Chapter Seven

Stress, Stress Management and Basic Nutrition

7.1. Stress

In today’s fast-paced society, most people complain about being stressed. However, when they
use the term stress, they rarely know its true meaning. The word carries many negative
connotations and is associated with an unpleasant or traumatic event. As such, people mistakenly
believe that stress is simply the nervousness and tension experienced prior to, during, or after a
negative event. In fact, the effects of stress are physiological, emotional, and psychological.

Additionally, not all levels of stress are detrimental. The stress athletes experience right before a
big game or college students feel right before an exam can enhance focus and increase their
ability to concentrate. Stress is either good or bad depending on how long it persists and how it is
perceived by the individual.

What Is Stress and How Does It Affect Wellness?

Stress is defined as the body’s physical, mental, and emotional response to a particular stimulus,
called a stressor. This adaption/coping-response helps the body prepare for challenging
situations. It is the level of a person’s response to a stressor that determines whether the
experience is positive or negative. As a hardworking college student, you may feel as if you
know the meaning of stress all too well. You may dream of a future where the demands on your
time are diminished, so you can escape the high levels of stress you are feeling now.
Unfortunately, regardless of their situation, everyone experiences stress on a regular basis. The
good news is, not all stress is bad! Small levels of stress can enhance cognitive brain function.
Stress may provide the motivation and concentration you need to write an essay, practice a
speech, or prepare for a job interview. For most people, these types of stressors are manageable
and not harmful. Stressors that have the potential for harm include the sudden loss of a loved
one, the unexpected ending of a romantic relationship, or the unfair demands of an unreasonable
boss.

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Defining Stress

Stress, then, is more than simply the tension and apprehension generated by problems, obstacles,
or traumatic events. Stress is the body’s automatic response (physical, mental, and emotional) to
any stressor. It is a natural and unavoidable part of life, and it can be empowering and
motivating, or harmful and potentially dangerous.

Effects of Stress on Wellness

As stated previously, not all stress is bad. In fact, the stress associated with riding a roller
coaster, watching a scary movie, or scaling a cliff can enhance these experiences. Regardless of
whether the stress experienced is negative or positive, the effects on the body are identical. When
a person senses that a situation demands action, the body responds by releasing chemicals into
the blood. The hypothalamus signals the adrenal glands to release a surge of hormones that
include adrenaline and cortisol. The physiological effects of those chemicals—enhanced focus,
quicker reaction time, and increased heart rate, energy, and strength—are quite beneficial when
faced with a potentially dangerous situation that is temporary.

Unfortunately, most of the stressors people face—work, school, finances, relationships—are a

part of everyday life, and thus, inescapable. Experiencing ongoing, unavoidable stress can result
in some very unpleasant and harmful effects, both mental and physical. Chronic stress can cause
upset stomach, headaches, sleep problems, and heart disease. It can also cause depression,
anxiety, and even memory loss.

What Are the Strategies for Managing Stress?

Although stress in everyday life is unavoidable, there are ways to cope with it that will minimize
or eliminate its harmful effects.

When you are feeling anxious or stressed, these strategies will help you cope:

 Take a time-out. Practice yoga, listen to music, meditate, get a massage, or learn
relaxation techniques. Stepping back from the problem helps clear your head.
 Eat well-balanced meals. Do not skip any meals. Do keep healthful, energy-boosting
snacks on hand.

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  Limit alcohol and caffeine, which can aggravate anxiety and trigger panic attacks.
 Get enough sleep. When stressed, your body needs additional sleep and rest.
 Exercise daily to help you feel good and maintain your health. Check out the fitness tips
below.
 Take deep breaths. Inhale and exhale slowly.
 Count to 10 slowly. Repeat, and count to 20 if necessary.
 Do your best. Instead of aiming for perfection, which isn't possible, be proud of however
close you get
 Accept that you cannot control everything. Put your stress in perspective: Is it really as
bad as you think?
 Welcome humor. A good laugh goes a long way.
 Maintain a positive attitude. Make an effort to replace negative thoughts with positive
ones.
 Get involved. Volunteer or find another way to be active in your community, which
creates a support network and gives you a break from everyday stress.
 Learn what triggers your anxiety. Is it work, family, school, or something else you can
identify? Write in a journal when you’re feeling stressed or anxious and look for a
pattern.
 Talk to someone. Tell friends and family you’re feeling overwhelmed, and let them
know how they can help you. Talk to a physician or therapist for professional help.

Fitness Tips: Stay Healthy, Manage Stress

To receive the greatest benefits from exercising, try to include at least 2½ hours of moderate-
intensity physical activity (e.g., brisk walking) each week, 1¼ hours of a vigorous-intensity
activity (such as jogging or swimming laps), or a combination of the two.

 5 X 30: Jog, walk, bike, or dance three to five times a week for 30 minutes.
 Set small daily goals and aim for daily consistency rather than perfect workouts. It is
better to walk every day for 15–20 minutes than to wait until the weekend for a three-
hour fitness marathon. Lots of scientific data suggests that frequency is most important.
 Find forms of exercise that are fun or enjoyable. Extroverted people often like classes
and group activities. People who are more introverted often prefer solo pursuits.

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  Distract yourself with an iPod or other portable media player to download audiobooks,
podcasts, or music. Many people find it is more fun to exercise while listening to material
they enjoy.
 Recruit an “exercise buddy.” It is often easier to stick to your exercise routine when you
have to stay committed to a friend, partner, or colleague.
 Be patient when you start a new exercise program. Most sedentary people require about
four to eight weeks to feel coordinated and sufficiently in shape so that exercise feels
easier.

7.2. Basic nutrition and health.

The Basics

Nutrition can be defined as the science of the action of food, beverages, and their components in
biological systems. A nutrient is a compound that provides a needed function in the body.
Nutrients can be further classified based on the amount needed in the body. Macronutrients are
the nutrients the body needs in larger amounts. Micronutrients are also important nutrients, but
ones the body needs in smaller amounts.

Macronutrients
Carbohydrates

The word carbohydrate literally means "hydrated carbon," or carbon with water. Thus, it is no
surprise that carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Sucrose (table sugar)
is an example of a commonly consumed carbohydrate. Some dietary examples of carbohydrates
are whole-wheat bread, oatmeal, rice, sugary snacks/drinks, and pasta.

Proteins

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Like carbohydrates, proteins are comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but they also
contain nitrogen. Several dietary sources of proteins include nuts, beans/legumes, skim milk, egg
whites, and meat.

Lipids

Lipids consist of fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols (cholesterol). Lipids are
also composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some dietary sources of lipids include, oils,
butter, and egg yolks.

Water

Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen and is the only macronutrient that provides no energy.

Micronutrients
• Vitamins

These compounds are essential for normal physiologic processes in the body.

Minerals

Minerals are the elements (think periodic table) that are essential for normal physiologic
processes in the body.

Calories (Food Energy)

Food energy is measured in kilocalories (kcals), commonly referred to as calories. Although

technically incorrect, this terminology is so familiar that it will be used throughout this course. A
kilocalorie is the amount of energy needed to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius. A
food’s kilocalories are determined by putting the food into a bomb calorimeter and determining
the energy output: Energy = Measurement of Heat Produced. Below is a picture of a bomb
calorimeter and a link to a video showing how one is used.

The number of kilocalories per gram for each nutrient is shown below:

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As the table above illustrates, only carbohydrates, protein, and lipids provide energy. However,
there is another dietary energy source that is not a nutrient— alcohol. To emphasize, alcohol is
not a nutrient, but it does provide 7 kilocalories of energy per gram.

Knowing the number of calories in each nutrient allows a person to calculate/estimate the
amount of calories contained in any food consumed.

My Plate

On average, a person needs 1500 to 2000 calories per day to sustain (or carry out) daily
activities. The total number of calories needed by one person is dependent on their body mass,
age, height, gender, activity level, and the amount of exercise per day. If exercise is regular part
of one’s day, more calories are required. As a rule, people underestimate the number of calories
ingested and overestimate the amount they burn through exercise. This can lead to ingestion of
too many calories per day. The accumulation of an extra 3500 calories adds one pound of weight.
If an excess of 200 calories per day is ingested, one extra pound of body weight will be gained
every 18 days. At that rate, an extra 20 pounds can be gained over the course of a year. Of
course, this increase in calories could be offset by increased exercise. Running or jogging one
mile burns almost 100 calories.

The type of food ingested also affects the body’s metabolic rate. Processing of carbohydrates
requires less energy than processing of proteins. In fact, the breakdown of carbohydrates requires
the least amount of energy, whereas the processing of proteins demands the most energy. In
general, the amount of calories ingested and the amount of calories burned determines the overall
weight. To lose weight, the number of calories burned per day must exceed the number ingested.
Calories are in almost everything you ingest, so when considering calorie intake, beverages must
also be considered.

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To help provide guidelines regarding the types and quantities of food that should be eaten every
day, the USDA has updated their food guidelines from MyPyramid to MyPlate. They have put
the recommended elements of a healthy meal into the context of a place setting of food. MyPlate
categorizes food into the standard six food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains, protein foods, dairy,
and oils. The accompanying website gives clear recommendations regarding quantity and type of
each food that you should consume each day, as well as identifying which foods belong in each
category. The accompanying graphic (Figure) gives a clear visual with general recommendations
for a healthy and balanced meal. The guidelines recommend to “Make half your plate fruits and
vegetables.” The other half is grains and protein, with a slightly higher quantity of grains than
protein. Dairy products are represented by a drink, but the quantity can be applied to other dairy
products as well.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture developed food guidelines called MyPlate to help
demonstrate how to maintain a healthy lifestyle.

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 Chapter Eight
Planning and management of the fitness program
8.1. Planning fitness program

Physical training works best when you have a plan. A plan helps you make gradual but steady
progress toward your goals. Once you’ve determined that exercise is safe for you, planning for
physical fitness consists of assessing how fi t you are now, determining where you want to be,
and choosing the right activities to help you get there.

Getting Medical Clearance

People of any age who are not at high risk for serious health problems can safely exercise at a
moderate intensity (60% or less of maximum heart rate) without a prior medical evaluation.
Likewise, if you are male and under 40 or female and under 50 and in good health, exercise is
probably safe for you. If you do not fi t into these age groups or if you have health problems—
especially high blood pressure, heart disease, muscle or joint problems, or obesity—see your
physician before starting a vigorous exercise program.

Assessing Yourself

The fi rst step in creating a successful fi tness program is to assess your current level of physical
activity and fitness for each of the fi ve health-related fi tness components. The results of the
assessment tests will help you set specific fitness goals and plan your fi tness program.

Setting Goals

The ultimate general goal of every health-related fitness program is the same—wellness that lasts
a lifetime. Whatever your specifi c goals, they must be important enough to you to keep you

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motivated. Most sports psychologists believe that setting and achieving goals is the most
effective way to stay motivated about exercise.

Choosing Activities for a Balanced Program

An ideal fitness program combines a physically active lifestyle with a systematic exercise
program to develop and maintain physical fitness. This overall program is shown in the physical
activity pyramid in Figure 2.3. If you are currently sedentary, your goal should be to focus on
activities at the bottom of the pyramid and gradually increase the amount of moderate-intensity
physical activity in your daily life. Appropriate activities include walking briskly, climbing
stairs, doing yard work, and washing your car. You don’t have to exercise vigorously, but you
should experience a moderate increase in your heart and breathing rates. As described earlier,
your activity time can be broken up into small blocks over the course of a day.

The next two levels of the pyramid illustrate parts of a formal exercise program. The principles
of this program are consistent with those of the American College of Sports Medicine, the
professional organization for people involved in sports medicine and exercise science.

The ACSM has established guidelines for creating an exercise program that will develop
physical fi tness (Table 2.2). A balanced program includes activities to develop all the health-
related components of fitness:

Cardiorespiratory endurance is developed by continuous rhythmic movements of large-muscle

groups in activities such as walking, jogging, cycling, swimming, and aerobic dance and other
forms of group exercise. Choose activities that you enjoy and that are convenient. Other popular
choices are in-line skating, dancing, and backpacking. Start-and-stop activities such as tennis,
racquetball, and soccer can also develop cardiorespiratory endurance if your skill level is suffi
cient to enable periods of continuous play.

• Muscular strength and endurance can be developed through resistance training—training with
weights or performing calisthenic exercises such as push-ups and curl-ups.

Flexibility is developed by stretching the major muscle groups regularly and with proper
technique.

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Healthy body composition can be developed through a sensible diet and a program of regular
exercise. Cardiorespiratory endurance exercise is best for reducing body fat; resistance training
builds muscle mass, which, to a small extent, helps increase metabolism.

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 8.2. Managing fitness program

Guidelines for Training

The following guidelines will make your exercise program more effective and successful.
Train the Way You Want Your Body to Change Stress your body so it adapts in the desired
manner. To have a more muscular build, lift weights. To be more flexible, do stretching
exercises. To improve performance in a particular sport, practice that sport or its movements.
Train Regularly Consistency is the key to improving fitness. Fitness improvements are lost if too
much time passes between exercise sessions.

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Start Slowly, and Get in Shape Gradually As Figure 2.5 shows, an exercise program can be
divided into three phases:

 Beginning phase. The body adjusts to the new type and level of activity.
 Progress phase . Fitness increases.
 Maintenance phase. The targeted level of fitness is sustained over the long term.

When beginning a program, start slowly to give your body time to adapt to the stress of exercise.
Choose activities carefully according to your fitness status. If you have been sedentary or are
overweight, try an activity such as walking or swimming that won’t jar the body or strain the
joints.

As you progress, increase duration and frequency before increasing intensity. If you train too
much or too intensely, you are more likely to suffer injuries or become over trained, a condition
characterized by lack of energy, aching muscles and joints, and decreased physical performance.
Injuries and overtraining slow down an exercise program and impede motivation. The goal is not
to get in shape as quickly as possible but to gradually become and then remain physically fit.

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Warm up before Exercise Warming up can decrease your chances of injury by helping your body
gradually progress from rest to activity. A good warm-up can increase muscle temperature,
reduce joint stiffness; bathe the joint surfaces in lubricating fl uid, and increase blood flow to the
muscles, including the heart. Some studies suggest that warming up may also enhance muscle
metabolism and mentally prepare you for a workout.

A warm-up should include low-intensity, whole-body movements similar to those used in the
activity that will follow. For example, runners may walk and jog slowly prior to running at full
speed. A tennis player might hit forehands and backhands at a low intensity before playing a
vigorous set of tennis. A warm-up is not the same as a stretching workout. For safety and

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effectiveness, it is best to stretch after an endurance or strength training workout, when muscles
are warm—and not as part of a warm-up.

Cool Down After Exercise During exercise, as much as 90% of circulating blood is directed to
the muscles and skin, up from as little as 20% during rest. If you suddenly stop moving after
exercise, the amount of blood returning to your heart and brain may be insufficient, and you may
experience dizziness, a drop in blood pressure, or other problems. Cooling down at the end of a
workout helps safely restore circulation to its normal resting condition. So don’t sit or lie down
or jump into the shower after exercise without cooling down first. Cool down by continuing to
move at a slow pace— walking, for example—for 5–10 minutes, as your heart and breathing rate
slowly return to normal. At the end of the cool-down period, do stretching exercises while your
muscles are still warm. Cool down longer after intense exercise sessions.

Exercise Safely Physical activity can cause injury or even death if you don’t consider safety. For
example, you should always:

 Wear a helmet when biking, skiing, or rock climbing.

 Wear eye protection when playing racquetball or squash.
 Wear bright clothing when exercising on a public street.
 Walk or run with a partner in a park or on a deserted track.
 Give vehicles plenty of leeway, even when you have the right of way

Overloading your muscles and joints can lead to serious injury, so train within your capacity.
Use high-quality equipment and keep it in good repair. Report broken gym equipment to the
health club manager.

Listen to Your Body and Get Adequate Rest Rest can be as important as exercise for improving
fitness. Fitness reflects an adaptation to the stress of exercise. Building fitness involves a series
of exercise stresses, recuperation, and adaptation leading to improved fi tness, followed by
further stresses. Build rest into your training program, and don’t exercise if it doesn’t feel right.
Sometimes you need a few days of rest to recover enough to train with the intensity required for
improving fi tness. Getting enough sleep is an important part of the recovery process. On the
other hand, you can’t train sporadically, either. If you listen to your body and it always tells you
to rest, you won’t make any progress.

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Cycle the Volume and Intensity of Your Workouts To add enjoyment and variety to your
program and to further improve fi tness, don’t train at the same intensity during every workout.
Train intensely on some days and train lightly on others. Proper management of workout
intensity is a key to improving physical fitness. Use cycle training, also known as periodization,
to provide enough recovery for intense training: By training lightly one workout, you can train
harder the next. However, take care to increase the volume and intensity of your program
gradually—never more than 10% per week.

Vary Your Activities Change your exercise program from time to time to keep things fresh and
help develop a higher degree of fi tness. The body adapts quickly to an exercise stress, such as
walking, cycling, or swimming. Gains in fi tness in a particular activity become more difficult
with time. Varying the exercises in your program allows you to adapt to many types of exercise
and develops fitness in a variety of activities.

Train with a Partner Training partners can motivate and encourage each other through rough
spots and help each other develop proper exercise techniques. Training with a partner can make
exercising seem easier and more fun. It can also help you keep motivated and on track. A
commitment to a friend is a powerful motivator.

Train Your Mind Becoming fit requires commitment, discipline, and patience. These qualities
come from understanding the importance of exercise and having clear and reachable goals.

Fuel Your Activity Appropriately Good nutrition, including rehydration and resynthesis of liver
and muscle carbohydrate stores, is part of optimal recuperation from exercise. Consume enough
calories to support your exercise program without gaining body fat. Many studies show that
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consuming carbohydrates and protein before or after exercise promotes restoration of stored fuels
and helps heal injured tissues so that you can exercise intensely again shortly.

Have Fun You are more likely to stick with an exercise program if it’s fun. Choose a variety of
activities that you enjoy. Some people like to play competitive sports, such as tennis, golf, or
volleyball. Competition can boost motivation, but remember: Sports are competitive, whereas
training for fi tness is not. Other people like more solitary activities, such as jogging, walking, or
swimming. Still others like high-skill individual sports, such as skiing, surfing, or skateboarding.
Many activities can help you get fi t, so choose the ones you enjoy. You can also boost your
enjoyment and build your social support network by exercising with friends and family.

Track Your Progress Monitoring the progress of your program can help keep you motivated and
on track. Depending on the activities you’ve included in your program, you may track different
measures of your program—minutes of jogging, miles of cycling, laps of swimming, number of
push-ups, amount of weight lifted, and so on. If your program is focused on increasing daily
physical activity, consider using an inexpensive pedometer to monitor the number of steps you
take each day.

Keep Your Exercise Program in Perspective As important as physical fitness is, it is only part of
a wellrounded life. You have to have time for work and school, family and friends, relaxation
and hobbies. Some people become overinvolved in exercise and neglect other parts of their lives.
They think of themselves as runners, dancers, swimmers, or triathletes rather than as people who
participate in those activities. Balance and moderation are the key ingredients of a fi t and well
life.

8.3. Planning and logging participation in active aerobics, sports and recreation

Fitness centers can provide you with many benefits—motivation and companionship are among
the most important. A fitness center may also offer expert instruction and supervision as well as
access to better equipment than you could afford on your own. There are an estimated 29,600
health clubs in the United States, serving more than 41.5 million members. All fitness centers,
however, are not of the same overall quality. Many health facilities cater to people with very
specific exercise or fitness goals. In other words, every fi tness center is not for every person. If

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you’re thinking of joining a fi tness center, here are some guidelines to help you choose a club
that’s right for you.

Convenience

 Look for an established facility that’s within 10–15 minutes of your home or work. If it’s
farther away, your chances of sticking to an exercise regimen start to diminish.
 Check out the facility’s hours, then visit it at the time you would normally exercise. Is
there adequate parking? Will you have easy access to the equipment and exercise classes
you want at that time?
 If needed, ask about child-care or youth programs. Whaservices are available, and how
are they supervised?

Atmosphere

 Look around to see if there are other members who are your age and at about your fi
tness level. Some clubs cater to a certain age group or lifestyle, such as hard-core
bodybuilders.
 If you like to exercise to music, make sure you like the music played there, both its type
and volume.
 Observe how the members dress. Will you fi t in, or will you be uncomfortable?
 Observe the staff. Are they easy to identify? Are they friendly and helpful?
 Check to see that the facility is clean, including showers and lockers. Make sure the
facility is climate controlled, well ventilated, and well lit.
Safety
 Find out if the facility offers some type of preactivity screening as well as basic fitness
testing that includes cardiovascular screening.
 Determine if personnel are trained in CPR and if there is emergency equipment such as
automated external defibrillators (AEDs) on the premises. An AED can help someone
who has cardiac arrest.
 Ask if at least one staff member on each shift is trained in first aid.
 Find out if the club has an emergency plan in case a member has a heart attack or serious
injury (many clubs do not). The facility should also have an evacuation plan, as well as

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 established procedures for responding to other types of emergencies. All personnel
should be trained in carrying out these plans.
Trained Personnel
 Determine if the personal trainers and fi tness instructors are certified by a
recognized professional association such as the American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM), Aerobics and Fitness Association of America (AFAA),
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), or American Council
on Exercise (ACE). All personal trainers are not equal; more than 100
organizations certify trainers, and few of these require much formal training.
Trainers with college degrees in exercise physiology or physical education are
usually the most knowledgeable.
 Find out if the club has a trained exercise physiologist on staff, such as someone
with a degree in exercise physiology, kinesiology, or exercise science. If the
facility offers nutritional counseling, it should employ someone who is a
registered dietitian (RD) or has similar formal training.
 Ask how much experience the instructors have. Clubs may employ people
because they are good athletes or look fi t; by themselves, these are not good
reasons to hire someone. Ideally, trainers should have both academic preparation
and practical experience.

Cost

 Buy only what you need and can afford. If you want to use only workout equipment, you
may not need a club that has racquetball courts and saunas.
 Check the contract. Choose the one that covers the shortest period of time possible,
especially if it’s your first fi tness club experience. Don’t feel pressured to sign a long-
term contract.
 Make sure the contract permits you to extend your membership if you have a prolonged
illness or go on vacation
 Try out the club. Ask for a free trial workout, or a 1-day pass, or an inexpensive 1- or 2-
week trial membership.
 Find out whether there is an extra charge for the particular services you want. Get any
special offers in writing.

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Effectiveness

 Tour the facility. Does it offer what the brochure says it does? Does it offer the activities
and equipment you want?
 Check the equipment. A good club will have treadmills, bikes, stair-climbers, resistance
machines, and weights. Make sure these machines are up-to-date and well maintained.
 Find out if new members get a formal orientation and instruction on how to safely use the
equipment. Will a staff member help you develop a program that is appropriate for your
current fi tness level and goals?
 Make sure the facility is certified. Look for the displayed names American College of
Sports Medicine (ACSM), American Council on Exercise (ACE), Aerobics and Fitness
Association of America (AFAA), or International Health, Racquet, and Sportsclub
Association (IHRSA).
 Don’t get cheated. Check with your Better Business Bureau or Consumer Affairs office
to see if others have complained about the facility.

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 Chapter Nine
Means, Methods and Measurements of Physical Qualities
1.1. Muscular strength and Endurance

Muscles are used for movement in the body. The largest portion of energy expenditure in the
body happens in muscles while helping us perform daily activities with ease and improving
our wellness. Muscular strength is the amount of force that a muscle can produce one time at
a maximal effort, and muscular endurance is the ability to repeat a movement over an
extended period of time. Resistance training is the method of developing muscular strength
and muscular endurance, which in turns improves wellness. However, achieving the best
muscular performance requires the assistance of a trained professional.
Muscular Physiology
Muscles are highly specialized to contract forcefully. Muscles are powered by muscle cells,
which contract individually within a muscle to generate force. This force isneeded to create
movement.

There are over 600 muscles in the human body; they are responsible for every movement we
make, from pumping blood through the heart and moving food through the digestive system, to
blinking and chewing. Without muscle cells, we would be unable to stand, walk, talk, or perform
everyday tasks.

Types of Muscle

There are three types of muscle:

1. Skeletal Muscle: Responsible for body movement.

2. Cardiac Muscle: Responsible for the contraction of the heart.
3. Smooth Muscle: Responsible for many tasks, including movement of food along
intestines, enlargement and contraction of blood vessels, size of pupils, and many other
contractions.

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Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton and are responsible for the movement of our
limbs, torso, and head. They are under conscious control, which means that we can
consciously choose to contract a muscle and can regulate how strong the contraction
actually is. Skeletal muscles are made up of a number of muscle fibers. Each muscle
fiber is an individual muscle cell and may be anywhere from 1 mm to 4 cm in length.
When we choose to contract a muscle fiber—for instance we contract our bicep to bend
our arm upwards—a signal is sent from our brain via the spinal cord to the muscle. This
signals the muscle fibers to contract. Each nerve will control a certain number of muscle
fibers. The nerve and the fibers it controls are called a motor unit. Only a small number
of muscle fibers will contract to bend one of our limbs, but if we wish to lift a heavy
weight then many more muscles fibers will be recruited to perform the action. This is
called muscle fiber recruitment.

Each muscle fiber is surrounded by connective tissue called an external lamina. A group
of muscle fibers are encased within more connective tissue called the endomysium. The
group of muscle fibers and the endomysium are surrounded by more connective tissue
called the perimysium. A group of muscle fibers surrounded by the perimysium is called
a muscle fasciculus. A muscle is made up of many muscle fasciculi, which are
surrounded by a thick collagenous layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The
epimysium covers the whole surface of the muscle.

Muscle fibers also contain many mitochondria, which are energy powerhouses that are
responsible for the aerobic production of energy molecules, or ATP molecules. Muscle
fibers also contain glycogen granules as a stored energy source, and myofibrils, which
are threadlike structures running the length of the muscle fiber. Myofibrils are made up of
two types of protein: 1) Actin myofilaments, and 2) myosin myofilaments. The actin and
myosin filaments form the contractile part of the muscle, which is called the sarcomere.
Myosin filaments are thick and dark when compared with actin filaments, which are
much thinner and lighter in appearance. The actin and myosin filaments lie on top of one
another; it is this arrangement of the filaments that gives muscle its striated or striped
appearance. When groups of actin and myosin filaments are bound together by

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connective tissue they make the myofibrils. When groups of myofibrils are bound
together by connective tissue, they make up muscle fibers.

The ends of the muscle connect to bone through a tendon. The muscle is connected to
two bones in order to allow movement to occur through a joint. When a muscle contracts,
only one of these bones will move. The point where the muscle is attached to a bone that
moves is called the insertion. The point where the muscle is attached to a bone that
remains in a fixed position is called the origin.

How Muscles Contract

Muscles are believed to contract through a process called the Sliding Filament Theory.
In this theory, the muscles contract when actin filaments slide over myosin filaments
resulting in a shortening of the length of the sarcomeres, and hence, a shortening of the
muscle fibers. During this process the actin and myosin filaments do not change length
when muscles contract, but instead they slide past each other.

During this process the muscle fiber becomes shorter and fatter in appearance. As a
number of muscle fibers shorten at the same time, the whole muscle contracts and causes
the tendon to pull on the bone it attaches to. This creates movement that occurs at the
point of insertion.

For the muscle to return to normal (i.e., to lengthen), a force must be applied to the
muscle to cause the muscle fibers to lengthen. This force can be due to gravity or due to
the contraction of an opposing muscle group.

Skeletal muscles contract in response to an electric signal called an action potential.

Action potentials are conducted along nerve cells before reaching the muscle fibers. The
nerve cells regulate the function of skeletal muscles by controlling the number of action
potentials that are produced. The action potentials trigger a series of chemical reactions
that result in the contraction of a muscle.

When a nerve impulse stimulates a motor unit within a muscle, all of the muscle fibers
controlled by that motor unit will contract. When stimulated, these muscle fibers contract

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on an all-or-nothing basis. The all or-nothing principle means that muscle fibers either
contract maximally along their length or not at all. Therefore, when stimulated, muscle
fibers contract to their maximum level and when not stimulated there is no contraction. In
this way, the force generated by a muscle is not regulated by the level of contraction by
individual fibers, but rather it is due to the number of muscle fibers that are recruited to
contract. This is called muscle fiber recruitment. When lifting a light object, such as a
book, only a small number of muscle fibers will be recruited. However, those that are
recruited will contract to their maximum level. When lifting a heavier weight, many more
muscle fibers will be recruited to contract maximally.

When one muscle contracts, another opposing muscle will relax. In this way, muscles are
arranged in pairs. An example is when you bend your arm at the elbow: you contract your
bicep muscle and relax your tricep muscle. This is the same for every movement in the
body. There will always be one contracting muscle and one relaxing muscle. If you take a
moment to think about these simple movements, it will soon become obvious that unless
the opposing muscle is relaxed, it will have a negative effect on the force generated by
the contracting muscle.

A muscle that contracts, and is the main muscle group responsible for the movement, is
called the agonist or prime mover. The muscle that relaxes is called the antagonist. One
of the effects that regular strength training has is an improvement in the level of
relaxation that occurs in the opposing muscle group. Although the agonist/antagonist
relationship changes, depending on which muscle is responsible for the movement, every
muscle group has an opposing muscle group. Below are examples of agonist and
antagonist muscle group pairings:

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Smaller muscles may also assist the agonist during a particular movement. The smaller
muscle is called the synergist. An example of a synergist would be the deltoid (shoulder)
muscle during a press-up. The front of the deltoid provides additional force during the
press-up; however, most of the force is applied by the pectoralis major (chest). Other
muscle groups may also assist the movement by helping to maintain a fixed posture and
prevent unwanted movement. These muscle groups are called fixators. An example of a
fixator is the shoulder muscle during a bicep curl or tricep extension.

Types of Muscular Contraction

 Isometric
This is a static contraction where the length of the muscle, or the joint angle, does
not change. An example is pushing against a stationary object such as a wall. This
type of contraction is known to lead to rapid rises in blood pressure.
 Isotonic
This is a moving contraction, also known as dynamic contraction. During this
contraction the muscle fattens, and there is movement at the joint.

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Types of Isotonic Contraction

 Concentric
This is when the muscle contracts and shortens against a resistance. This may be referred
to as the lifting or positive phase. An example would be the lifting phase of the bicep curl
 Eccentric
This occurs when the muscle is still contracting and lengthening at the same time. This
may be referred to as the lowering or negative phase.
Muscle Fiber Types: Not all muscle fibers are the same. In fact, there are two main types
of muscle fiber:
 Type I :Often called slow-twitch or highlyoxidative muscle fibers
 Type II: Often called fast-twitch or lowoxidative muscle fibers

Additionally, Type II muscle fibers can be further split into Type IIa and Type IIb. Type IIb
fibers are the truly fast twitch fibers, whereas Type IIa are in between slow and fast twitch.
Surprisingly, the characteristics of Type IIa fibers can be strongly influenced by the type of
training undertaken. Following a period of endurance training, they will start to strongly
resemble Type I fibers, but following a period of strength training they will start to strongly
resemble Type IIb fibers. In fact, following several years of endurance training they may end up
being almost identical to slow-twitch muscle fibers.

Type I (Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers) Slow-twitch muscle fibers contain moremitochondria, the
organelles that produce aerobic energy. They are also smaller, have better blood supply, contract
more slowly, and are more fatigue resistant than their fast-twitch brothers. Slow-twitch muscle
fibers produce energy, primarily, through aerobic metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. The
accelerated rate of aerobic metabolism is enhanced by the large numbers of mitochondria and the
enhanced blood supply. They also contain large amounts of myoglobin, a pigment similar to
hemoglobin that also stores oxygen. The myoglobin provides an additional store of oxygen for
when oxygen supply is limited. This extra oxygen, along with the slow-twitch muscle fibers’
slow rate of contraction, increases their endurance capacity and enhances their fatigue resistance.
Slow-twitch muscle fibers are recruited during continuous exercise at low to moderate levels.

Type IIb (Fast-Twitch Low-oxidative Muscle Fibers) These fibers are larger in size, have a
decreased blood supply, have smaller mitochondria and less of them, contract more rapidly, and
are more adapted to produce energy anaerobically (without the need for oxygen) than slow-

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twitch muscle fibers. Their reduced rate of blood supply, together with their larger size and fewer
mitochondria, makes them less able to produce energy aerobically, and are therefore, not well
suited to prolonged exercise. However, their faster rate of contraction, greater levels of glycogen,
and ability to produce much greater amounts of energy anaerobically make them much more
suited to short bursts of energy. Because of their greater speed of contraction and reduced blood
supply, they are far less fatigue resistant than slowtwitch fibers, and they tire quickly during
exercise.

Numbers of Slow and Fast-Twitch Fibers The number of slow and fast-twitch fibers contained
in the body varies greatly between individuals and is determined by a person’s genetics. People
who do well at endurance sports tend to have a higher number of slow-twitch fibers, whereas
people who are better at sprint events tend to have higher numbers of fast-twitch muscle fibers.
Both the slow twitch and fast-twitch fibers can be influenced by training. It is possible through
sprint training to improve the power generated by slow twitch fibers, and through endurance
training, it is possible to increase the endurance level of fast-twitch fibers. The
level of improvement varies, depending on the individual, and training can never make slow-
twitch fibers as powerful as fasttwitch, nor can training make fast-twitch fibers as fatigue
resistant as slow-twitch fibers.

Resistance Exercise Programing

Designing a resistance exercise program can seem like a daunting task. However, the basics are
very simple. The table below provides instructions for designing an effective resistance exercise
program.

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1.2. Cardiovascular endurance

What is the cardiovascular and respiratory system?

Imagine for a moment climbing to the top of Mt. Everest, a challenging feat very few have
accomplished. In the process, you gradually ascend from base camp, which sits at about 17,500
feet above sea level, to the peak at over 29,000 feet. At this elevation, the pressure of oxygen is
so low, you struggle to take in a satisfying breath. Although you strive to breathe deeply, you are
unable to get enough air. Your heart rate increases and you might even develop nausea and a
headache. Unless your body has a chance to acclimate itself to higher elevations or you gain
access to supplemental oxygen, your symptoms will persist or worsen.

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These are the sensations many people with cardiovascular or respiratory illnesses, such as
asthma, chronic bronchitis, or mild cardiovascular disease, experience on a daily basis. Climbing
up a flight of steps may leave them gasping for air, as would walking briskly or even breathing in
cold air. Regardless of the cause, being unable to take in sufficient air can create a sense of panic
and cause serious physical discomfort.

From this simple example, hopefully, you feel an appreciation for the simple act of breathing and
ensuing satisfaction that comes with each life-sustaining breath. For most people, unless they
engage in strenuous physical activity sufficient to get them breathing hard, their cardiovascular
and respiratory system (heart, blood vessels, and lungs) operates efficiently enough to go
relatively unnoticed. However, does that mean their cardiorespiratory (CR) system is functioning
at optimal capacity? Or, could it be operating at a minimum level and experiencing problems that
go undetected?

How the CR System Works

The cardiorespiratory system operates to obtain and circulate vital compounds throughout the
body—specifically, oxygen and nutrients, such as food energy, vitamins, and minerals. Both
oxygen and nutrients, which are imperative for cellular energy production, must be taken in from
the lungs and digestive system. Because the heart and lungs are so interlocked in this process, the
two systems are often labeledtogether as the cardiorespiratory system. Without a healthy
respiratory system, the body would struggle to bring in enough oxygen, release carbon dioxide
(the chemical waste product of cellular metabolism) and eliminate unwanted particles that enter
the respiratory tract when inhaling. Without a healthy heart, transporting oxygen from the lungs
and nutrients from the digestive system to the body’s cells would be impossible. If the health of
the CR system were compromised enough, survival would be impossible. Additionally, both
must be healthy or the function of one or the other will be compromised.

The CR System and Energy Production

Clearly the cardiovascular and respiratory systems function as one, but why is the CR system so
important? What makes the distribution of oxygen throughout the body so vital to existence? The
answer is simple: ENERGY. While oxygen in and of itself does not contain any energy
(calories), it does combine with fuel extracted from food once it has been introduced into the cell
to help produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the basic form of cellular energy found

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in the body. Because the body stores very little ATP, it must constantly be regenerated. For this
reason, people must continue eating and breathing to live.

Within the context of fitness, the purpose of the cardiorespiratory system is not only to produce
energy but to also adapt in a way so that energy production can be optimized. For example, a
high school cross country runner wants to be fit enough to compete in the state cross country
meet. Unfortunately, this athlete’s current mile times are 6 minutes per mile. In other words, that
is the maximum work rate possible for this athlete. However, the goal is to improve to 5 minutes
per mile, or improve the maximum work rate. To do so, more energy must be produced.
According to the principles of adaptation, it is possible for this athlete to become more efficient
at producing energy, enabling him to run a mile in less time. An example of this adaptation
comes from the world record mile time of 3 minutes and 43 seconds. The world record marathon
time (26.2 miles) is 2 hours, 2 minutes, and 52 seconds. That equates to 4 minutes and 41
seconds per mile over the 26-mile course. That is some serious ATP production!

Oxidative Energy System (Aerobic)

As oxygen and nutrients are delivered to the cells, they are utilized to produce ATP. The
workhorses of the cell for oxidative metabolism are the mitochondria. This form of energy
production is contingent on the ability of the CR system to deliver oxygen and nutrients and the
cell’s ability to process that oxygen. Because of the importance of oxygen in this particular
energy-producing pathway, it is called the oxidative energy system, or aerobic system.

Oxidative energy production is the primary means of ATP production during rest and for
activities that last for 2 minutes or longer. Although other forms of energy production assist in
ATP production at any given time, long duration exercise sessions rely on this aerobic pathway.
Also, in contrast to other forms of ATP production, the oxidative energy system uses both
carbohydrates and fats for fuel sources.

Immediate/Explosive Energy System

While the oxidative system is the primary source of ATP production, it does require a few
minutes for the system to begin operating at full capacity during exercise. How then could the
body immediately produce enough energy to perform a strenuous activity, such as sprinting 50
meters? Clearly, another energy system must drive ATP production. The immediate or explosive
energy system utilizes the storage of creatine phosphate (CP) and the storage of adenosine

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diphosphate, which is stored in very small amounts, to generate ATP. When needed, this energy
system provides enough ATP to sustain a short duration, explosive activity, approximately 10–20
seconds or less. Once CP is depleted, other energy systems must assist in the ATP generating
process.

Non-Oxidative or Anaerobic Energy System

As the name implies, the non-oxidative energy system does not require oxygen to generate
ATP. Instead, the cells where the ATP is produced require glucose (carbohydrates that have been
broken
down) as the fuel source. Like the immediate energy system, this system is associated with high
intensity and short duration movements. While it is possible for some elite athletes to maintain
exercise at “anaerobic” levels for several minutes, even they will eventually fatigue as a result of
the non-oxidative system’s ability to sustain ATP production for events lasting longer
than approximately 2 minutes.

As glucose is processed to produce ATP, the natural byproduct of this process, lactic acid, also
begins to accumulate. The result of excessive lactic acid accumulation contributes to muscle
fatigue, making it impossible to continue exercise at a high intensity.

Assessing CR Fitness

To adequately prepare for starting a personal fitness program, it is important to first assess your
current level of fitness. There are multiple methods for assessing a person’s level of fitness. Each
of the walking/jogging assessments discussed here attempts to estimate a key physiological
marker of the heart’s and lungs’ functioning capacity and maximal oxygen consumption.
Maximal oxygen consumption, or VO2 max, measures the body’s maximum ability to take in
and utilize oxygen, which directly correlates to overall health and fitness. A good estimate of
VO2 max provides a onetime glance at a person’s health and fitness level and a baseline
measurement for reassessment at future dates to gauge improvements.

Some of the most common walking/jogging assessments used to estimate VO2 max include the
12-Minute Walk, 1.5-Mile Run/Walk Test, 3-Minute Step Test, and 1- Mile Walk Test.
Unfortunately, these field assessments, although practical and inexpensive, only provide
estimations. More accurate assessments require a labbased VO2max test using equipment that
measures the volume of oxygen and carbon dioxide being moved in and out of the air passages

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during exercise. Although this test is more accurate, the expense and availability make it
impractical for most. Unlike the lab test, the field assessments are relatively cost free, user-
friendly and require very little expertise to conduct or perform. In addition, the key point of the
assessment is measuring differences rather than absolute values, and the field tests accurately
meet that objective.

Measuring Heart Rate Those starting the VO2max assessments must first measure their heart
rate, an important component used in the calculations.

Creating a Plan to Develop CR Fitness Once the assessments have been completed, the next
step is to develop a plan for maintaining or improving your current level of fitness. This fitness
plan should include activities that are safe and adapted to meet your personal goals. Once these
fitness goals have been identified, the principles of adaptation to change can be utilized to
achieve those goals. These principles include specificity, targeting specific areas in a workout,
and overload, the practice of increasing exertion as the body adapts to ensure continued gains in
fitness levels. Specifically, you need to apply the FITT principle (Fitness, Intensity, Time, and
Type), “Fitness Principles”:

 Frequency: 3–5 days per week for healthy adults.

 Intensity: moderate to vigorous intensity, which equals 40–85% of heart rate reserve, or
55–90% of percentage of max heart rate. (More information about intensity will be
provided later.
 Time/duration: 20–60 minutes per session or accumulation of 150 minutes per week.
Sessions must be continuous for 10 minutes or more.
 Type/mode: Use large muscle groups and exercises specific to cardiorespiratory
exercise.

Measuring Intensity Intensity may be the most important aspect of the FITT principle.
Engaging in a “cardio” program that does not stress the CR system to the recommended
levels will be ineffective. Engaging in a program that overstresses the system can lead to
injury and pose unnecessary risks. So how do you know if you are in the right range?

Heart rate is one of the best ways to measure effort level. Walking and jogging increase a
person’s heart rate. Based on the function of the heart, this is no surprise. The heart rate

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 directly correlates with the amount of oxygen being taken in by the lungs. As activity
increases in intensity, oxygen demands increase and so does heart rate.

Because of this relationship, heart rate can be used in the design of an effective walking
and jogging program by creating target heart rate zones. Heart rate zones represent an
intensity range—a low end heart rate and a high end rate—within which a person’s heart
rate would fall during a walking or jogging session.

The first step in determining your target heart rate (THR), is to determine your
maximum heart rate (MHR), both measured in beats per minute (bpm). Generally,
MHR is estimated to be your age subtracted from 220 beats per minute. In other words,
your heart rate should theoretically stop increasing once it reaches the calculated
maximum. While helpful, it is not uncommon to see variances in the laboratory tested
maximum heart rate versus the calculated method.

The next step in calculating THR is to calculate a specific percentage of your MHR. This
is done using two different methods. Keep in mind, finding the THR is the objective in
both methods, even though slightly different numbers are used. The first method, called
Max Heart Rate Method, is more commonly used.

Max Heart Rate Method

1. Calculate MHR;
 MHR = 220 – age.
2. Calculate high and low THR by plugging in a percentage range. In this example, 60
and 80% are being used.
 MHR x .60 = THRLow
 MHR x .80 =THRHigh
3. The resulting low and high THR numbers represent the range, or target intensity

The target intensity signifies an optimal training zone for that particular walking or ogging
session. By keeping the heart rate within that range, you will drive adaptation specific to that
intensity. By using real, but random numbers, and plugging them into the above equation this
becomes apparent.

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Female, aged 20:

1. MHR = 220 -20

MHR = 200 bpm;
2. THRlow = 200 x .60
THRlow = 120 bpm
THRhigh =200 x .80
THRhigh = 160 bpm
3. THR = 120 - 160 bpm

To achieve her self-established goals, the female in the example above will need to stay within
the range of 120 and 160 bpm. If her efforts are intense enough that she begins to exceed 160
bpm during her session, or easy enough that her heart rate falls below 120 bpm, she would need
to change her intensity mid-session to get the optimal results.

The Karvonen Formula or Heart Rate Reserve Method

1. Calculate MHR; MHR = 220 – age.

2. Determine your resting heart rate (RHR).
3. Find the heart rate reserve (HRR); HRR = MHR – RHR
4. Calculate high and low THR by plugging in a percentage range and then adding in the
RHR. In this example, 60 and 80% are being used.

 THRlow = HRR x .60 + RHR

 THRhigh = HRR x .80 + RHR
5. The resulting low and high THR numbers represent the range, or target intensity.

Clearly, the Karvonen formula requires a few more steps, specifically, the incorporation of the
resting heart rate. Using the same female in the example above, along with a randomly selected
RHR, the THR looks like this:

1. MHR = 220 – 20
 MHR = 200
2. RHR = 72 bpm (randomly selected)

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 3. HRR = MHR – RHR

 HRR = 200 – 72
 HRR = 128
4. THRlow = HRR x .60 + RHR
 THRlow = 128 x .60 + 72
 THRlow = 149 bpm
 THRhigh = HRR x .80 + RHR
 THRhigh = 128 x .80 + 72
 THRhigh = 174 bpm
5. THR = 149 – 174 bpm

A comparison of the two methods, reveals that the low and high end of the Karvonen formula is
much higher than the Max Heart Rate method, even though the exact same percentages have
been used. If the female in this example used the Karvonen Formula, she would find herself at a
much higher intensity, especially at the low end of the range (120 vs. 149 bpm). How can this
be? Aren’t these formulas supposed to have the same objective?

While it is true that both equations are used to estimate a target heart rate range, only the
Karvonen Formula takes into account the RHR, the lowest possible heart rate that can be
measured for that individual. The Max Heart Rate method assumes the lowest heart rate possible
is “0,” a number to be avoided if at all possible! Because of the difference between 0 and the
maximum heart rate, the calculated percentages result in a much lower number. In terms of
accuracy, the Karvonen method is superior. It simply is a better representation of true target
ranges.

1.3. Flexibility
1.4. What is flexibility?

One of the five health-related components of fitness is flexibility. Flexibility relates to the ability
to move a joint through its full range of motion (ROM). Developing a complete fitness program
requires taking time to emphasize this component by stretching. Unfortunately, as the American
Council on Exercise points out, “Most people neglect flexibility training, limiting freedom of
movement, physical and mental relaxation, release of muscle tension and soreness, and injury
prevention.”

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Perhaps the reason it is so easy for people to overlook flexibility is because its benefits, while
significant, are felt more than seen. However, failing to address this component of fitness can
have serious consequences, especially as a person ages. Without flexibility, everyday tasks, such
as sweeping the floor or even getting out of bed, become difficult. A reduced mobility of joints
increases the risk of injury during an exercise routine, as well as the risk of occasional and
chronic back pain.

Types of Flexibility

Flexibility is classified into two types: static and dynamic.

 Static flexibility
This type of flexibility is a measure of the limits of a joint’s overall range of motion. It is
measured by stretching and holding a joint in the position of its maximum range while
using a measuring instrument to quantify that range. To achieve the maximum range,
passive forces, the force generated from an external source, are required.
 Dynamic flexibility
This type of flexibility is a measure of overall joint stiffness during movement. Unlike
static flexibility, dynamic flexibility requires active force production, or your own
muscles contracting. Because quantifying “stiffness,” is difficult, dynamic flexibility is
measured more subjectively. Assessment is based on how easy or difficult it is to perform
certain tasks, such as swinging a tennis racket, climbing steps, or getting in and out of a
car.

The aim of any good stretching program is to improve both static and dynamic flexibility
so that normal ROM can be achieved. The definition of normal in this context is one
developed from population studies that measured various areas of the body and
established an average degree of movement for a particular joint.

Benefits of Flexibility and Stretching

Regular stretching provides many benefits, the most important of which is simple:
flexibility provides freedom of movement and the ability to complete activities with
greater ease.
Healthy Joints and Pain Management

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As many as 26 percent of all adults report pain and stiffness in joints. That number
increases dramatically with age, and bwomen are more likely to develop joint symptoms.
For adults, arthritis is one ofthe most common conditions, with 54% of people 75 years
and older having been diagnosed with arthritis.3 Regular exercise, including regular
stretching, is essential for people with arthritis to maintain function and manage joint
pain. Even for those not affected by joint conditions, stretching increases joint mobility
and function, and decreases joint stiffness and pain.

Imbalances in the muscles can cause discomfort and pain. For example, if the front of a
person’s thighs and hips gets too tight from a lack of flexibility, the tension will pull on
the hips, where the muscles are attached. The result is the pelvis may be pulled forward
and cause greater sway in your lower back. This affects posture and can eventually lead
to pain and stiffness in the neck, shoulders, and lower back. Stretching all major muscle
groups and joint areas regularly promotes good alignment and balance.

Muscle Relaxation and Stress Relief

Staying in one position for long periods of time, repetitive movements, and other
everyday stressors can result in stiff muscles and knots, also called trigger points. Regular
stretching decreases anxiety, blood pressure, and breathing rate, which help to relax
muscles and aches and pains related to neuromuscular tension (stress). Flexibility has
also been prescribed successfully to treat dysmenorrhea, which is painful menstruation. It
also relieves muscle cramps that can occur during exercise or participation in sports.

Other Benefits
In addition to the benefits listed above, research has documented additional benefits that
provide good reasons for maintaining a routine of stretching:

 Increased blood flow Blood carries vital nutrients and oxygen to muscles and
tissues. Stretching increases blood flow to the muscles being stretched, which
helps them recover from exercise faster.
 Reduced risk of developing future lower back pain Although research is still
inconclusive, most experts agree that muscle fitness and stretching exercises

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 reduce the risk of developing lower back pain by counteracting the natural loss in
muscle and connective tissue elasticity that occurs with aging.

Flexibility and Aging For many college students, maintaining long- term flexibility is not a
concern. For young adults, bending over to tie their shoes is painless. Walking around campus
with a backpack requires minimal effort. However, ROM declines with age. Simple activities
like rotating the head and neck to glance over the shoulders, getting in and out of a vehicle, or
carrying groceries can become painful. Therefore, flexibility is critical in maintaining a high
quality of life throughout the aging process.

Improving Range of Motion Joint ROM results from a combination of factors, which are
classified as either internal or external. Internal structures relate to the physical structures of
body materials and tissue. External factors are non-structural and include gender, age, excess fat
mass, muscle mass, environmental temperature, and restrictions in clothing or equipment.

Internal factors include joint structure/joint mechanics and the connective and soft tissue
surrounding the joint. Because muscular actions, such as muscular contractions and stretching,
are controlled by the nervous system, another internal factor can be attributed to the
neuromuscular system and how the stretching and tension is managed.

Joint Structure A joint is defined as a location on the skeletal system where two or more bones
mintersect and interact. For example, the humerus (upper arm) intersects with the radius and ulna
(lower arm) at the point of the elbow. The bony formation of each joint structurally limits its
ROM. For example, the shoulder joint, which is structurally a ball-in-socket joint, can rotate in
multiple directions, giving it a wide range of motion. However, the knee joint is a modified hinge
joint, which is limited to essentially a forward-backward direction of movement.

Additionally, ROM may be limited by excessive fat mass or even large muscle mass surrounding
a particular joint. Although the amount of muscle mass and fat mass surrounding a joint can be
altered by diet and activity levels, joint structure is permanent. As a result, little can be done to
improve flexibility in this area.

Not only is range of motion related to the joint structure, but flexibility exercises are joint-
specific. Stretching the hamstring will not improve flexibility in the shoulders. Likewise,
flexibility in the shoulders may be excellent while fingers or ankles remain “stiff.” As such, a
complete and effective stretching program includes multiple stretches for various joints.

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Connective and Muscle Tissue

Joints are surrounded and connected by muscles, tendons, ligaments, and skin. The head of the
humerus fits into a small cavity to create the shoulder joint. However, those bones cannot remain
in that position without the muscles, tendons, and ligaments that keep the joint tight and hold it
in place. In addition, muscle tissue is surrounded with connective tissue, primarily collagen and
elastin. As a joint moves through its normal range of motion, all of this soft tissue must stretch to
accommodate the movement. Therefore, static and dynamic flexibility is probably most limited
by the flexibility of the surrounding soft tissue, specifically the connective tissue.

While the exact biomechanics of how flexibility is changed is not well understood, they do
appear to be related to the elastic and plastic properties of the connective tissue. Elasticity is
defined as the ability to return to resting length after passive stretching (i.e., elastic recoil). Like
a spring, soft tissues stretch and then recoil to their resting position. Plasticity is the tendency to
assume a greater length after passive stretching (i.e., plastic deformation). Stretching that spring
composed of soft tissues will change its resting position to a new longer length. The goal of a
flexibility program is to repeatedly overload the elastic properties of the muscle to elicit plastic
deformation over time. Experts suggest that a slow, sustained stretch for 30–90 seconds is
necessary to produce chronic plastic deformation.

Improving Flexibility Research has identified multiple stretching techniques that aid in
improving ROM. Regardless of the specific technique or specific mode used, each technique can
be performed using either active or passive mode. Active stretching, also called unassisted
stretching, is done individually without an external stimulus. Passive stretching, or assisted
stretching, is when a partner or trainer is used as the stimulus in the stretching exercise.

Improving Flexibility Research has identified multiple stretching techniques that aid in
improving ROM. Regardless of the specific technique or specific mode used, each technique can
be performed using either active or passive mode. Active stretching, also called unassisted
stretching, is done individually without an external stimulus. Passive stretching, or assisted
stretching, is when a partner or trainer is used as the stimulus in the stretching exercise.

Applying the FITT Principle As mentioned previously, the ACSM has made recommendations
for designing a flexibility program based on the FITT Principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and
Type). As the ACSM recommends, your flexibility program should include multiple stretching

Tilahun B. (Ph.D), KUE, depart. Sports and Physical Education science,2025 38

exercises that target all major joints, including the neck, shoulders, elbows, wrists, trunk, hips,
knees, and ankles.

After selecting your exercises, follow the recommendations below when performing your
routine:

 Frequency Stretch a minimum of 2-3 days per week, ideally 5-7 days per week.
 Intensity
Stretch to the point of tightness or mild discomfort.
 Time (duration of each stretch) Stretch for a minimum of 10 seconds for very tight
muscles with an emphasis on progressing to 30-90 seconds. Complete two to four
repetitions of each stretch.
 Type (mode) Select the technique that best suits your circumstances: static, dynamic,
ballistic, or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

When to Stretch Although stretching can be done any time, the ACSM traditionally
recommends that flexibility training be incorporated into the warm up or cool down phase of an
exercise session. Recent studies suggests that stretching before an exercise session will
compromise the force-producing capabilities of muscles and should be avoided. Therefore, it is
recommended that stretching be restricted to after the warmup or workout, when the temperature
of the body and muscles has increased. Additional evidence pertaining to this concept shows that
applying heat packs for 20 minutes to increase muscle temperature can increase hamstring
flexibility more so than 30 seconds of static stretching. These findings confirm that temperature
also plays a significant role in muscle ROM.

Stretching Safely In addition to warming up your muscles before performing stretching

exercises, additional precautions can be taken to ensure the safety of your routine. When muscles
are stretched quickly and forcefully, the stretch reflex can be activated. This creates significant
tension because the muscle fibers will not only be stretching but also attempting to contract. As
mentioned previously, this is one of the reasons ballistic stretching may not be suitable for
everyone. To avoid this, stretch slowly and in a controlled fashion while holding the stretch for
10 seconds or more.

Stretches to Avoid Research indicates that some stretches are contraindicated, which means
they are not recommended because they provide little to no benefit and may cause injury. A list
of stretches to avoid, as well as safer, alternate stretches, can be found by clicking on the link
below. However, this is not a comprehensive list of potentially risky stretches. To avoid injury, it
is important to consider personal limitations before performing a stretch exercise.

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 Chapter Ten
Preparing for physical activity
10.1. The facts to consider before beginning physical activity

Starting a fitness program may be one of the best things you can do for your health. Physical
activity can reduce your risk of chronic disease, improve your balance and coordination, help
you lose weight — and even improve your sleep habits and self-esteem. You can start a fitness
program in only five steps.

1. Assess your fitness level

You probably have some idea of how fit you are. But assessing and recording baseline fitness
scores can give you benchmarks against which to measure your progress. To assess your aerobic
and muscular fitness, flexibility, and body composition, consider recording:

 Your pulse rate before and immediately after walking 1 mile (1.6 kilometers)
 How long it takes to walk 1 mile, or how long it takes to run 1.5 miles (2.41 kilometers)
 How many standard or modified pushups you can do at a time
 How far you can reach forward while seated on the floor with your legs in front of you
 Your waist circumference, just above your hipbones
 Your body mass index

2. Design your fitness program

It's easy to say that you'll exercise every day. But you'll need a plan. As you design your fitness
program, keep these points in mind:

 Consider your fitness goals. Are you starting a fitness program to help lose weight? Or
do you have another motivation, such as preparing for a marathon? Having clear goals
can help you gauge your progress and stay motivated.
 Create a balanced routine. For most healthy adults, the Department of Health and
Human Services recommends getting at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity or
75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity a week, or a combination of moderate and
vigorous activity. The guidelines suggest that you spread out this exercise during the
course of a week. Greater amounts of exercise will provide even greater health benefits.

But even small amounts of physical activity are helpful. Being active for short periods of
time throughout the day can add up to provide health benefits.

Do strength training exercises for all major muscle groups at least two times a week. Aim
to do a single set of each exercise, using a weight or resistance level heavy enough to tire
your muscles after about 12 to 15 repetitions.

 Start low and progress slowly. If you're just beginning to exercise, start cautiously and
progress slowly. If you have an injury or a medical condition, consult your doctor or an
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 exercise therapist for help designing a fitness program that gradually improves your range
of motion, strength and endurance.
 Build activity into your daily routine. Finding time to exercise can be a challenge. To
make it easier, schedule time to exercise as you would any other appointment. Plan to
watch your favorite show while walking on the treadmill, read while riding a stationary
bike, or take a break to go on a walk at work.
 Plan to include different activities. Different activities (cross-training) can keep
exercise boredom at bay. Cross-training using low-impact forms of activity, such as
biking or water exercise, also reduces your chances of injuring or overusing one specific
muscle or joint. Plan to alternate among activities that emphasize different parts of your
body, such as walking, swimming and strength training.
 Try high-interval intensity training. In high-interval intensity training, you perform
short bursts of high-intensity activity separated by recovery periods of low-intensity
activity.
 Allow time for recovery. Many people start exercising with frenzied zeal — working out
too long or too intensely — and give up when their muscles and joints become sore or
injured. Plan time between sessions for your body to rest and recover.
 Put it on paper. A written plan may encourage you to stay on track.

3. Assemble your equipment

You'll probably start with athletic shoes. Be sure to pick shoes designed for the activity you have
in mind. For example, running shoes are lighter in weight than cross-training shoes, which are
more supportive.

If you're planning to invest in exercise equipment, choose something that's practical, enjoyable
and easy to use. You may want to try out certain types of equipment at a fitness center before
investing in your own equipment.

You might consider using fitness apps for smart devices or other activity tracking devices, such
as ones that can track your distance, track calories burned or monitor your heart rate.

4. Get started

Now you're ready for action. As you begin your fitness program, keep these tips in mind:

 Start slowly and build up gradually. Give yourself plenty of time to warm up and cool
down with easy walking or gentle stretching. Then speed up to a pace you can continue
for five to 10 minutes without getting overly tired. As your stamina improves, gradually
increase the amount of time you exercise. Work your way up to 30 to 60 minutes of
exercise most days of the week.
 Break things up if you have to. You don't have to do all your exercise at one time, so
you can weave in activity throughout your day. Shorter but more-frequent sessions have
aerobic benefits, too. Exercising in short sessions a few times a day may fit into your
schedule better than a single 30-minute session. Any amount of activity is better than
none at all.
 Be creative. Maybe your workout routine includes various activities, such as walking,
bicycling or rowing. But don't stop there. Take a weekend hike with your family or spend
an evening ballroom dancing. Find activities you enjoy to add to your fitness routine.
Tilahun B. (Ph.D), KUE, depart. Sports and Physical Education science,2025 41
  Listen to your body. If you feel pain, shortness of breath, dizziness or nausea, take a
break. You may be pushing yourself too hard.
 Be flexible. If you're not feeling good, give yourself permission to take a day or two off.

5. Monitor your progress

Retake your personal fitness assessment six weeks after you start your program and then again
every few months. You may notice that you need to increase the amount of time you exercise in
order to continue improving. Or you may be pleasantly surprised to find that you're exercising
just the right amount to meet your fitness goals.

If you lose motivation, set new goals or try a new activity. Exercising with a friend or taking a
class at a fitness center may help, too.

Starting an exercise program is an important decision. But it doesn't have to be an overwhelming

one. By planning carefully and pacing yourself, you can establish a healthy habit that lasts a
lifetime.

10.2. The facts about physical activity in the heat and other environment
Exercising in Hot and Cold Environments

Millions of people live in areas where extreme changes in outdoor

temperatures occur. Some may see environmental temperatures fluctuate
from 85-90 °F (29-32 °C) during the summer months and then drop to 25-32
°F (-4-0 °C) when winter arrives. Many people continue to participate in
outdoor activities when seasonal changes occur. This may include running or
cycling on a hot summer day; or cross-country skiing or snowshoeing during
the winter. While it is very important to remain physically active throughout
the year, it is equally important to prevent the risk for environmental-related
injury
What happens when you exercise in a hot or cold environment?

Normal body temperature is roughly 98.6 °F (37 °C) and is influenced by

environmental changes and physical exertion. During exercise, heat is
produced from muscles, which causes a rise in body temperature. To
manage the increase in body heat, heart rate increases to help deliver blood
to the surface of the skin for heat release. Sweating is also initiated to help
with cooling. Hyperthermia is a condition when body temperature rises and
may lead to injury when the body exceeds 102.2 °F (39°C). During exercise
in the cold, the heat produced from contracting muscles may not be enough
to prevent a drop in body temperature. Hypothermia is a condition when
body temperature decreases, and the risk for injury increases in some people
when body temperature falls below 96.5 °F (35.8 °C).
Symptoms of heat and cold stress

Pay attention to following symptoms when exercising on a hot day:

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  Higher than normal heart rate during exercise.
 Very rapid breathing.
 Heavy sweating, sometimes followed by a decrease in sweating.
 Confusion, dizziness or disorientation.
 Pale skin.
 Extreme thirst and dehydration.
Pay attention to the following symptoms when exercising on a cold day:
 Decreased ability to perform small tasks with your hands due to loss of feeling from the
cold.
 Hands and feet begin to get cold.
 Mild shivering.
 Areas of the body exposed to the environment may appear red and/or feel painful.
 Dehydration may also occur in the cold because you may forget to drink fluids.
What to do if you get too hot or cold
If you or someone you know has any of the above symptoms, the following treatments will assist
with recovery from being too hot or cold.
Treatments for heat stress
 Stop exercising.
 Move to a shaded or air-conditioned area.
 Remove excess clothing or equipment.
 Drink cold beverages.
 Sit in front of a fan.
 Put chilled cloth around neck.
 Place entire body in cool water.
If you are feeling very hot and begin to have trouble concentrating, contact emergency services
immediately. In addition, if any of the above symptoms persist despite treatment, contact
emergency services.
Treatments for cold stress
 Move to a warm environment.
 Remove cold and wet cloths.
 Find access to warm air, such as heaters or fireplace.
 Use electric or non-electric blankets.
 Drink warm beverages.
Heat and cold stress prevention
Several strategies may assist you with preventing heat or cold injury and might better prepare
you for exercise in
these environments.
The following will help reduce heat related injury:
 Improve your level of aerobic fitness. Those who are more aerobically fit can adapt
better during exercise in the heat.

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  When suddenly exposed to a hot environment (e.g., when taking a vacation to a warmer
climate), reduce exercise intensity and length of exercise session. It can take 10 to 14
days of repeated exercise in
a hot environment to adapt to the conditions.
 Pay attention to hydration status and be sure to drink plenty of fluids. Signs of
dehydration may be a one percent change in body weight, low urine volume in 24 hours,
or dark-colored urine.
 When outdoor temperature is above 80 °F (26.6 °C) and humidity is greater than 75
percent, the risk for heat injury is high. It may be best to exercise indoors.
 Perform exercise during cooler times of the day such as early morning or late evening.
 Wear loose fitting, lightweight, and moisture wicking clothing.
The following will help reduce cold related injury:
 Cover your head, face, legs, feet, and hands. These areas are at greater risk for injury.
 The risk for cold injury is higher when the conditions are wet (e.g., snow or rain).
 Wear appropriate footwear to prevent slipping.
 Adjust clothing and layers to help maintain warmth but prevent too much sweating.
 Be aware of the wind speed. For example, if the air temperature is 30 °F (-1.1 °C) and the
wind speed
is 10 mph, then the actual temperature will be 21 °F (-6.1 °C).
 Avoid exercise if possible when temperature falls below -8 °F (-27 °C). Tissue injury can
occur in 30 minutes or less under these conditions.

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 Chapter Eleven
Fitness for health and performance
11.1. Introduction about the deference and similarities between health and performance

Whether it be losing weight, gaining muscle, or just living an active lifestyle we all start off on
our fitness journey with some sort of main goal. Early on, our decisions are mostly geared
towards improving our health. Gaining muscle and losing fat makes us healthier and being active
in general protects us from so many health concerns. But as we get deeper into the fitness
lifestyle, we often find ourselves looking at higher performance as a goal.

It is natural to look at professional athletes and marvel at their physical capabilities. They look
great and can perform unbelievable feats of athleticism. Naturally, we tend to think of athletes as
the pinnacle of health. But is this really the case? Does performing at a high level really translate
to better health and longevity? In reality, high performance often comes at a price. And more
often than not, that price is paid from the health side of things. Not many people truly understand
or acknowledge this fact. However, it is important to be transparent so that general fitness
enthusiasts can make an informed decision about whether high performance is right for them.

What is Health?

In order to compare the constructs of health and performance, we have to define our starting
point. Everyone has a different definition of what it means to be healthy. Medical professionals
would define healthy as being free from disease and sickness. But health and wellness experts
would probably add a few parameters to that definition. I might define healthy as being able
bodied, free from disease, active, of sound mind, and fulfilled in life. This means that “healthy”
incorporates the mind, body, and spirit to a certain extent.

If we are working toward being healthier, then our actions should not take us backward in any of
the domains mentioned above. Smoking cigarettes may fulfill us in some capacity, but it also
takes a huge toll on our body. By the same token, adequate amounts of exercise breaks down our
body a bit in the short term, but the long term adaptation is a healthier body and brain. Again,
everyone has a different range with these actions but we can still look at them with some
objectivity.

Performance Can Steal Your Health

Those who perform at a high level may look really healthy, but they’re often pushing their body
to the absolute limit. Taking blood work from an elite athlete during the tail end of their
competitive season might reveal some surprising results. High levels of inflammation, low sex
hormones and thyroid hormone, and impaired blood glucose are just a few odd results you might
see. This begs the question “how could a person who exercises so much have these issues?”

The relationship between exercise and health is mostly linear in that more exercise equals better
health and less risk of disease. However, as it turns out, there is such a thing as too much

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exercise. Eventually the relationship between exercise and health starts to reverse direction. After
all, exercise does damage and break down tissue. If you end up doing more damage than your
body is capable of repairing, you start getting some issues. Resources that are supposed to go to
normal bodily functions have to be rerouted towards repairing the damage. As a result, normal
hormone and organ function is depressed and health comprimised.

This impact on health can sometimes be temporary and reversible but often times athletes will
experience long lasting effects. However, athletes are usually fine with this trade off. Most
retired athletes who experience health complications will tell you that they don’t regret their
decision to push their bodies so hard. And many up and coming athletes are not bothered by the
dangers they might face health wise. Even those who don’t get paid or will never make a living
off the sport they compete in will echo the same convictions.

Make an Informed Decision for Yourself

Whatever need or drive that athletes have to perform is much stronger than their need to preserve
their health. And that’s not necessarily a bad thing. But it certainly is something that warrants an
informed decision. If you find yourself wanting to perform at a high level in some sport, you
have to know the trade-off. Performing at the highest level in any sport will often age you more
quickly. You might open yourself up to a higher risk of certain diseases. Or you may find that
aches and pains set in at a young age. Either way, it is unlikely you will “retire” unscathed.

But, if competing or performing at a high level is something that give you joy and fulfillment, it
may be worth the trade-off. Maybe your personal idea of health is different from the objective
one I am presenting. For others, health is much more important to them. They are content to
exercise regularly and never push their body to any extreme performance wise. In reality, there is
no right or wrong answer here. You just have to choose to satisfy whichever need is more
important to you.

Conclusion

We may look and athletes and high performers and assume they are the picture of health. But in
reality, most of them currently deal with or will deal with some health issues at some point.
Whether it be serious injury, organ dysfunction, or mental health concerns, performance can
come at a steep price. But most athletes understand those risks and choose to engage in their
sport anyway. They have made the informed decision to trade some potential “healthiness” for
better performance in their sport.

There is not right or wrong answer when it comes to deciding which is best for you. Everyone
has different priorities and goals in life. But in making your own decision just remember that
there is a difference between maximizing health and maximizing performance.

11.2. What is aerobic capacity?

Aerobic capacity is the highest amount of oxygen consumed during maximal exercise in
activities that use the large muscle groups in the legs or arms and legs combined. Aerobic
capacity, aerobic power, functional capacity, functional aerobic capacity, maximal functional
capacity, cardiorespiratory fitness, cardiovascular fitness, maximal oxygen intake, and maximal
oxygen uptake are terms that are often used interchangeably.
Tilahun B. (Ph.D), KUE, depart. Sports and Physical Education science,2025 46
Your aerobic capacity is a reflection of your overall health. While maximal oxygen uptake can
decrease with age, it can also diminish when you stop exercising regularly or when you get
injured. Aerobic capacity is important because it can help you stay healthy and active. In fact,
aerobic exercise can help build muscle mass, support skeletal muscle health, and may reduce
blood pressure in people with hypertension.

Having poor aerobic capacity can also impact your heart health. Research links poor aerobic
capacity with a greater risk of heart disease in certain individuals. Studies also show that VO2
max increases with aerobic exercise compared to moderate activity, and both are beneficial to
heart health in patients with cardiovascular disease.

Measuring your aerobic capacity also allows you to see how well your body performs aerobic or
endurance exercises. The more you work on your cardiovascular endurance, the higher your
aerobic capacity or maximum oxygen uptake will be. This means you’ll be able to work harder
and longer as your aerobic capacity increases.

The maximum amount of O2 in ml an athlete can use in one minute/kg of body weight.
Generally, the higher the VO2max, the higher the anaerobic threshold and the faster an athlete
can go in endurance competitions without fatigue. Training can increase VO2max by up to 20%,
which can be determined by graded exercise testing. It is only of academic interest as O2
consumption can’t be monitored during workouts.

Factors affecting Size and strength of heart, concentration of oxygen-carriers in blood

(haemoglobin), density of capillaries and mitochondria in the muscles, and activity of aerobic
enzymes; proper training enhances these factors and increases aerobic capacity.
10.3. What is strength?

Muscular strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force. Strength is a health-related fitness
component that is assessed by the maximal amount of resistance or force that can be sustained in
a single effort.

Muscular strength relates to your ability to move and lift objects. It’s measured by how much
force you can exert and how much weight you can lift for a short period of time. Examples of
exercises that develop muscular strength and power include resistance training, such as
weightlifting, bodyweight exercises, and resistance band exercises.

Benefits

Muscular strength enhances overall health and boosts athletic activity.

 A strong body allows you to perform movements and activities that require power
without getting tired.
 Muscular strength helps you maintain a healthy body weight by burning calories and
enhancing your body composition, which is the ratio between fat and muscle.
 Building strength may also boost mood and energy levels while promoting healthy sleep
patterns. This may boost confidence, provide a sense of accomplishment, and allow you
to add more difficult or strenuous activities to your fitness routine.

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  Developing muscular strengths helps to build strong, healthier muscles and bones. This
helps to develop good posture and relieve back pain.
 You’ll have more stability, balance, and flexibility, making injuries and falls less likely.

11.3. What is muscular power?

Muscular power is a fitness component that combines speed and strength. In sports, athletes who
are strong and move quickly show good power fitness. Examples include football players,
sprinters, and throwers. These athletes generate a high level of force over short distances in the
fastest possible time.

Power alone is not enough for most athletes. Acceleration is key--moving faster and faster until
reaching maximum speed.
11.4. What is flexibility?
Flexibility is the range of motion in a joint or group of joints or the ability to move joints
effectively through a complete range of motion. Flexibility training includes stretching exercises
to lengthen the muscles and may include activities like yoga or Tai Chi. Improving your
flexibility can help you move more comfortably throughout the day.

hat means that each joint and each group of muscles in your body might have a different range of
motion (ROM) or a different level of flexibility. Some areas of your body may be very tight,
meaning that the muscles feel short and restricted.

Some areas of your body may feel very loose and you may be able to lengthen and move those
muscles freely.

11.4. What is speed and agility?

Whether you’re training for strength, endurance, or a combination of both, the benefit of adding
speed, agility, and quickness drills to your fitness routine can take your game to the next level.
All athletes can benefit from improved balance, quicker feet, and a faster reaction time, and this
is exactly what Speed, Agility, and Quickness (SAQ) drills help you achieve. While SAQ drills
are often thought of as interchangeable, it is important to recognize how these components are
related, as well as how they differ.
Speed

General refers to the speed of which you’re able to move your arms and legs, in a way that
allows you to move as fast as possible in a straight line. This is often referred to as linear speed.
If you notice you have difficulty keeping up with or breaking away from your teammates and
competitors, you will likely benefit from adding speed drills.

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Agility

While speed refers to moving in a straight line, agility is the ability to change direction quickly
and effectively. If you struggle moving side-to-side, or find yourself off balance a lot, agility
training will help improve your performance.

11.5. What is coordination, reaction time and balance

Coordination is the ability to use the senses together with body parts
during movement. For example, dribbling a basketball. Using hands and eyes
together is called hand-eye coordination.

Reaction Time is the ability to reach or respond quickly to what you hear,
see, or feel. For example, an athlete quickly coming off the blocks early in a
swimming or track relay, or stealing a base in baseball.
Balance is the ability to control or stabilize the body when a person is
standing still or moving. For example, in-line skating.

Summery

Skill-related components

Definition Example
Agility The ability to change the position of A badminton player moving around the court
the body quickly and control the from back to front and side to side at high speed
movement and efficiency
Balance The ability to maintain the body’s A sprinter holds a perfectly still sprint start
centre of mass above the base of position and is ready to go into action as soon
support as the gun sounds
Coordination The ability to use two or more body A trampolinist timing their arm and leg
parts together movements to perform the perfect tuck
somersault
Power The ability to perform strength A javelin thrower applies great force to the
performances quickly spear while moving their arm rapidly forward
Reaction The time taken to respond to a A boxer perceives a punch from their left and
time stimulus rapidly moves their head to avoid being struck
Speed The ability to put body parts into A tennis player moving forward from the
motion quickly baseline quickly to reach a drop shot close to
the net

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