInstitute of Technology Rourkela
1
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Horsepower

• The term horsepower was invented by the engineer

James Watt. Watt lived from 1736 to 1819 and is most
famous for his work on improving the performance of
steam engines. We are also reminded of him every
day when we talk about 60-watt light bulbs.

• The story goes that Watt was working with ponies lifting
coal at a coal mine, and he wanted a way to talk
about the power available from one of these
animals. He found that, on average, a mine pony
could do 22,000 foot-pounds of work in a minute.
He then increased that number by 50 percent and
pegged the measurement of horsepower at 33,000
foot-pounds of work in one minute. It is that arbitrary
unit of measure that has made its way down through
the centuries and now appears on our cars, lawn
mowers, chain saws and even in vacuum cleaner!

2
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 3
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Horsepower

• What horsepower means: In Watt's

judgement, one horse can do 33,000 foot-
pounds of work every minute. A horse
exerting 1 horsepower can raise 330
pounds of coal 100 feet in a minute, or 33
pounds of coal 1,000 feet in one minute, or
1,000 pounds 33 feet in one minute.
Whatever combination of feet and pounds
as long as the product is 33,000 foot-
pounds in one minute, you have a
horsepower.
4
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Conversion of HP

• Horsepower can be converted into other units as well. For

example:
• 1 horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts. So if you took a 1-
horsepower horse and put it on a treadmill, it could
operate a generator producing a continuous 746 watts.
• 1 horsepower (over the course of an hour) is equivalent to
2,545 BTU (British thermal units). If you took that 746 watts and
ran it through an electric heater for an hour, it would produce
2,545 BTU (where a BTU is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree F).
• One BTU is equal to 1,055 joules, or 252 gram- calories or
0.252 food Calories. Presumably, a horse producing 1
horsepower would burn 641 Calories in one hour if it were
100-percent efficient.
5
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Engine Performance

❑Maximum Rated Power: The highest power

developed by an engine for short period of
time / operation.

❑Normal Rated Power: Highest power developed

by an engine in continuous operation.

❑Rated Speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at

which rated power is developed.

6
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Basic Terminology

❑ Bore (B): The diameter of Vc

TDC
B
the cylinder of an engine
VTotal Vd L
❑ TDC: The top-most position
of the piston inside the BDC

cylinder of an engine.
❑BDC: The bottom-most position of
the piston inside the cylinder of an C
engine.
❑ Stroke (L): The distance
through which the piston
moves from TDC to BDC or a
BDC to TDC.

7
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Remark

❑Bore sizes of engines range from 0.5 m down to 0.5 cm (i.e.,

20 inch to 0.2 inch).

❑ An engine with B=L is called a square engine.

❑If stroke length (L) is greater than the bore diameter (B), the
engine is called an under square engine (Smaller diameter
cylinder with shorter flame travel distance; Combustion
chamber surfa ce are a will be smaller resulting less heat loss per
cycle).

❑If stroke length

(L) is less than the bore diameter (B), the engine
iscalled an over square engine.

8
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Remark

❑In an over square

engine, the shorter
stroke length gives
lower average piston
speed and hence
lower frictional losses.

9
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Basic Terminology – Contd.

❑Clearance Volume (V c ): Vc
B
TDC

The space between the top VTotal Vd L

dead center and the
BDC
cylinder head.
❑Swept or Displaced Volume
(Vd): The volume that the C

piston displaces or sweeps

out as it moves from one
dead center to the other. This
is equal to the cross-sectional a
area of piston multiplied by
the stroke.
10
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Clearance and Swept/Displaced Volumes

11
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 12
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Basic Terminology – Contd.

❑Cylinder Capacity (VE): Engine sizes are compared

on the basis of total cylinder swept volume known as
engine cylinder capacity. Thus, it is equal to the swept
volume of each cylinder times the number of
cylinders. It is also known as the cubic capacity (CC)
of the engine.

❑Compression Ratio (r): It is the ratio of the

maximum cylinder volume (when the piston is at
BDC) to the minimum cylinder volume (when the
piston is at TDC), i.e., the ratio of sum of swept and
clearance volumes to clearance volume.
13
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Compression ratio

Most cars: 8:1 – 12:1

High-performance cars: 15:1

Diesel: 20:1

14
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 ❑ Mean Piston Speed:

2LN
Up =
60
Note: T he rotational speed (RPM) = N,
Time for 1 revolution (360 CA)= 1/N
Time for ½ revolution (180 CA)= 1/2N
i.e., time for 1 stroke of the piston
Length covered by the piston in 1 stroke = L

 Up = L 1
1 .
60
2N
❖ Mean piston speed is often used as an appropriate
parameter than crank rotational speed for
correlating engine behavior as a function of speed.

15
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Remark

❑Piston speed determines the instantaneous flow

rate of air-fuel into the cylinder during intake and
exhaust flow out of the cylinder.

❑ Higher piston speeds would require larger

valves to allow for higher flow rates. In most
engines, valves are at a maximum size with no
room for enlargement.

16
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Geometric Properties
VC
TDC Piston displacement: y = l + a - s
y B

L
(
s = a cos + l 2 − a 2 sin 2  )
1/ 2

When the piston is at TDC (s= l+a) the cylinder

BDC volume equals the clearance volume Vc

The cylinder volume at any crank angle is:

l
s
B 2
Connecting rod V = Vc + Ac y = Vc + (l + a − s)
4
Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:

a Vd =  B 2
L
4
Compression ratio:
For most engines B ~ L VBC Vc +Vd
rc = =
(“square engine”) VTC Vc
17
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Geometric Properties

VC
B
TDC
(
s = a cos + l 2 − a 2 sin 2  )
1/ 2

L Average and instantaneous piston velocity are:

BDC
U p = 2LN
ds
Up =
dt
l
s where N is the rotational speed of the crank shaft in units
revolutions per second

 Average piston speed for standard auto engine is about

a 15 m/s. Ultimately limited by material strength. Therefore
engines with large strokes run at lower speeds than
those with small strokes run at higher speeds.

18
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle

❑The effect of R
R = l/a
on piston speed
is shown in the
figure.

❑R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank

offset and usually has values of 3 to 4 for small
engines, and increasing to 5 to 10 for large engines.
19
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
Basic Terminology – Contd.
❑Torque (T): It is equal to the product of the force acting
along the connecting rod and the perpendicular distance
between this force and the center of rotation of the
crankshaft.
T= Fr
where, T= engine torque (N-m)
F = force applied to crank (N)
and r = effective crank-arm radius (m)

Torque is the turning effort about the crankshaft’s axis of

rotation.

❑ Modern automobile engines have maximum torque in

the range of 200 to 300 N-m at engine speeds around
4000 to 6000 rpm.
20 January 2026
20
Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Torque – Contd.
p
p
p

R r
r
T r
T R
T R
F F
F
Variation of torque during crankshaft rotation (p=gas
pressure; F=connecting rod thrust; R=crank throw;
r=effective crank radius; T=turning effort or torque).
20 January 2026
20
Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Torque and Power

Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.

b

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T = F b units : J
The power W˙ delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:
units : 
rad  rev 
Ẇ =  T = (2  N ) T  (J ) = Watt
 rev  s 
Note:  is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s
22
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 TORQUE

❑Torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work and power is the rate at

which work is done.
❑ Note torque is independent of crank speed.

❑ Torque is related to work by

𝟐𝝅𝑻 = 𝑾𝒃 = 𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒑 𝑽𝒅 Τ𝒏
Where, 𝑊𝑏 = brake work of one revolution
𝑉𝑑 = displacement volume
𝑛 = number of revolutions per cycle.
(1 revolution per cycle for two-stroke, 2 revolutions per cycle for four-stroke)
❑ As torque is measured off the output crankshaft, bmep and brake work
are used.

23
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 POWER

❑Power is defined as the rate of work of the engine.

❑ 𝑛 = number of revolutions per cycle,
N = engine speed

𝑃 = 2π𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁 𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑉𝑑 Τ𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝐿Τ𝑛 = 𝒎𝒆𝒑 𝑨𝒑 U p Τ𝟐𝒏

𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 𝑊Τ𝑉𝑑
2π𝑇 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑉𝑑 Τ𝑛
U p = 2LN
Where, 𝑊 = work per cycle
𝐴𝑝 = piston face area of all pistons
𝑈𝑝 = average piston speed

24
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Brake Power

❑The term brake power ˙ ,

Wb is used to specify that the power and is measured at the
output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load.

❑The brake power is less than the power generated by the gas in the cylinders
due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil pump, air conditioner
compressor, etc.)

❑The power produced in the cylinder istermed the indic ated power, ˙Wi .

❑Indicated power increases with engine speed while brake power increases to a
maximum and then decreases. This is because friction power increases with
engine speed to a higher power and becomes dominant at higher speeds.

25
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Basic Terminology – Contd.

❑Mean Effective Pressure (mep): The pressure

inside the cylinder of an engine varies
considerably during the cycle. Peak pressure
occurs just after TDC, and it drops as the piston
moves toward BDC. When quoting cylinder
pressure, it is therefore, more helpful to refer to
the average or mean effective pressure
throughout the whole power stroke.
❑For brake work, the corresponding term used
is brake mean effective pressure (bmep), and
for indicated work the corresponding term is the
indicated mean effective pressure (imep).
4    (4 stroke) 2   
bmep = bmep = (2 stroke)
Vd Vd
26
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Maximum BMEP

•The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a

particular engine speed.
• Closing the throttle decreases the bmep.
•For a given displa cement, a higher maximum
bmep means more torque.
•For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep
means smaller engine.
• Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses
and temperatures in the engine hence shorter
engine life, or bulkier engine.
•For the same bmep 2-strokes have almost twice
the power of 4-stroke.
27
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well
established:

Four stroke engines:

SI engines: bmep= 850-1050 kPa* CI engines:

bmep= 700 -900 kPa
Turbocharged SI engines: bmep= 1250 -1700 kPa Turbocharged
CI engines: bmep= 1000 - 1200 kPa

Two stroke engines:

Standard CI engines comparable bmep to four stroke Large slow CI
engines: 1600 kPa

*Values are at maximum brake torque and WOT (full throttle)

Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less

Can use above maximum bmep in design calculations to estimate engine

displacement required to provide a given torque or power at a specified speed.
28
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics

Vehicle Engine Displ. Max Power Max Torque BMEP at BMEP at

type (L) (HP@rpm) (lb-ft@rpm) Max BT Rated BP
(bar) (bar)
Mazda L4 1.839 122@6000 117@4000 10.8 9.9
Protégé LX
Honda L4 2.254 150@5700 152@4900 11.4 10.4
Accord EX
Mazda L4 2.255 210@5300 210@3500 15.9 15.7
Millenia S Turbo
BMW L6 2.793 190@5300 206@3950 12.6 11.5
328i
Ferrari V8 3.496 375@8250 268@6000 13.1 11.6
F355 GTS
Ferrari V12 5.474 436@6250 398@4500 12.4 11.4
456 GT
Lamborghini V12 5.707 492@7000 427@5200 12.7 11.0
Diablo VT
29
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Summary

❑Both torque and power are functions of engine

speed. At low speed, torque increases as engine
speed increases. As engine speed increases
further, torque reaches a maximum and then
decreases. Torque decreases because the engine
is unable to ingest a full charge of air at higher
speeds.

❑Indicated power increases with speed, while

brake power increases to a maximum and then
decreases at higher speeds. This is because
friction losses increase with speed and become
the dominant factor at very high speeds.
30
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 Summary

❑For automobile engines, maximum brake power occurs at

about 6000 to 7000 rpm, about one and a half times the
speed of maximum torque.
❑ Greater power can be generated by increasing displacement, mep, and/
or speed. Increased displacement increases engine mass and occupies
more space, and both of these increases engine mass and occupies
more space, and both of these are undesirable.

❑ For this reason, most modern engines are smaller but run at high
speeds, and are often turbocharged or supercharged to increase
mep.

31
20 January 2026 Internal Combustion Engines: Operating Parameters
 References

1. Crouse WH, and Anglin DL, (1985), Automotive Engines, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Eastop TD, and McConkey A, (1993), Applied Thermodynamics for Engg.
Technologists, Addison Wisley.
3. Fergusan CR, and Kirkpatrick AT, (2001), Internal Combustion Engines, John Wiley & Sons.
4. Ganesan V, (2003), Internal Combustion Engines, Tata McGraw Hill.
5. Gill PW, Smith JH, and Ziurys EJ, (1959), Fundamentals of I. C. Engines, Oxford and IBH Pub Ltd.
6. Heisler H, (1999), Vehicle and Engine Technology,Arnold Publishers.
7. Heywood JB, (1989), Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw Hill.
8. Heywood JB, and Sher E, (1999), The Two-Stroke CycleEngine, Taylor & Francis.
9. Joel R, (1996), Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, Addison-Wesley.
10. Mathur ML, and Sharma RP, (1994), A Course in Internal Combustion Engines,
Dhanpat Rai & Sons, New Delhi.
11. Pulkrabek WW, (1997), Engineering Fundamentals of the I. C. Engine, Prentice Hall.
12. Rogers GFC, and Mayhew YR, (1992), EngineeringThermodynamics,Addison Wisley.
13. Srinivasan S, (2001), Automotive Engines, Tata McGraw Hill.
14. Stone R, (1992), Internal Combustion Engines, The Macmillan Press Limited, London.
15. Taylor CF, (1985), TheInternal-CombustionEnginein TheoryandPractice,Vol. 1 & 2, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

32
 Web Resources

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link] me429/lecture-air-cyc-web%5B1%[Link]
9. [Link]
10. [Link]
11. [Link]
12. [Link]
13. [Link] ppt/6-12
14. [Link]
15. [Link]
16. [Link]
17. [Link] secondary/powerpoint/[Link]
18. [Link]
19. [Link]
20. [Link]
21. [Link]
22. [Link]
23. [Link] -

33
20 January 2026