MATH F214 (Elementary Real Analysis)

Dr. Sangita Yadav

Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan
Module 5: Metric Spaces
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 3 / 80
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

The elements of X are called points and the

function d is called distance function or a metric.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 3 / 80
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

The elements of X are called points and the

function d is called distance function or a metric.
(X, d) is called metric space.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 3 / 80
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

The elements of X are called points and the

function d is called distance function or a metric.
(X, d) is called metric space.
Property 1 can also be written as d(x, y) = 0 if and
only if x = y.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 3 / 80
Discrete Metric Space

Let X be a non-empty set and d : X × X → R be

defined as (
1 if x ̸= y
d(x, y) =
0 if x = y.
Then d(·, ·) is a metric on X and (X, d) is called discrete
metric space.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 4 / 80
Some other Metrics

R2 is a metric space with respect to metric defined

by
d(x, y) = |x1 − y1 | + |x2 − y2 |,
where x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ). This is called
Taxi-Cab metric.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 5 / 80
Some other metrics
Rk is a metric space with respect to the metric
defined by
d(x, y) = max |xi − yi |,
i=1...k

where x = (x1 , . . . , xk ), y = (y1 , . . . , yk )

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 6 / 80
Some other metrics
Rk is a metric space with respect to the metric
defined by
d(x, y) = max |xi − yi |,
i=1...k

where x = (x1 , . . . , xk ), y = (y1 , . . . , yk )

Let C([0, 1]) denote the set of all real valued
continuous function defined on interval [0, 1].
C([0, 1]) is a metric space with respect to the
following metric:
d(f, g) = sup{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [0, 1]},
∀f, g ∈ C([0, 1]).
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 6 / 80
Exercises

1 Let d(x, y) = (x − y)2 for x, y ∈ R. Determine

whether d(x, y) defines a metric on R or not.
|x−y|
2 Show that d(x, y) = 1+|x−y| defines a metric on R.
3 Does d(x, y) = |x2 − y 2 | define a metric on R?
s
Z 1
4 Does d(f, g) = |f (x) − g(x)|2 dx define a
0
metric on C([0, 1])?

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 7 / 80
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 8 / 80
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 8 / 80
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
If ai < bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. The k-cell is set of all
points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ Rk such that
ai ≤ x ≤ bi .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 8 / 80
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
If ai < bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. The k-cell is set of all
points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ Rk such that
ai ≤ x ≤ bi .
1-cell is an interval.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 8 / 80
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
If ai < bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. The k-cell is set of all
points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ Rk such that
ai ≤ x ≤ bi .
1-cell is an interval.
2-cell is a rectangle.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 8 / 80
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 9 / 80
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).
If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then a closed ball with centre
x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| ⩽ r} and is
denoted by Cr (x).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 9 / 80
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).
If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then a closed ball with centre
x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| ⩽ r} and is
denoted by Cr (x).
A set E ⊆ Rk is said to be convex if
λx + (1 − λ)y ∈ E, whenever x, y ∈ E and
0 < λ < 1.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 9 / 80
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).
If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then a closed ball with centre
x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| ⩽ r} and is
denoted by Cr (x).
A set E ⊆ Rk is said to be convex if
λx + (1 − λ)y ∈ E, whenever x, y ∈ E and
0 < λ < 1.
Open and closed balls are convex.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 9 / 80
 Lecture 24
September 22, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 10 / 80
Neighborhood
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A neighborhood Nr (x0 ) of radius r > 0 around a point
x0 ∈ X is the set of all points in X whose distance from
x0 is less than r, i.e.,
Nr (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 11 / 80
Neighborhood
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A neighborhood Nr (x0 ) of radius r > 0 around a point
x0 ∈ X is the set of all points in X whose distance from
x0 is less than r, i.e.,
Nr (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}.

Example
1 Let X = R. Then, segment (−1, 1) is a
neighborhood of radius 1 around 0.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 11 / 80
Neighborhood
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A neighborhood Nr (x0 ) of radius r > 0 around a point
x0 ∈ X is the set of all points in X whose distance from
x0 is less than r, i.e.,
Nr (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}.

Example
1 Let X = R. Then, segment (−1, 1) is a
neighborhood of radius 1 around 0.
2 Let X = R2 . Then unit disk is a neighborhood of
radius 1 around 0.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 11 / 80
Neighborhood in R2
If x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ), then for 1 ⩽ p ⩽ ∞
( 1
(|x1 − y1 |p + |x2 − y2 |p ) p if p < ∞
dp (x, y) =
max{|x1 − y1 |, |x2 − y2 |} if p = ∞.

Here is the geometry of unit balls using different metric.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 12 / 80
Open Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition (Interior Point)
A point x ∈ X is an interior point of E if there is a
neighborhood Nr (x) of x such that Nr (x) ⊆ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 13 / 80
Open Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition (Interior Point)
A point x ∈ X is an interior point of E if there is a
neighborhood Nr (x) of x such that Nr (x) ⊆ E.

Definition (Open set)

E is open if every point of E is an interior point of E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 13 / 80
Open Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition (Interior Point)
A point x ∈ X is an interior point of E if there is a
neighborhood Nr (x) of x such that Nr (x) ⊆ E.

Definition (Open set)

E is open if every point of E is an interior point of E.

Theorem (2.19)
Every neighborhood is an open set.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 13 / 80
Limit Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Limit Point)
A point x ∈ X is a limit point of E if every neighborhood
of x contains a point y ̸= x such that y ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 14 / 80
Limit Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Limit Point)
A point x ∈ X is a limit point of E if every neighborhood
of x contains a point y ̸= x such that y ∈ E.

Example
Let X = R.
1 Every point of the interval [−3, 3] is a limit point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 14 / 80
Limit Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Limit Point)
A point x ∈ X is a limit point of E if every neighborhood
of x contains a point y ̸= x such that y ∈ E.

Example
Let X = R.
1 Every point of the interval [−3, 3] is a limit point.
2 Limit points of (−3, 3) are all points in (−3, 3) and
−3, 3.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 14 / 80
Limit Points

Theorem (2.20)
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. If x ∈ X is a
limit point of a set E, then every neighborhood of x
contains infinitely many points of E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 15 / 80
Limit Points

Theorem (2.20)
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. If x ∈ X is a
limit point of a set E, then every neighborhood of x
contains infinitely many points of E.

Corollary
A finite set has no limit points.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 15 / 80
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Isolated Point)
If x ∈ E and x is not a limit point of E, then E is called
an isolated point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 16 / 80
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Isolated Point)
If x ∈ E and x is not a limit point of E, then E is called
an isolated point.

Definition (Closed Set)

E is closed if every limit point of E is a point of E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 16 / 80
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Isolated Point)
If x ∈ E and x is not a limit point of E, then E is called
an isolated point.

Definition (Closed Set)

E is closed if every limit point of E is a point of E.

Definition (Complement)
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. The
complement of E (denote by E c ) is the set of all points
x ∈ X such that x ̸∈ E.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 16 / 80
 Lecture 25
September 24, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 17 / 80
Theorem (2.22)
Let {Eα } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets Eα .
Then !c
[ \
Eα = (Eαc ).
α α

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 18 / 80
Theorem (2.22)
Let {Eα } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets Eα .
Then !c
[ \
Eα = (Eαc ).
α α

Theorem (2.23)
A set E is open if and only if its complement is closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 18 / 80
Theorem (2.22)
Let {Eα } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets Eα .
Then !c
[ \
Eα = (Eαc ).
α α

Theorem (2.23)
A set E is open if and only if its complement is closed.

Corollary
A set F is closed if and only if its complement is open.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 18 / 80
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 19 / 80
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α
T
2 For any collection {Fα } of closed sets, Fα is
α
closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 19 / 80
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α
T
2 For any collection {Fα } of closed sets, Fα is
α
closed.
3 For any finite collection G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn of open
n
T
sets, Gi is open.
i=1

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 19 / 80
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α
T
2 For any collection {Fα } of closed sets, Fα is
α
closed.
3 For any finite collection G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn of open
n
T
sets, Gi is open.
i=1
4 For any finite collection F1 , F2 , . . . , Fn of closed
n
S
sets, Fi is closed.
i=1
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 19 / 80
 Lecture 26
September 25, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 20 / 80
Closure
Definition
If (X, d) is a metric space, if E ⊆ X, if E ′ denotes set of
all limit points of E, then the closure of the set E is the
set Ē = E ∪ E ′ .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 21 / 80
Closure
Definition
If (X, d) is a metric space, if E ⊆ X, if E ′ denotes set of
all limit points of E, then the closure of the set E is the
set Ē = E ∪ E ′ .

Theorem (2.27)
If (X, d) is a metric space and E ⊆ X, then
1 Ē is closed,
2 E = Ē if and only if E is closed.
3 Ē ⊆ F for every closed set F ⊆ X such that
E ⊆ F.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 21 / 80
Theorem (2.28)
Let E be a nonempty subset of real numbers which is
bounded above. Let y = sup E. Then y ∈ Ē. Hence
y ∈ E if E is closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 22 / 80
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 23 / 80
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Remark (2.29)
Suppose E ⊆ Y ⊆ X, where (X, d) is a metric space. To say
that E is open subset of X means that to each point x ∈ E
there exists r > 0 such that y ∈ X and d(x, y) < r imply that
y ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 23 / 80
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Remark (2.29)
Suppose E ⊆ Y ⊆ X, where (X, d) is a metric space. To say
that E is open subset of X means that to each point x ∈ E
there exists r > 0 such that y ∈ X and d(x, y) < r imply that
y ∈ E.
Since (Y, d) is also a metric space, we can also define open
subsets of Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 23 / 80
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Remark (2.29)
Suppose E ⊆ Y ⊆ X, where (X, d) is a metric space. To say
that E is open subset of X means that to each point x ∈ E
there exists r > 0 such that y ∈ X and d(x, y) < r imply that
y ∈ E.
Since (Y, d) is also a metric space, we can also define open
subsets of Y.
We say that E is open relative to Y if for each x ∈ E, there
exists r > 0 such that “ y ∈ Y and d(x, y) < r ⇒ y ∈ E.”
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 23 / 80
Example (Relative openness)
Let X = R2 with usual metric and Y = R × {0}.
Then E = (−3, 3) × {0} is open relative to Y but
not open relative to R2 .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 24 / 80
Example (Relative openness)
Let X = R2 with usual metric and Y = R × {0}.
Then E = (−3, 3) × {0} is open relative to Y but
not open relative to R2 .
Let X = R with usual metric. Then [−3, 3] is not
open relative to R but it is open relative to
Y = [−3, 3] ⊆ R.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 24 / 80
Example (Relative openness)
Let X = R2 with usual metric and Y = R × {0}.
Then E = (−3, 3) × {0} is open relative to Y but
not open relative to R2 .
Let X = R with usual metric. Then [−3, 3] is not
open relative to R but it is open relative to
Y = [−3, 3] ⊆ R.

Example (Relative Closedness)

If X = R and Y = [0, 2) , then E = [1, 2) is closed
relative to Y but not closed relative to X.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 24 / 80
 Lecture 26
September 25, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 25 / 80
Theorem (2.30)
Suppose Y ⊆ X. A subset E of Y is open relative to Y
if and only if E = Y ∩ G for some open subset G of X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 26 / 80
Compact Set
Definition (Open Cover)
By an open cover of a set E in a metric space X, we
meanSa collection {Gα } of open subsets of X such that
E ⊆ α Gα .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 27 / 80
Compact Set
Definition (Open Cover)
By an open cover of a set E in a metric space X, we
meanSa collection {Gα } of open subsets of X such that
E ⊆ α Gα .

Definition (Compact Set)

A subset K of a metric space X is said to be Compact if
every open cover of K contains a finite subcover, i.e., if
Gα is an open cover of K, then there are finitely many
indices α1 , α2 , . . . , αn such that

K ⊆ Gα1 ∪ . . . ∪ Gαn .
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 27 / 80
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 28 / 80
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.
Singletons are compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 28 / 80
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.
Singletons are compact.
Every finite subset of X is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 28 / 80
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.
Singletons are compact.
Every finite subset of X is compact.
Let (X, d) be a discrete metric space. E ⊆ X is
compact if and only if E is finite.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 28 / 80
 Lecture 27
September 29, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 29 / 80
Theorem (2.33)
Suppose K ⊆ Y ⊆ X. Then K is compact relative to X
if and only if K is compact relative to Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 30 / 80
Theorem (2.33)
Suppose K ⊆ Y ⊆ X. Then K is compact relative to X
if and only if K is compact relative to Y.

Theorem (2.34)
Compact subsets of metric spaces are closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 30 / 80
Theorem (2.35)
Closed subsets of compact sets are compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 31 / 80
Theorem (2.35)
Closed subsets of compact sets are compact.

Corollary
If F is closed and K is compact, then F ∩ K is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 31 / 80
Theorem (2.36)
If {Kα } is a collection of compact subsets of a metric
space X such that the intersection of every finite
subcollection of {Kα } is nonempty, then ∩α Kα is
nonempty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 32 / 80
Theorem (2.36)
If {Kα } is a collection of compact subsets of a metric
space X such that the intersection of every finite
subcollection of {Kα } is nonempty, then ∩α Kα is
nonempty.
Corollary
If {Kn } is a sequence of nonempty compact sets such
that Kn+1 ⊆ Kn (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 Kn is not
empty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 32 / 80
Theorem (2.36)
If {Kα } is a collection of compact subsets of a metric
space X such that the intersection of every finite
subcollection of {Kα } is nonempty, then ∩α Kα is
nonempty.
Corollary
If {Kn } is a sequence of nonempty compact sets such
that Kn+1 ⊆ Kn (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 Kn is not
empty.
Theorem (2.37)
If E is an infinite subset of a compact set K, then E has
a limit point in K.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 32 / 80
Theorem (2.38)
If {In } is a sequence of closed intervals in R, such that
In+1 ⊆ In (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 In is not empty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 33 / 80
Theorem (2.38)
If {In } is a sequence of closed intervals in R, such that
In+1 ⊆ In (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 In is not empty.

Theorem (2.39)
Let k be a positive integer. If {In } is a sequence of
k-cells such that In+1 ⊆ In (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 In
is not empty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 33 / 80
k-cell is compact I
Theorem (2.40)
Every k-cell is compact.

Proof: Let I be a k-cell, consisting of all points

x = (x1 , . . . , xk ) such that
aj ≤ xj ≤ bj (1 ≤ j ≤ k). Put
( k ) 21
X
δ= (bj − aj )2 .
j=1

Then |x − y| ≤ δ, if x ∈ I, y ∈ I.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 34 / 80
k-cell is compact II
For a contradiction, suppose there exists an open
cover {Gα } of I, which contains no finite subcover
of I.
Put cj = (aj + bj )/2.
The intervals [aj , cj ] and [cj , dj ], then determine 2k
k-cells Qi whose union is I.
At least one of these sets Qi , call it I1 , cannot be
covered by any finite subcollection of {Gα },
otherwise I would be covered for a finite
subcollection.
We next divide I1 and continue this process.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 35 / 80
k-cell is compact III

We obtain a sequence with following properties:

1 I ⊇ I1 ⊇ I2 ⊇ I3 ⊇ . . . ;
2 In is not covered by any finite subcollection of {Gα }.
3 If x ∈ In and y ∈ In , then |x − y| ≤ 2−n δ.
By (1) and “Nested k-cell theorem”, there is a point
x∗ which lies in every In .
Since {Gα } is a cover for I, x∗ ∈ Gα for some α.
Since Gα is open, there exists r > 0 such that
Nr (x∗ ) ⊆ Gα . If we choose n large enough such
that 2−n δ < r, then In ⊆ Gα , which contradicts (2).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 36 / 80
Definition (Bounded Set)
E is bounded if there is a real number M and a point
y ∈ X such that d(x, y) < M for all x ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 37 / 80
Definition (Bounded Set)
E is bounded if there is a real number M and a point
y ∈ X such that d(x, y) < M for all x ∈ E.

Theorem (2.41)
If a set E in Rk has one of the following three properties,
then it has other two:(The following are equivalent)
a
E is closed and bounded.
b E is compact.
c
Every infinite subset of E has a limit point in E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 37 / 80
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 38 / 80
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.
If (b) holds, then we have proved that (c) holds by
Theorem 2.37.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 38 / 80
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.
If (b) holds, then we have proved that (c) holds by
Theorem 2.37.
Next, we show that (c) implies (a). If E is not bounded,
then E contains points xn with |xn | > n, n = 1, 2, . . . .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 38 / 80
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.
If (b) holds, then we have proved that (c) holds by
Theorem 2.37.
Next, we show that (c) implies (a). If E is not bounded,
then E contains points xn with |xn | > n, n = 1, 2, . . . .
Then S = {xn : n ∈ N} is an infinite subset of E and it
has no limit points in Rk , hence has none in E. Thus E
is bounded.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 38 / 80
Continued
If E is not closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 39 / 80
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 39 / 80
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 39 / 80
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.
Let S be the set of these points xn .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 39 / 80
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.
Let S be the set of these points xn .
Then S is infinite, otherwise |xn − x0 | would have a
constant positive value for infinitely many n which
is impossible due to Archimedean property.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 39 / 80
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.
Let S be the set of these points xn .
Then S is infinite, otherwise |xn − x0 | would have a
constant positive value for infinitely many n which
is impossible due to Archimedean property.
S has a limit point x0 . As for every r > 0, by
Archimedean property there exists n0 ∈ N such that
n0 r > 1 or 1/n0 < r, i.e., |xn0 − x0 | < 1/n0 < r, so
xn0 ∈ Nr (x0 ) ∩ S.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 39 / 80
Continued
Next, we show that S does not have any other limit
point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 40 / 80
Continued
Next, we show that S does not have any other limit
point.
Let y ∈ Rk , y ̸= x0 , then

|xn − y| = |xn − x0 + x0 − y|
≥ |x0 − y| − |xn − x0 |
1
≥ |x0 − y| −
n
1
≥ |x0 − y|
2
for all but finitely many n, as is will be true for all n such
that n1 ≤ 12 |x0 − y|.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 40 / 80
If, we consider r = 21 |x0 − y|, then Nr (y) ∩ S contains
only finitely many points. Thus, y is not a limit point of
S.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 41 / 80
Theorem (2.42)
Every bounded infinite subset of Rk has a limit point in
Rk .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 42 / 80
Theorem (2.42)
Every bounded infinite subset of Rk has a limit point in
Rk .

Proof.
Let E be an bounded infinite subset of Rk . Since E is
bounded, E ⊆ I for some k-cell I ⊆ Rk .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 42 / 80
Theorem (2.42)
Every bounded infinite subset of Rk has a limit point in
Rk .

Proof.
Let E be an bounded infinite subset of Rk . Since E is
bounded, E ⊆ I for some k-cell I ⊆ Rk . Since I is
compact, E has a limit point in I.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 42 / 80
Perfect Set
Definition
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. E is said to be
perfect in X if E is closed in X and every point of E is
a limit point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 43 / 80
Perfect Set
Definition
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. E is said to be
perfect in X if E is closed in X and every point of E is
a limit point.

The set E is perfect if E = E ′ , where E ′ denotes

the set of all limit points of S.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 43 / 80
Perfect Set
Definition
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. E is said to be
perfect in X if E is closed in X and every point of E is
a limit point.

The set E is perfect if E = E ′ , where E ′ denotes

the set of all limit points of S.
The set E is perfect if E is closed and it has no
isolated point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 43 / 80
Perfect Set
Definition
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. E is said to be
perfect in X if E is closed in X and every point of E is
a limit point.

The set E is perfect if E = E ′ , where E ′ denotes

the set of all limit points of S.
The set E is perfect if E is closed and it has no
isolated point.
Every closed subset of the real line can be uniquely
written as the disjoint union of a perfect set and a
countable set.(Cantor)
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 43 / 80
Perfect Set
Examples
Let X = R be a metric space with Euclidean metric.
ϕ, [a, b] and cantor set are perfect subets of R.
S = [0, 1] ∩ Q is perfect as a subset of the space
Q but not perfect as a subset of the space
R, since it fails to be closed in the latter.
E = {0} ∪ { n1 : n ∈ N} is compact in R but not
perfect.
S
E= [2n, 2n + 1] is perfect but not compact in
n∈Z
R.
Any finite subset of R is not perfect.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 44 / 80
Theorem
Let P be a nonempty perfect set in Rk . Then P is
uncountable.
Proof:
Since P is nonempty, it contains at least one point
x.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 45 / 80
Theorem
Let P be a nonempty perfect set in Rk . Then P is
uncountable.
Proof:
Since P is nonempty, it contains at least one point
x.
Since P is perfect, x is a limit point of P,

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 45 / 80
Theorem
Let P be a nonempty perfect set in Rk . Then P is
uncountable.
Proof:
Since P is nonempty, it contains at least one point
x.
Since P is perfect, x is a limit point of P, and hence
P must be infinite.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 45 / 80
Theorem
Let P be a nonempty perfect set in Rk . Then P is
uncountable.
Proof:
Since P is nonempty, it contains at least one point
x.
Since P is perfect, x is a limit point of P, and hence
P must be infinite.
Let if possible, P be countable and denote
P = {x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 45 / 80
Theorem
Let P be a nonempty perfect set in Rk . Then P is
uncountable.
Proof:
Since P is nonempty, it contains at least one point
x.
Since P is perfect, x is a limit point of P, and hence
P must be infinite.
Let if possible, P be countable and denote
P = {x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}.
Next, we construct a sequence of neighborhoods as
follows:
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 45 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ). Then V̄1 = {y ∈ Rk : |x1 − y| ≤ r1 }.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ). Then V̄1 = {y ∈ Rk : |x1 − y| ≤ r1 }.
Since x1 is a limit point of P, V1 contains at least
one point x2 ∈ P such that x2 ̸= x1 .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ). Then V̄1 = {y ∈ Rk : |x1 − y| ≤ r1 }.
Since x1 is a limit point of P, V1 contains at least
one point x2 ∈ P such that x2 ̸= x1 .
Choose r2 > 0 such that
r2 < min{|x1 − x2 |, r1 − |x1 − x2 |} and let
V2 = Nr2 (x2 ), then V̄2 ⊆ V1 .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ). Then V̄1 = {y ∈ Rk : |x1 − y| ≤ r1 }.
Since x1 is a limit point of P, V1 contains at least
one point x2 ∈ P such that x2 ̸= x1 .
Choose r2 > 0 such that
r2 < min{|x1 − x2 |, r1 − |x1 − x2 |} and let
V2 = Nr2 (x2 ), then V̄2 ⊆ V1 .
Suppose Vn has been constructed in this manner.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ). Then V̄1 = {y ∈ Rk : |x1 − y| ≤ r1 }.
Since x1 is a limit point of P, V1 contains at least
one point x2 ∈ P such that x2 ̸= x1 .
Choose r2 > 0 such that
r2 < min{|x1 − x2 |, r1 − |x1 − x2 |} and let
V2 = Nr2 (x2 ), then V̄2 ⊆ V1 .
Suppose Vn has been constructed in this manner.
Since xn is a limit point of P, Vn ∩ P contains at
least one point xn+1 ∈ P with xn+1 ̸= xn .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Choose a point x1 ∈ P and for any r1 > 0, let
V1 = Nr1 (x1 ). Then V̄1 = {y ∈ Rk : |x1 − y| ≤ r1 }.
Since x1 is a limit point of P, V1 contains at least
one point x2 ∈ P such that x2 ̸= x1 .
Choose r2 > 0 such that
r2 < min{|x1 − x2 |, r1 − |x1 − x2 |} and let
V2 = Nr2 (x2 ), then V̄2 ⊆ V1 .
Suppose Vn has been constructed in this manner.
Since xn is a limit point of P, Vn ∩ P contains at
least one point xn+1 ∈ P with xn+1 ̸= xn . Now
choose, rn+1 > 0 with
rn+1 < min{|xn − xn+1 |, rn − |xn − xn+1 |}.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 46 / 80
 Let Vn+1 = Nrn+1 (xn+1 ). Then, we have V̄n+1 ⊆ Vn
and xn ̸∈ V̄n+1 .
Now let Kn = V̄n ∩ P. Since V̄n is closed and
bounded subset of Rk , it is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 47 / 80
 Let Vn+1 = Nrn+1 (xn+1 ). Then, we have V̄n+1 ⊆ Vn
and xn ̸∈ V̄n+1 .
Now let Kn = V̄n ∩ P. Since V̄n is closed and
bounded subset of Rk , it is compact.
Also, since P is closed, Kn is compact.
Since xn ̸∈ Kn+1 , no point of P lies in ∩∞
n=1 Kn .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 47 / 80
 Let Vn+1 = Nrn+1 (xn+1 ). Then, we have V̄n+1 ⊆ Vn
and xn ̸∈ V̄n+1 .
Now let Kn = V̄n ∩ P. Since V̄n is closed and
bounded subset of Rk , it is compact.
Also, since P is closed, Kn is compact.
Since xn ̸∈ Kn+1 , no point of P lies in ∩∞
n=1 Kn .
T∞
Since Kn ⊆ P, this implies that n=1 Kn is empty
and Kn+1 ⊆ Kn

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 47 / 80
Cantor Set

Let E0 = [0, 1].

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 48 / 80
Cantor Set

Let E0 = [0, 1]. We construct a sequence of subsets of

E0 as follows:

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 48 / 80
Cantor Set

Let E0 = [0, 1]. We construct a sequence of subsets of

E0 as follows:
Divide E0 in three equal parts and remove the
segment ( 13 , 23 ).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 48 / 80
Cantor Set

Let E0 = [0, 1]. We construct a sequence of subsets of

E0 as follows:
Divide E0 in three equal parts and remove the
segment ( 13 , 23 ).
Let E1 = [0, 13 ] ∪ [ 32 , 1].

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 48 / 80
Cantor Set

Let E0 = [0, 1]. We construct a sequence of subsets of

E0 as follows:
Divide E0 in three equal parts and remove the
segment ( 13 , 23 ).
Let E1 = [0, 13 ] ∪ [ 32 , 1].
Remove the middle thirds of these intervals to
obtain
1 2 3 6 7 8
E2 = [0, ] ∪ [ , ] ∪ [ , ] ∪ [ , 1].
9 9 9 9 9 9

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 48 / 80
Cantor Set
On continuing in this manner, we obtain a sequence
of compact sets En , such that
1 E1 ⊇ E2 ⊇ E3 ⊇ . . .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 49 / 80
Cantor Set
On continuing in this manner, we obtain a sequence
of compact sets En , such that
1 E1 ⊇ E2 ⊇ E3 ⊇ . . .
1
2 En is union of 2n intervals each of length 3n
.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 49 / 80
Cantor Set
On continuing in this manner, we obtain a sequence
of compact sets En , such that
1 E1 ⊇ E2 ⊇ E3 ⊇ . . .
1
2 En is union of 2n intervals each of length 3n
.
∞
\
The set P = En is called Cantor set.
n=1
n
∞
[ 3[ −1  
3k + 1 3k + 2
P = [0, 1]\ n+1
, n+1 .
n=0 k=0
3 3
\∞ 3n−1
[−1  3k 3k + 1  [  3k + 2 3k + 3 
P = n
, n n
, n
.
n=1
3 3 3 3
k=0

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 49 / 80
Properties of Cantor Set

1 P is nonempty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 50 / 80
Properties of Cantor Set

1 P is nonempty.
2 P is closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 50 / 80
Properties of Cantor Set

1 P is nonempty.
2 P is closed.
3 P is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 50 / 80
Properties of Cantor Set

1 P is nonempty.
2 P is closed.
3 P is compact.
4 P does not contain any segment.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 50 / 80
Properties of Cantor Set

1 P is nonempty.
2 P is closed.
3 P is compact.
4 P does not contain any segment.
5 P is perfect.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 50 / 80
Properties of Cantor Set

1 P is nonempty.
2 P is closed.
3 P is compact.
4 P does not contain any segment.
5 P is perfect.
6 P is an uncountable set of measure zero.(A
property to be studied in future)

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 50 / 80
Connected Set
Definition (Separated Sets)
Two subsets A and B of a metric spaces (X, d) are said
to be separated if both A ∩ B̄ and Ā ∩ B are empty, i.e.,
if no point of A lies in the closure of B and no point of
B lies in the closure of A.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 51 / 80
Connected Set
Definition (Separated Sets)
Two subsets A and B of a metric spaces (X, d) are said
to be separated if both A ∩ B̄ and Ā ∩ B are empty, i.e.,
if no point of A lies in the closure of B and no point of
B lies in the closure of A.

Definition (Disconnected Set)

A set E ⊆ X is said to be disconnected if E is union of
two non-empty separated sets.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 51 / 80
Connected Set
Definition (Separated Sets)
Two subsets A and B of a metric spaces (X, d) are said
to be separated if both A ∩ B̄ and Ā ∩ B are empty, i.e.,
if no point of A lies in the closure of B and no point of
B lies in the closure of A.

Definition (Disconnected Set)

A set E ⊆ X is said to be disconnected if E is union of
two non-empty separated sets.
A subset E of a metric space X is connected if it is not
disconnected.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 51 / 80
Example
The interval [0, 1] and the segment (1, 2) are not
separated.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 52 / 80
Example
The interval [0, 1] and the segment (1, 2) are not
separated.
The segment (0, 1) and (1, 2) are separated.
{(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = 1} ⊂ R2 is connected.
{(x, y) : xy = 1} ⊂ R2 is disconnected.
{(x, x) : x ∈ R} ⊂ R2 is connected.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 52 / 80
Theorem (2.47)
A subset E of R is connected if and only if it has the
following property: If x ∈ E, y ∈ E, and x < z < y,
then z ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 53 / 80
Theorem (2.47)
A subset E of R is connected if and only if it has the
following property: If x ∈ E, y ∈ E, and x < z < y,
then z ∈ E.
In other words, The connected subsets of R are exactly
intervals or points.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 53 / 80
Theorem (2.47)
A subset E of R is connected if and only if it has the
following property: If x ∈ E, y ∈ E, and x < z < y,
then z ∈ E.
In other words, The connected subsets of R are exactly
intervals or points.
Proof.
The proof is not in syllabus.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 53 / 80
Convergent Sequences
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A sequence {xn } in a metric space X is said to converge
if there is a point x ∈ X with the following property:

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 54 / 80
Convergent Sequences
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A sequence {xn } in a metric space X is said to converge
if there is a point x ∈ X with the following property:
For every ε > 0, there exists N ∈ N such that n ≥ N
implies d(xn , x) < ε.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 54 / 80
Convergent Sequences
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A sequence {xn } in a metric space X is said to converge
if there is a point x ∈ X with the following property:
For every ε > 0, there exists N ∈ N such that n ≥ N
implies d(xn , x) < ε.

In this case, we say {xn } converges to x, or that x

is limit of {xn }, or lim xn = x.
n→∞

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 54 / 80
Convergent Sequences
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A sequence {xn } in a metric space X is said to converge
if there is a point x ∈ X with the following property:
For every ε > 0, there exists N ∈ N such that n ≥ N
implies d(xn , x) < ε.

In this case, we say {xn } converges to x, or that x

is limit of {xn }, or lim xn = x.
n→∞
If {xn } does not converge, it is said to diverge.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 54 / 80
Theorem 3.2

Let {xn } be a sequence in a metric space (X, d).

1 {xn } converges to x ∈ X if and only if every
neighborhood of x contains xn for all but finitely
many n.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 55 / 80
Theorem 3.2

Let {xn } be a sequence in a metric space (X, d).

1 {xn } converges to x ∈ X if and only if every
neighborhood of x contains xn for all but finitely
many n.
2 If x ∈ X, x′ ∈ X, and if {xn } converges to x and to
x′ , then x = x′ .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 55 / 80
Theorem 3.2

Let {xn } be a sequence in a metric space (X, d).

1 {xn } converges to x ∈ X if and only if every
neighborhood of x contains xn for all but finitely
many n.
2 If x ∈ X, x′ ∈ X, and if {xn } converges to x and to
x′ , then x = x′ .
3 If {xn } converges, then {xn } is bounded.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 55 / 80
Theorem 3.2

Let {xn } be a sequence in a metric space (X, d).

1 {xn } converges to x ∈ X if and only if every
neighborhood of x contains xn for all but finitely
many n.
2 If x ∈ X, x′ ∈ X, and if {xn } converges to x and to
x′ , then x = x′ .
3 If {xn } converges, then {xn } is bounded.
4 If E ⊆ X and if x is a limit point of E, then there
is a sequence of distinct points {xn } in E such that
x = limn→∞ xn .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 55 / 80
Theorem (3.4)
1 Suppose xn ∈ Rk (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) and
xn = (α1,n , . . . , αk,n ).
Then xn converges to x = (α1 , . . . , αk ) if and only
if lim αj,n = αj (1 ≤ j ≤ k).
n→∞

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 56 / 80
Theorem (3.4)
1 Suppose xn ∈ Rk (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) and
xn = (α1,n , . . . , αk,n ).
Then xn converges to x = (α1 , . . . , αk ) if and only
if lim αj,n = αj (1 ≤ j ≤ k).
n→∞
2 Suppose {xn }, {yn } are sequences in Rk , {βn } is a
sequence of real numbers, and
xn → x, yn → y, βn → β. Then
1 xn + yn → x + y;

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 56 / 80
Theorem (3.4)
1 Suppose xn ∈ Rk (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) and
xn = (α1,n , . . . , αk,n ).
Then xn converges to x = (α1 , . . . , αk ) if and only
if lim αj,n = αj (1 ≤ j ≤ k).
n→∞
2 Suppose {xn }, {yn } are sequences in Rk , {βn } is a
sequence of real numbers, and
xn → x, yn → y, βn → β. Then
1 xn + yn → x + y;
2 xn · yn → x · y;

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 56 / 80
Theorem (3.4)
1 Suppose xn ∈ Rk (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) and
xn = (α1,n , . . . , αk,n ).
Then xn converges to x = (α1 , . . . , αk ) if and only
if lim αj,n = αj (1 ≤ j ≤ k).
n→∞
2 Suppose {xn }, {yn } are sequences in Rk , {βn } is a
sequence of real numbers, and
xn → x, yn → y, βn → β. Then
1 xn + yn → x + y;
2 xn · yn → x · y;
3 βn xn → βx.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 56 / 80
Theorem (3.4)
1 Suppose xn ∈ Rk (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) and
xn = (α1,n , . . . , αk,n ).
Then xn converges to x = (α1 , . . . , αk ) if and only
if lim αj,n = αj (1 ≤ j ≤ k).
n→∞
2 Suppose {xn }, {yn } are sequences in Rk , {βn } is a
sequence of real numbers, and
xn → x, yn → y, βn → β. Then
1 xn + yn → x + y;
2 xn · yn → x · y;
3 βn xn → βx.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 56 / 80
Subsequences

Definition
Given a sequence {xn }, consider a sequence {nk } of
positive integers, such that n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · . Then
the sequence {xni } is called a subsequence of {xn }. If
{xni } is convergent, its limit is called a subsequential
limit of {xn }.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 57 / 80
Subsequences

Definition
Given a sequence {xn }, consider a sequence {nk } of
positive integers, such that n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · . Then
the sequence {xni } is called a subsequence of {xn }. If
{xni } is convergent, its limit is called a subsequential
limit of {xn }.
Homework {xn } converges to x if and only if every
subsequence of {xn } converges to x.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 57 / 80
Theorem (3.6)
(i)
If {xn } is a sequence in a compact metric space
(X, d), then some subsequence of {xn } converges
to a point of X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 58 / 80
Theorem (3.6)
(i)
If {xn } is a sequence in a compact metric space
(X, d), then some subsequence of {xn } converges
to a point of X.
(ii)
Every bounded sequence in Rk contains a
convergent subsequence.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 58 / 80
Theorem (3.6)
(i)
If {xn } is a sequence in a compact metric space
(X, d), then some subsequence of {xn } converges
to a point of X.
(ii)
Every bounded sequence in Rk contains a
convergent subsequence.

Theorem (3.7)
The subsequential limits of a sequence {xn } in a metric
space X form a closed subset of X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 58 / 80
Cauchy Sequences

Definition
(3.8) A sequence {xn } is a metric space (X, d) is said to
be a Cauchy sequence if for every ε > 0 there exists
N ∈ N such that d(xn , xm ) < ε if m, n ≥ N.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 59 / 80
Cauchy Sequences

Definition
(3.8) A sequence {xn } is a metric space (X, d) is said to
be a Cauchy sequence if for every ε > 0 there exists
N ∈ N such that d(xn , xm ) < ε if m, n ≥ N.

Definition ((3.9)Diameter)

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 59 / 80
Cauchy Sequences

Definition
(3.8) A sequence {xn } is a metric space (X, d) is said to
be a Cauchy sequence if for every ε > 0 there exists
N ∈ N such that d(xn , xm ) < ε if m, n ≥ N.

Definition ((3.9)Diameter)
Let E be a nonempty subset of a metric space (X, d),
then
diam(E) = sup{d(x, y) : x, y ∈ E}.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 59 / 80
Remark
If {xn } is a sequence in X and if EN consists of the
points xN , xN +1 , xN +2 , . . . , then {xn } is a Cauchy
sequence if and only if

lim diam(En ) = 0.
n→∞

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 60 / 80
Theorem (3.10)
Let (X, d) is a metric space.
1 If E is a subset of X, then diam(E) = diam(Ē).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 61 / 80
Theorem (3.10)
Let (X, d) is a metric space.
1 If E is a subset of X, then diam(E) = diam(Ē).
2 If Kn is a sequence of compact sets in X such that
Kn+1 ⊆ Kn (n = 1, 2, . . .) and if
limn→∞ diam Kn = 0, then ∩∞ n=1 Kn consists of
exactly one point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 61 / 80
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 62 / 80
Theorem (3.11)
1 In any metric space (X, d), every convergent
sequence is Cauchy but the converse need not be
true.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 62 / 80
Theorem (3.11)
1 In any metric space (X, d), every convergent
sequence is Cauchy but the converse need not be
true.
2 If (X, d) is a compact metric space and if {xn } is a
Cauchy sequence in X, then {xn } converges to
some point of X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 62 / 80
Theorem (3.11)
1 In any metric space (X, d), every convergent
sequence is Cauchy but the converse need not be
true.
2 If (X, d) is a compact metric space and if {xn } is a
Cauchy sequence in X, then {xn } converges to
some point of X.
3 In Rk , every Cauchy sequence converges.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 62 / 80
Exercise

Exercise
Suppose {xn } is a Cauchy sequence in a metric space
(X, d), and some subsequence {xnk } converges to a
point x ∈ X. Show that {xn } converges to x.

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Complete Metric Space
Definition (3.12)
A metric space in which every Cauchy sequence
converges is said to be complete.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 64 / 80
Complete Metric Space
Definition (3.12)
A metric space in which every Cauchy sequence
converges is said to be complete.
1 All compact metric spaces are complete.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 64 / 80
Complete Metric Space
Definition (3.12)
A metric space in which every Cauchy sequence
converges is said to be complete.
1 All compact metric spaces are complete.
2 Euclidean spaces are complete.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 64 / 80
Complete Metric Space
Definition (3.12)
A metric space in which every Cauchy sequence
converges is said to be complete.
1 All compact metric spaces are complete.
2 Euclidean spaces are complete.
3 Every closed subset of a complete metric space is
complete.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 64 / 80
Complete Metric Space
Definition (3.12)
A metric space in which every Cauchy sequence
converges is said to be complete.
1 All compact metric spaces are complete.
2 Euclidean spaces are complete.
3 Every closed subset of a complete metric space is
complete.
4 Q is not complete with d(x, y) = |x − y|.
5 Let Z ⊆ R. Then Z is complete if we consider the
usual metric on R.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 64 / 80
Limit of Functions
Definition (4.1)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. Suppose
E ⊆ X, f : E → Y and x0 is a limit point of E. We
write f (x) → y as x → x0 , or

lim f (x) = y,
x→x0

if there is a point y ∈ Y with the following property:

For every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that

dY (f (x), y) < ε

for all points x ∈ E such that 0 < d(x, x0 ) < δ.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 65 / 80
Theorem (4.2)
Let X, Y, E, f are as above in definition. Then

lim f (x) = y,
x→x0

if and only if ‘limn→∞ f (xn ) = y, for every sequence

{xn } in E such that

xn ̸= x0 , lim xn = x0 .
n→∞

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 66 / 80
Theorem (4.2)
Let X, Y, E, f are as above in definition. Then

lim f (x) = y,
x→x0

if and only if ‘limn→∞ f (xn ) = y, for every sequence

{xn } in E such that

xn ̸= x0 , lim xn = x0 .
n→∞

Corollary
If f has a limit at x0 , then limit is unique.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 66 / 80
Continuous Functions
Definition (4.5)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. Suppose
E ⊆ X, f : E → Y and x0 ∈ E. Then f is said to be
continuous at x0 if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0
such that
dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < ε
for all points x ∈ E such that dX (x, x0 ) < δ.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 67 / 80
Continuous Functions
Definition (4.5)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. Suppose
E ⊆ X, f : E → Y and x0 ∈ E. Then f is said to be
continuous at x0 if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0
such that
dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < ε
for all points x ∈ E such that dX (x, x0 ) < δ.

If f is continuous at every point of E, then f is said

to be continuous on E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 67 / 80
Continuous Functions
Definition (4.5)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. Suppose
E ⊆ X, f : E → Y and x0 ∈ E. Then f is said to be
continuous at x0 if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0
such that
dY (f (x), f (x0 )) < ε
for all points x ∈ E such that dX (x, x0 ) < δ.

If f is continuous at every point of E, then f is said

to be continuous on E.
If x0 is an isolated point of E, then f is continuous
at x0 .
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 67 / 80
Theorem (4.6)
If x0 is a limit point of E. Then f is continuous at x0 if
and only if limx→x0 f (x) = f (x0 ).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 68 / 80
Theorem (4.6)
If x0 is a limit point of E. Then f is continuous at x0 if
and only if limx→x0 f (x) = f (x0 ).

Theorem (4.7)
Suppose (X, dX ), (Y, dY ), (Z, dZ ) are metric spaces,
f : E → Y, g : f (E) → Z and h : E → Z defined by

h(x) = g(f (x)), x ∈ E.

If f is continuous at x0 ∈ E and if g is continuous at

f (x0 ), then h is continuous at x0 .
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 68 / 80
Result
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. A mapping
f : E ⊆ X → Y is continuous at x0 ∈ E if and only if
for every sequence {xn } in E converging to x0 , f (xn )
converges to f (x0 ) in Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 69 / 80
Theorem (4.8)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. A mapping
f : X → Y is continuous on X if and only if f −1 (V ) is
open in X for every open set V in Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 70 / 80
Theorem (4.8)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. A mapping
f : X → Y is continuous on X if and only if f −1 (V ) is
open in X for every open set V in Y.

Corollary
f : X → Y is continuous if and only if f −1 (C) is closed
in X for every closed set C in Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 70 / 80
Theorem (4.10)
1 Let f1 , . . . , fk be real functions on a metric space X,
and let f be the mapping of X into Rk defined by

f = (f1 (x), . . . , fk (x)), x ∈ X;

then f is continuous if and only if each of the

functions f1 , . . . , fk is continuous.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 71 / 80
Theorem (4.10)
1 Let f1 , . . . , fk be real functions on a metric space X,
and let f be the mapping of X into Rk defined by

f = (f1 (x), . . . , fk (x)), x ∈ X;

then f is continuous if and only if each of the

functions f1 , . . . , fk is continuous.
2 If f and g are continuous mappings of X into Rk ,
then f + g and f · g are continuous on X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 71 / 80
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition
f : E → Rk is said to be bounded if there is a real
number M such that |f (x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 72 / 80
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition
f : E → Rk is said to be bounded if there is a real
number M such that |f (x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ E.

Theorem
Suppose f : X → Y is continuous and X is compact.
Then f (X) is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 72 / 80
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition
f : E → Rk is said to be bounded if there is a real
number M such that |f (x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ E.

Theorem
Suppose f : X → Y is continuous and X is compact.
Then f (X) is compact.

Theorem
If f : X → Rk is continuous and X is compact, then
f (X) is closed and bounded. Thus f is bounded.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 72 / 80
Let (X, d) be a compact metric space.
Theorem
Let f : X → R be continuous and

M = sup f (x), m = inf f (x).

x∈X x∈X

Then there exist points x0 , y0 ∈ X such that f (x0 ) = M

and f (y0 ) = m.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 73 / 80
Let (X, d) be a compact metric space.
Theorem
Let f : X → R be continuous and

M = sup f (x), m = inf f (x).

x∈X x∈X

Then there exist points x0 , y0 ∈ X such that f (x0 ) = M

and f (y0 ) = m.
This result can also be stated as: “Continuous functions
on a compact set attains its maxima and minima.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 73 / 80
Theorem (4.17)
Suppose f is a continuous one to one mapping of a
compact metric space X onto a metric space Y. Then
the inverse mapping f −1 : Y → X defined by

f −1 (f (x)) = x, ∀x ∈ X

is continuous mapping of Y onto X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 74 / 80
Uniform Continuity
Definition (4.18)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. We say that
f : X → Y is uniformly continuous on X if for every
ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that dY (f (x), f (y)) < ε
for all x, y ∈ X for which dX (x, y) < δ.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 75 / 80
Uniform Continuity
Definition (4.18)
Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. We say that
f : X → Y is uniformly continuous on X if for every
ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that dY (f (x), f (y)) < ε
for all x, y ∈ X for which dX (x, y) < δ.

Example
Any constant f : E ⊆ R → R is uniformly continuous.
f : R → R such that f (x) = x is uniformly continuous.
f : [01] → [0, 1] such that f (x) = x2 is uniformly continuous.
but f : R → R such that f (x) = x2 is not uniformly
continuous.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 75 / 80
Theorem (4.19)
If (X, dX ) is compact and f : X → Y is continuous,
then f is uniformly continuous on X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 76 / 80
Theorem (4.19)
If (X, dX ) is compact and f : X → Y is continuous,
then f is uniformly continuous on X.

Theorem (19.2(T2))
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b],
then f is uniformly continuous on [a, b].

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 76 / 80
Theorem (4.19)
If (X, dX ) is compact and f : X → Y is continuous,
then f is uniformly continuous on X.

Theorem (19.2(T2))
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b],
then f is uniformly continuous on [a, b].

Theorem (19.4(T2))
If f is uniformly continuous on a set E and (xn ) is a
Cauchy sequence in E, then (f (xn )) is a Cauchy
sequence.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 76 / 80
Exercise
1 Let f be a continuous real function on a metric
space X. Let Z(f ) = {p ∈ X : f (p) = 0}. Prove
that Z(f ) is a closed set.
2 Let f be a continuous mapping from a metric space
X to a metric space Y and let E be dense subset of
X. Prove that f (E) is dense in f (X).
3 Prove that if f is uniformly continuous on a
bounded set S, then f is a bounded function on S.
4 Let f (x) = x sin x1 for x ̸= 0 and f (0) = 0.
1 Prove that f is continuous in R.
2 Why is f uniformly continuous on any bounded subset of
R? Is f uniformly continuous on R?
√
5 Let f (x) = x for x ⩾ 0. Prove that f is uniformly
continuous on MATH
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani)
[0, ∞).
F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 77 / 80
Theorem (4.20)
Let E be a noncompact set in R, then
there exists a continuous function on E which is not
bounded.
there exists a continuous and bounded function on
E which has no maximum.
if, in addition, E is bounded, then there exists a
continuous function on E which is not uniformly
continuous.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 78 / 80
Theorem (4.22)
If f is a continuous mapping of a metric space X into a
metric space Y , and if E is connected subset of X, then
f (E) is connected.

Theorem (4.23(Intermediate Value Theorem))

Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous. If f (a) < c < f (b),
then there exists x0 ∈ (a, b) such that f (x0 ) = c.

Proof.
Use Theorem 2.47 and Theorem 4.22.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 79 / 80
Hölder Continuity
Definition
Let D be a nonempty subset of R. A function
f : D → R is said to be Hölder continuous if there are
constants M > 0 and α > 0 such that

|f (x) − f (y)| ⩽ M |x − y|α for every x, y ∈ D.

The number α is called Hölder exponent of the function.

If α = 1, the the function f is called Lipschitz continous.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 80 / 80
Hölder Continuity
Definition
Let D be a nonempty subset of R. A function
f : D → R is said to be Hölder continuous if there are
constants M > 0 and α > 0 such that

|f (x) − f (y)| ⩽ M |x − y|α for every x, y ∈ D.

The number α is called Hölder exponent of the function.

If α = 1, the the function f is called Lipschitz continous.

Theorem
If a function f : D → R is Hölder continuous, then it is
uniformly continuous.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) September 29, 2025 80 / 80