Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

Punctuation Notes
By Syed Noor Hussain

A short summary: commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, parenthesis

▪ Sentences with two main clauses
▪ The bus stopped, but no one got off.
▪ The bus stopped; no one got off.
▪ The bus stopped; however, no one got off.
▪ The mechanic replaced the battery, the distributor cap, and the starter; but still the
car would not start.
▪ Her duty was clear: she had to locate the problem.
▪ Introductory elements
o Modifiers
▪ After the argument was over, we laughed at ourselves.
▪ Racing over the plain, the gazelle escaped the lion.
▪ To dance in the contest, he had to tape his knee.
▪ Suddenly, the door flew open.
▪ With 125 passengers abroad, the plane was half full.
▪ In 1983 he won the Nobel Prize.(no comma)
o Absolute phrases
▪ Its wing broken, the bird hopped around on the ground.
▪ Interrupting and concluding elements
o Nonessential modifiers
▪ Jim’s car, which barely runs, has been impounded.
▪ We consulted the dean, who had promised to help us.
▪ The boy, like his sister, wants to be a pilot.
▪ They moved across the desert, shielding their eyes from the sun.
▪ The men do not speak to each other, although they share a car.
o Nonessential appositives
▪ Bergen’s only daughter, Candice, became an actress.
▪ The residents of three counties—Suffolk, Springfield, and Morrison—were urged to
evacuate.
▪ Father demanded one promise: that we not lie to him.
o Essential modifiers(no comma)
▪ The car that hit mine was uninsured.
▪ We consulted a teacher who had promised to help us.
▪ The boy in the black hat is my cousin.
▪ They were surprised to find the desert teeming with life.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ The men do not speak to each other because they are feuding.
o Essential appositives(no comma)
▪ Shaw’s play Saint Joon was performed last year.
▪ Their sons Tony, William and Steve all chose military careers, leaving only Mathew to
run the family business.
o Transitional and parenthetical expressions
▪ We suspect, however, that he will not come.
▪ Jessica is respected by many people—including me.
▪ George Balanchin (1904-83) was a brilliant dancer of classical ballet.
o Absolute phrases
▪ The bird, its wing broken, hopped about on the ground.
▪ The bird hopped about on the ground, its wing broken.
o Phrases expressing contrast
▪ The humidity, not just the heat, gives me headaches.
▪ My headaches are caused by the humidity, not just the heat.
o Concluding summaries and explanations
▪ The movie opened to bad notices: the characters were judged shallow and
unrealistic.
▪ We dined on jumbon and gambala—a Cajun feast.
▪ Items in a series
o Three or more items
▪ Chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and gibbons are all apes.
▪ The cities singles out for praise were Birmingham, Alabama; Lincoln, Nebraska;
Austin, Texas; and Troy, New York.
o Two or more adjectives before a noun
▪ Dingy, smelly clothes decorated their room.
▪ Desert consisted of one tiny scoop of icecream. (no comma)
o Introductory series
▪ Appropriateness, accuracy, and necessity—these criteria should govern your
selection of words.
o Concluding series
▪ Every word should be appropriate, accurate, and necessary.
▪ Every word should meet three criteria: appropriateness, accuracy, and necessity.
▪ Pay attention to you words—to their appropriateness, accuracy, and their necessity.

End punctuation
The period, the question mark, and the exclamation point
Full stops [.], question marks [?], exclamation points [!] are used to end sentences. After one of these,
a new sentence has a capital letter.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

Period (Full stop)

1. Use a period to end a statement, mild command, or indirect question
o Statements
▪ These are exciting and trying times.
▪ The airline went bankrupt.
o Mild commands
▪ Please do not smoke.
▪ Think of the possibilities.
o Indirect questions
▪ Students sometimes wonder whether their teachers read the papers they write.
▪ Abused children eventually stop asking why they are being punished.
2. Use periods with some abbreviations
o Use period with abbreviations that consist of or end in small letters. Otherwise omit periods
▪ Dr. Mr. e.g. Feb. St. Ms. a.m., p.m. ft. St. Ms. i.e.
▪ PhD BC USA IBM BA US AIDS AM, PM
▪ The lecture hall is only 1600 sq. ft.
▪ Dr. Arm will lecture on Plato at 7:30 p.m.
▪ Plato wrote The Republic in 370 BCE.
o When a sentence ends in an abbreviation with a period, don’t add a second period.
▪ My first class is at 8 a.m.
3. Always put the periods inside the quotation marks
▪ Please explain what you meant by “without reservation.”
4. Periods and parentheses
o When an expression in parentheses comes at the end of a sentence and is part of the
sentence, put the period outside the parentheses; if the expression is independent of the
sentence and a period is necessary, place the period within the parentheses.
▪ The creditor can get a judgment against him and garnishee his wages (see page 348).
▪ The creditor can get a judgment against him and garnishee his wages. (The law of
garnishment is discussed at page 384.)
o But do not use a period when a complete declarative or imperative sentence is enclosed in
parentheses within a sentence.
▪ The honorary chairman of the board (he retired from active duty several years ago)
addressed the Quarter-Century Club.

Question mark (interrogative point)

1. Use a question mark with a direct question
▪ What is the difference between these two people?
▪ Will economists ever really understand the economy?
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o However, use a period after an indirect question.

▪ The senator asked why the bill had passed.
2. Do not place a question mark after a request to which no answer is expected.
▪ Will you please return the signed copy as soon as possible.
3. Question in a series are each followed by a question mark
▪ The officer asked how many times the suspect had been arrested. Three times? Four
Times? More than that?
o But the question mark may be omitted in a series of questions in the following construction
▪ Who is responsible for (a) copyediting the book, (b) the art work, (c) the production
schedule?
4. Question marks are never combined with other question marks, exclamation points, periods, or
commas:
▪ Faulty: “What is the point?,” the readers asked.
▪ Correct: “What is the point?” the readers asked.
5. Use a question mark within parentheses to indicate doubt about a number or date. Other
punctuation is not affected by this use.
▪ The Greek philosopher Socrates was born in 470 (?) BC and died in 399 BC.
▪ The treaty was signed September 5(?), 1945.
o Do not use question mark to express irony or sarcasm.
▪ Faulty: Ali’s friendliness (?) bothered Khan.
6. Even very long questions need question marks.
▪ Do you think that even with three pairs of mittens, two layers of pants, two hats,
snow goggles, long johns, four pairs of socks, furry boots, earmuffs, a scarf, and a
heavy overcoat, you’re still going to be cold outside?
7. Examples of incorrect use of question marks:
o Example one
▪ Faulty: In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus took seven years to travel from Troy to Ithaca.
Or was it eight years. Or more?
▪ Correct: In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus took seven years to travel from Troy to
Ithaca. Or was it eight years? Or more?
o Example two
▪ Faulty: Odysseus must have wondered whether he would ever make it home?
▪ Correct: Odysseus must have wondered whether he would ever make it home.
o Example three
▪ Faulty: “What man are you?,” asks Odysseus’s wife, Penelope.
▪ Correct: “What man are you?” asks Odysseus’s wife, Penelope.
o Example four
▪ Faulty: Why does Penelope ask, “Where is your city? Your family?”?
▪ Correct: Why does Penelope ask, “Where is your city? Your family?”
o Example five
▪ Faulty: Penelope does not recognize Odysseus and asks who this stranger is?
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Correct: Penelope does not recognize Odysseus and asks who this stranger is.

Exclamation mark
1. Use exclamation mark after an emphatic statement, interjection, or command.
▪ No! We must not lose this election!
▪ Come here immediately!
o However, follow mild interjections and commands with commas or periods, as appropriate:
▪ No, the response was not terrific.
▪ To prolong your car’s life, change its oil regularly.
2. Use exclamation mark after an interjection
▪ Wow! That’s an amazing rainbow.
▪ Yes! I will most definitely do it.
3. Exclamation points are never combined with other exclamation points, question marks, periods,
or commas:
▪ Faulty: “This will not be endured!,” he roared.
▪ Correct: “This will not be endured!” he roared.
4. Incorrect use of exclamation mark
o Example one
▪ Faulty: As the firefighters moved their equipment into place, the police shouted,
“Move back!”.
▪ Correct: As the firefighters moved their equipment into place, the police shouted,
“Move back!”
o Example two
▪ Faulty: A child’s cries could be heard from above: “Help [Link].”
▪ Correct: A child’s cries could be heard from above: “Help me! Help!”
o Example three
▪ Faulty: When the child was rescued, the crowd called “Hooray.”
▪ Correct: When the child was rescued, the crowd called, “Hooray!”
o Example four
▪ Faulty: The rescue was the most exciting event of the day!
▪ Correct: The rescue was the most exciting event of the day.

Comma
1. Separate main clauses by a coordinating conjunction
Main clause, [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so] Main clause
▪ The building is finished, but it has no tenants.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Coffee can keep coffee drinkers alert, and it may elevate their mood.
▪ Caffeine was once thought to be safe, but now researchers warn of harmful
effects.
▪ Coffee drinkers may suffer sleeplessness, for the drug acts as stimulant to the
nervous system.
▪ Do not insert a comma after a coordinating conjunction between main clauses
▪ Faulty: Caffeine increases the heart rate, and, it constricts blood vessels.
▪ Correct: Caffeine increases the heart rate, and it constricts blood vessels.
▪ Exceptions: When the main clause is too long or complicated or when it contains internal
punctuation, a semicolon will clarify the division between the clauses.
▪ Caffeine may increase alertness, elevate mood, and provide energy; but it may
also cause irritability, anxiety, stomach pains, and other ills.
▪ When clauses are very short and closely related in meaning, you may omit the comma. When in
doubt, use the comma; It will always be correct.
▪ Fine: Caffeine helps but it also hurts.
▪ Always correct: Caffeine helps, but it also hurts.
▪ Incorrect uses
o Example one
▪ Faulty: I would have attended the concert and the reception but I had to baby-sit
for my niece.
▪ Correct: I would have attended the concert and the reception, but I had to
baby-sit for my niece.
o Example two
▪ Faulty: People once automatically gave their children the father’s surname but
some no longer do.
▪ Correct: People once automatically gave their children the father’s
surname, but some no longer do.
o Example three
▪ Faulty: Instead, they bestow the mother’s name for they believe that mother’s
importance should be recognized.
▪ Correct: Instead, they bestow the mother’s name, for they believe that
mother’s importance should be recognized.
o Example four
▪ Faulty: Sometimes, the first and third children will have the mother’s surname
and the second child will have the father’s.
▪ Correct: Sometimes, the first and third children will have the mother’s
surname, and the second child will have the father’s.
o Example five
▪ Faulty: The child’s surname may be just the mother’s or it may link the mother’s
and the father’s with a hyphen.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Correct: The child’s surname may be just the mother’s, or it may link the
mother’s and the father’s with a hyphen.
o Example six
▪ Faulty: Occasionally the mother and the father combine their names and a new
hybrid surname is born.
▪ Correct: Occasionally the mother and the father combine their names,
and a new hybrid surname is born.
▪ Do not use commas if the coordinating conjunctions connect words
▪ Dugain plays and sings Irish and English folk songs.
▪ Parents were once legally required to bestow the father’s surname on their
children, but these laws have been contested in court and found invalid.
▪ Critics sometimes question the effects of unusual surnames on children, or they
wonder how confusing or fleeting the new surnames will be.
▪ Hyphenated names are awkward and difficult to pass on, so some observer think
they will die out in the next generation or before.

2. Set off most introductory elements

➢ An introductory element modifies a word or words in the main clause that follows. These are
usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
➢ Introductory elements, Main clause
▪ Unfortunately, the only tenant pulled out.
▪ Subordinate clause
▪ Even when identical twins are raised apart, they grow up very like each other.
▪ Because they are similar, such twins interest scientists.
▪ Verbal or verbal phrase
▪ Explaining the similarity, some researchers claim that one’s genes are one’s
destiny.
▪ Concerned, other researchers deny the claim.
▪ Prepositional phrase
▪ In a debate that has lasted centuries, scientists use identical twins to argue for or
against genetic destiny.
▪ Transitional and parenthetical expression
▪ Of course, scientists can look directly at genes themselves.
▪ The comma may be omitted after short introductory elements if its omission does not create
confusion. However, the use of comma in such cases is always correct.
▪ Correct because it is clear: In hundred years genetics may no longer be a
mystery.
▪ Always correct: In hundred years, genetics may no longer be a mystery.
▪ Confusing: Despite intensive research scientists still have more questions
than answers.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Clear and correct: Despite intensive research, scientists still have more
questions than answers.
▪ Take care to distinguish –ing words used as modifiers from –ing words used as subjects. The
former almost always take a comma; the latter never do.
▪
Studying identical twins modifier, geneticists subject learn verb about inheritance.
▪ Studying identical twins subject helps verb geneticists learn about inheritance.
▪ Incorrect and correct usage:
o Example one:
▪ Already correct and no comma needed: Moving in a fluid mass is typical of
flock of birds and schools of fish.
o Example two:
▪ Faulty: Because it is sudden and well-coordinated the movement of flocks and
schools has seemed to be directed by a leader.
▪ Correct: Because it is sudden and well-coordinated, the movement of
flocks and schools has seemed to be directed by a leader.
o Example three
▪ Faulty: However new studies have discovered that flocks and schools are leader
less.
▪ Correct: However, new studies have discovered that flocks and schools are
leader less.
o Example four
▪ Faulty: When each bird or fish senses a predator it follows individual rules for
fleeting.
▪ Correct: When each bird or fish senses a predator, it follows individual
rules for fleeting.
o Example five
▪ Faulty: Multiplied over hundreds of individuals these responses look as if they
have been choreographed.
▪ Correct: Multiplied over hundreds of individuals, these responses look as if
they have been choreographed.

▪ Other examples
▪ In an effort to explain the mysteries of flocks and schools, scientists have
proposed bizarre magnetic fields and telepathy.
▪ Since scientists developed computer models, they have abandoned earlier
explanations.
▪ Starting with each individual, the movement of a flock or school is rapidly and
perhaps automatically coordinated among individuals.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Observing that human beings seek coherent patterns, one zoologist suggests
that investigators saw purpose in the movement of flocks and schools where
none existed.
▪ To study the movement of flocks or schools, one must abandon a search for
purpose or design.

3. Set off non-essential (non-selecting) (non-restrictive) elements

▪ Main clause, non-essential element.
▪ The empty building symbolizes a weak economy, which affects everyone
▪ Beginning of main clause, non-essential element, end of main clause.
▪ The primary cause, the decline of local industry, is not news.
▪ Commas around an element of a sentence often signal that the element is not essential to the
meaning of the sentence.
o Non-essential (non-specific) example
▪ The company, which is located in Oklahoma, is located in New York.
o Essential (specific) example
▪ The rewards employees who work hard.
▪ Example to illustrate difference between essential and non-essential
▪ Bring me the books that are on the desk. (Specific)
▪ Bring me the books, which are on the desk. (Non-specific)
▪ Essential and non-essential depends on context
▪ Not all the bands were equally well received, however. The band playing old
music held the audience’s attention. The other groups created much less
excitement.[ Playing old music identifies a particular band]
▪ A new band called Fats made its debut on Saturday night. The band, playing old
music, held the audience’s attention. If the performance is typical, the group has
a bright future. [Playing old music adds information about a band already
named]
▪ Test for essential and nonessential elements
o Identify the element
▪ Hai Nguyen who emigrated from Vietnam lives in Denver.
▪ Those who emigrated with him live elsewhere.
o Remove the element. Does the fundamental meaning of the sentence change?
▪ Hai Nguyen lives in Denver. [No]
▪ Those live elsewhere. [Yes, Who are those?]
o Final punctuation
▪ Hai Nguyen, who emigrated from Vietnam, lives in Denver.
▪ Those who emigrated with him live elsewhere.

▪ Use a comma or commas to set off non-essential clauses and phrases

Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

➢ Clauses and phrases functioning as adverbs or adjectives may be essential or non-

essential
o Non-essential:
▪ Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to graduate from an American medical
school, in 1849.
▪ She was a medical pioneer, helping to found the first medical college for women.
▪ She taught at the school, which was affiliated with the New York infirmary.
▪ Blackwell, who published books and papers on medicine, practiced pediatrics
and gynecology.
▪ She moved to England in 1869, when she was forty-eight.
▪ Note: Most adverb clauses are essential. They are set off by a comma only when they introduce
sentences and when they are truly non-essential, adding incidental information(as in the last
example above) or expressing a contrast beginning although, even though, though, whereas,
and the like.
▪ In the following sentences, the underlined elements limit the meanings of the words they
modify. Removing the elements would leave the meaning too general.
o Essential:
▪ The history of aspirin began with the ancient Greeks.
▪ Physicians who sought to relive their patients’ pain recommended chewing
willow bark.
▪ Willow bark contains a chemical that is similar to aspirin.

▪ Note: Whereas both essential and non-essential clauses may begin with which, only essential
clauses begin with that.

▪ Use a comma or commas to set off non-essential appositives

➢ An appositive is a noun or noun substitute which renames another noun just before it.
o Non-essential
▪ Toni Morrison’s fifth novel, Beloved, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1988.
▪ Morrison, a resident of Ohio, won the Nobel Prize in 1993.
o Essential
▪ Morrison’s novel The Bluest Eye is about an African American girl who longs for
blue eyes.
▪ The critic Michiko Kakutani says that Morrison’s work “stands radically on its
own as an American epic.”
▪ Use comma to set off transitional and parenthetical expressions
o Transitional elements
▪ Transitional elements form links between ideas. They include conjunctive
adverbs such as however and moreover as well as other words or phrases such as
for example and ofcourse. Transitional elements are non-essential to the
meaning of the sentence.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

• American workers, for example, receive fewer holidays than European

workers do.
▪ When transitional expression links two main clauses, precede it with a semicolon
and follow it with a comma.
• European workers often have long paid vacations; indeed, they may
receive a full month.
▪ Note: The conjunctions and, but, and yet are sometimes used as transitional
expressions but are not followed by commas. Nor are commas required after
some transitional expressions that we read without pauses, such as also, hence,
next, now, and thus. A few transitional expressions, notably therefore and
instead, do not need commas when they fall inside or at the ends of clauses.
• American workers thus put in more work days. But the days themselves
maybe shorter
o Parenthetical expressions
▪ Parenthetical expressions provide comments, explanations, digressions, or other
supplementary information not essential to meaning—for example, fortunately,
unfortunately, all things considered, to be frank, in other words. Set parenthetical
expressions off with commas.
• Few people would know, or even guess, the most celebrated holiday on
earth.
• That holiday is, surprisingly, New Year’s Day
▪ Note: Dashes and parentheses may also set off parenthetical expressions.
▪ Use a comma to set off yes and no, tag questions, words of direct address, and mild
interjections.
o Yes and no
▪ Yes, the editorial did have a point.
▪ No, that can never be.
o Tag questions
▪ Jones should be allowed to vote, should he not?
▪ They don’t stop to consider others, do they?
o Direct address
▪ Cody, please bring me the newspaper.
▪ With all due respect, sir, I will not do that.
o Mild interjections
▪ Well, you will never know who did it.
▪ Oh, they forgot all about the baby.
▪ Examples of essential and non-essential elements punctuations
o Example one
▪ Faulty: Our language has adopted the words, garage and fanfare, from the
French.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Correct: Our language has adopted the words garage and fanfare from the
French.
o Example two
▪ Faulty: Italians insist that Marco Polo the thirteenth-century explorer did not
import pasta from China.
▪ Correct: Italians insist that Marco Polo, the thirteenth-century explorer,
did not import pasta from China.
o Example three
▪ Faulty: Pasta which consists of flour and water and often egg existed in Italy long
before Marco Polo left for his travels.
▪ Correct: Pasta, which consists of flour and water and often egg, existed in
Italy long before Marco Polo left for his travels.
o Example four
▪ Already correct: A historian who studied pasta says that it originated in the
Middle East in the fifth century.
o Example five
▪ Faulty: Most Italians dispute this account although their evidence is shaky.
▪ Correct: Most Italians dispute this account, although their evidence is
shaky.
o Example six
▪ Faulty: Wherever pasta originated, the Italians are now the undisputed masters,
in making and cooking it.
▪ Correct: Wherever pasta originated, the Italians are now the undisputed
masters in making and cooking it.
o Example seven
▪ Already correct: Marcella Hazan, who has written several books on Italian
cooking, insists that homemade and hand-rolled pasta is the best.
o Example eight
▪ Faulty: Most cooks must buy dried pasta lacking the time to make their own.
▪ Correct: Most cooks must buy dried pasta, lacking the time to make their
own.
o Example nine
▪ Already correct: The finest pasta is made from semolina, a flour from hard
durum wheat.
o Example ten
▪ Faulty: Pasta manufacturers choose hard durum wheat, because it makes firmer
cooked pasta than common wheat does.
▪ Correct: Pasta manufacturers choose hard durum wheat because it makes
firmer cooked pasta than common wheat does.
o Example eleven
▪ Faulty: Pasta, made from common wheat, tends to get soggy in boiling water.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Correct: Pasta made from common wheat tends to get soggy in boiling
water.

4. Use comma to set off absolute phrases

➢ An absolute phrase modifies a whole main clause rather than any word in the clause, and it
usually consists of at least a participle (such as done or having torn) and its subject (a noun or
pronoun). Absolute phrases can occur at almost any point in a sentence, and they are always
set off by a comma or commas:
▪ Household recycling having succeeded, the city now wants to extend the
program to business.
▪ Many businesses, their profit already squeezed, resist recycling.

5. Use comma to set off phrases expressing contrast

▪ The essay needs less wit, more pith.
▪ The substance, not the style, is important
▪ Substance, unlike style, cannot be faked
▪ Note: writers often omit commas around contrasting phrases beginning with but
▪ A full but hazy moon shone down.
Examples of absolute phrases and phrases of contrast
o Example one
▪ Faulty: The recording contract was canceled the band having broken up.
▪ Correct: The recording contract was canceled, the band having broken up.
o Example two
▪ Faulty: Prices having risen rapidly the government debated a price freeze.
▪ Correct: Prices having risen rapidly, the government debated a price
freeze.
o Example three
▪ Faulty: A price freeze unlike a rise in interest rates seemed a sure solution.
▪ Correct: A price freeze, unlike a rise in interest rates, seemed a sure
solution.
o Example four
▪ Faulty: The President would have to persuade businesses to accept a price freeze
his methods depending on their resistance.
▪ Correct: The President would have to persuade businesses to accept a
price freeze, his methods depending on their resistance.
o Example five
▪ Faulty: No doubt the President his advisors having urged it would first try a
patriotic appeal.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪
Correct: No doubt the President, his advisors having urged it, would first
try a patriotic appeal.
o Example six
▪ Faulty: The President not his advisors insisted on negotiations with businesses.
▪ Correct: The President, not his advisors, insisted on negotiations with
businesses.

6. Use comma between items in a series and between coordinate adjectives

▪ Use commas between words, phrases, or clauses forming a series
▪ Anna Spingle married at the age of seventeen, had three children by twenty-one,
divorced at twenty-two.
▪ She worked as a cook, a baby-sitter, and a crossing guard.
o Note: some writers omit the comma after the second last option, but its use is better
and never wrong.

▪ Use comma between two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word
o When two or more adjectives modify the same word equally, they are said to be
coordinate. The adjectives May be separated either by and or by a comma, as in the
following examples.
▪ Spingle’s scratched and dented car is old.
▪ She has dreams of a sleek, shiny car.
o Adjectives are not coordinate when one noun is more closely associated in meaning to
the noun
▪ Spingle’s children work at various part-time jobs.
▪ They all expect to go to a nearby community college.
o Numbers are not coordinate adjectives
▪ Faulty: Spingle has three, teenaged children.
▪ Correct: Spingle has three teenaged children.
o Do not use a comma between the final adjective and the noun.
▪ Faulty: The children hope to achieve good, well-paying, jobs.
▪ Correct: The children hope to achieve good, well-paying jobs.

Examples of comma in series and coordinate adjectives

o Example one
▪ Faulty: Quite by day, the club became a noisy smoky dive at night.
▪ Correct: Quite by day, the club became a noisy, smoky dive at night.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o Example two
▪ Faulty: Shoes with high heels originated to protect feet from the mud garbage
and animal waste in the streets.
▪ Correct: Shoes with high heels originated to protect feet from the mud,
garbage, and animal waste in the streets.
o Example three
▪ Faulty: The heels were worn by men and made of colorful brocades soft suede or
smooth leathers.
▪ Correct: The heels were worn by men and made of colorful brocades, soft
suede, or smooth leathers.
o Example four
▪ Faulty: High-heeled shoes received a boost when the short powerful King Louis
XIV of France began wearing them.
▪ Correct: High-heeled shoes received a boost when the short, powerful King
Louis XIV of France began wearing them.
o Example five
▪ Faulty: Eventually only wealthy fashionable French women wore high heels.
▪ Correct: Eventually only wealthy, fashionable French women wore high
heels.

7. Use commas according to convention in dates, addresses, place names and long numbers.
➢ Use commas to separate most parts of dates, addresses, place names, Within a sentence, any
element preceded by a comma should be followed by a comma as well.
o Dates
▪ July 5, 1776, is the date declaration of independence was signed.
▪ The bombing of Pearl Harbor on Sunday, December 7, 1941, prompted American
entry into World War II.
o Do not use commas between the parts of a date in inverted order
▪ Their anniversary on 15 December 2005 was their fiftieth.
o Addresses and place names
▪ Columbus, Ohio, is the state capital and the location of Ohio state university.
▪ The population of Garden City, Long Island, New York, is 30,000.
o Long numbers
▪ Use comma to separate figures into groups of three, counting from the right.
• 300,000
• 43,555,335

8. Common misuses of comma

Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Delete any comma after a subject or a verb

▪ Faulty: The returning soldiers, received a warmer welcome than they expected.
[Separation of subject and verb]
▪ Correct: The returning soldiers received a warmer welcome than they
expected.
▪ Faulty: They had chosen, to fight for their country.
▪ Correct: They had chosen to fight for their country.
▪ Faulty: Anyone with breathing problems, should not exercise during smog alerts.
▪ Correct: Anyone with breathing problems should not exercise during smog
alerts.
o Exception: Use commas between subject, verb, and object or complement only when
other words between these elements require punctuation.
▪ Americans, who are preoccupied with other sports, have only recently
developed an interest in professional soccer.[commas set off a nonessential
clause]
o Delete any comma that separates a pair or words, phrases or subordinate clauses joined
by a coordinating conjunction. When linking with and, or, or another coordinating
conjunction, do not use a comma unless the elements are main clauses.
▪ Faulty: Banks could, and should help older people manage their money.
[Compound helping verb]
▪ Correct: Banks could, and should help older people manage their money.
▪ Faulty: Older people need special assistance because they live on fixed incomes,
and because they are not familiar with new accounts, and rates. [Compound
subordinate clauses because…because and compound object of preposition with]
▪ Correct: Older people need special assistance because they live on fixed
incomes and because they are not familiar with new accounts and rates.
▪ Faulty: Asthmatics are affected by ozone, and sulfur oxides.
▪ Correct: Asthmatics are affected by ozone and sulfur oxides.

▪ Delete any comma after a conjunction

▪ The coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, and so on) and the subordinating conjunctions
(although, because, and so on) are not followed by commas
▪ Faulty: Parents of adolescents notice increased conflict at puberty, and, they
complain of bickering.
▪ Correct: Parents of adolescents notice increased conflict at puberty, and
they complain of bickering.
▪ Faulty: Although, other primates leave the family at adolescence, humans do
not.
▪ Correct: Although other primates leave the family at adolescence, humans
do not.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Delete any commas that set off essential elements

▪ Faulty: Hawthorne’s work, The Scarlet Letter, was the first major American novel.
[The title is essential to distinguish the novel from the rest of Hawthorne’s work]
▪ Correct: Hawthorne’s work The Scarlet Letter was the first major American
novel.
▪ Faulty: The symbols, that Hawthorne uses, have influenced other novelists. [The
clause identifies which symbols have been influential]
▪ Correct: The symbols that Hawthorne uses have influenced other novelists.
▪ Faulty: Even people, who are healthy, should be careful.
▪ Correct: Even people who are healthy should be careful.
▪ Faulty: Bruce Springsteen’s song, “Born in the USA,” became an anthem.
▪ Correct: Bruce Springsteen’s song “Born in the USA” became an anthem.

▪ Quoted or italicized words are essential appositives when they limit the word they refer to
▪ Faulty: Jame’s Joyce’s short story, “The Dead,” was made into an affecting film.
[The commas imply wrongly that Joyce wrote only one story]
▪ Correct: Jame’s Joyce’s short story “The Dead” was made into an affecting
film.
▪ Faulty: The word, open, can be either a verb or an adjective.
▪ Correct: The word open can be either a verb or an adjective.
▪ The following sentence requires commas because the quoted title is a
nonessential appositive.
▪ Her only poem about death, “Mourning,” was printed in The New Yorker.

▪ Delete any comma before or after a series unless a rule requires it

▪ Commas separate the items within the series but do not separate the series from the rest of the
sentence.
▪ Faulty: The skills of, hunting, herding, and agriculture, sustained the Native
Americans.
▪ Correct: The skills of hunting, herding, and agriculture, sustained the
Native Americans.
▪ Faulty: Cars, factories, and even bakeries, contribute to smog.
▪ Correct: Cars, factories, and even bakeries contribute to smog.
▪ In the sentence below, the commas around the series are appropriate because the series is a
non-essential appositive.
▪ The four major television networks, ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC, face fierce
competition from the cable networks.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪However, many writers prefer to use dashes rather than commas to set off series
functioning as appositives
▪ Delete any comma setting off an indirect quotation
▪ Faulty: The report concluded, that dieting could be more dangerous than
overeating.
▪ Revised: The report concluded, that dieting could be more dangerous than
overeating.
▪ Faulty: Experts say, that the pollutant ozone is especially damaging.
▪ Revised: Experts say that the pollutant ozone is especially damaging.
▪ Examples of misused commas
▪ Faulty: Nearly 32 million US residents, speak a first language other than English.
▪ Correct: Nearly 32 million US residents speak a first language other than
English.
▪ Faulty: After English the languages most commonly spoken are, Spanish, French,
and German.
▪ Correct: After English the languages most commonly spoken are Spanish,
French, and German.
▪ Faulty: Almost 75 percent of the people, who speak foreign languages, used the
words, “good” or “very good,” when judging their proficiency in English
▪ Correct: Almost 75 percent of the people who speak foreign languages
used the words “good” or “very good” when judging their proficiency in English
▪ Already correct: Recent immigrants, especially those speaking Spanish,
Chinese, and Korean, tended to judge their English more harshly.
▪ Faulty: The states with the highest proportion of foreign language speakers, are
New Mexico and California.
▪ Correct: The states with the highest proportion of foreign language
speakers are New Mexico and California.

▪ Unique Comma rules from Wren & Martin

o Comma should be used to separate each pair of words connected by and
▪ We should be devout and humble, cheerful and serene.
▪ High and low, rich and poor, wise and foolish, must all die.
o To mark off words used in addressing people
▪ Come into the garden, Maud.
▪ How are you, Mohan?
▪ Lord of the universe, shield and guide us.
o But when the words are emphatic, we ought to use the Note of exclamation
▪ Monster! By thee my child’s devoured!
o To mark off two or more Adverbs or Adverbial phrases coming together
▪ Then, at length, tardy justice was done to the memory of Oliver.
o Before and after words, phrases, or clauses let into the body of sentence
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ He did not, however, gain his object.

▪ It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world.
▪ His behavior, to say the least, was very rude.
▪ His story was, in several ways, improbable.
▪ Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between thee and me.
▪ The people of Orleans, when they first saw her in the city, thought she was an
angel.
o To indicate the omission of a word, especially a verb.
▪ Rama received a Parker pen; Hari, a watch.
▪ He was a Brahmin; she, a Rajput.
▪ He will succeed; you, never.
o To separate from the verb a long Subject opening a sentence
▪ The injustice of the sentence pronounced upon that great scientist and
discoverer, is now evident to us all.
o To separate a noun clause—whether subject or object—preceding the verb
▪ How we are ever to get there, is the question.
▪ That he would succeed in his undertaking, no one ever doubted.
o To separate an Adverbial clause from its principal clause
▪ When I was a bachelor, I lived by myself.
▪ If thou would’st be happy, seek to please.
▪ Rules from Readers Digest
o Do not use a dash and a comma together
o Ellipsis: Use a comma to indicate that one or more words, easily understood, have been
omitted.
▪ The employer contributed 60 percent; the employees, 40 percent.
o Parenthesis and comma
▪ Use a comma after a closing parentheses if the construction of the sentence
requires a comma. Never use a comma before a parenthesis or an expression
closed enclosed in parentheses.
• You need tea, sliced lemon, sugar (preferably lump), cream, and assorted
cookies.
o Parenthetical words and phrases
▪ Use commas to set of parenthetical words or phrases like I believe, for example,
however, unless the connection is close and smooth enough not to call for a
pause in reading
• However, I shall follow your advice [ parenthetical]
• However early he arrives at his office, his secretary is always there before
him. [Adverb]
• Thus was a fortune built from nothing. [Adverb]
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

•Thus, the assignment does not represent the substitution of one liability
for another. [Parenthetical]
o Participle phrases
▪ Do not separate a participle from the noun it modifies when the noun is not the
subject and the participle phrase is not closely connected with the rest of the
sentence.
• Faulty: The operators, having agreed to arbitrate, the union called off the
strike.
• Correct: The evidence being circumstantial, the jury acquitted him.
• Correct: The operators, having agreed to arbitrate, went back to
work.
o Phrases with a common element
▪ Place a comma before a word or words that are common to two or more phrases
but are expressed only after the last phrase. In the following examples the
commas in brackets are frequently omitted in error.
• The report was documented with references to many, if not all [,] of the
recent court decisions on the question of interlocking directorates. (The
words “of the recent court decisions” are common to “many” and to
“all”)
• The sales manager’s report are clearer, more concise, more accurate [,]
than those of the advertising manager. ( The words “than those…” are
common to “clearer,” “more concise,” and more “accurate.”)
▪ Note: If the phrases are connected by a conjunction, the comma is not needed.
▪ …are clearer, more concise, and more accurate than those…
▪ Rules from Oxford Practical English Usage
o Long subjects: comma not used
▪ We do not usually put a comma after a subject, even if it is very long.
• Faulty: The man from the Japanese Ministry of Education, arrived early.
• Correct: The man from the Japanese Ministry of Education arrived
early.

9. Sample paragraph with comma

▪ Incorrect:
o Ellis Island New York reopened for business in 1990 but now the customers are tourists
not immigrants. This spot which lies in New York Harbor was the first American soil
seen, or touched by many of the nation’s immigrants. Though other places also served
as ports of entry for foreigners none has the symbolic power of, Ellis Island. Between its
opening in 1892 and its closing in 1954, over 20 million people about two thirds of all
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

immigrants were detained there before taking up their new lives in the United States.
Ellis Island processed over 2000 newcomers a day when immigration was at its peak
between 1900 and 1920.
o As the end of a long voyage and the introduction to the New World Ellis Island must
have left something to be desired. The “huddled masses” as the Statue of liberty calls
them indeed were huddled. New arrivals were herded about kept standing in lines for
hours or days yelled at and abused. Assigned numbers they submitted their bodies to
the pokings and proddings of silent nurses and doctors, who were charged with
ferreting out the slightest signs of sickness, disability or insanity. That test having been
passed the immigrants faced interrogation by an official through an interpreter. Those,
with names deemed inconveniently long or difficult to pronounce, often found
themselves permanently labeled with abbreviations, of their names, or with the names,
of their hometowns. But, millions survived the examination humiliation and confusion,
to take the last short boat ride to New York City. For many of them and especially for
their descendants Ellis Island eventually became not a nightmare but the place where
life began.
▪ Correct:
o Ellis Island, New York, reopened for business in 1990, but now the customers are
tourists, not immigrants. This spot, which lies in New York Harbor, was the first
American soil seen or touched by many of the nation’s immigrants. Though other places
also served as ports of entry for foreigners, none has the symbolic power of Ellis Island.
Between its opening in 1892 and its closing in 1954, over 20 million people, about two
thirds of all immigrants, were detained there before taking up their new lives in the
United States. Ellis Island processed over 2000 newcomers a day when immigration was
at its peak between 1900 and 1920.
o As the end of a long voyage and the introduction to the New World, Ellis Island must
have left something to be desired. The “huddled masses,” as the Statue of liberty calls
them, indeed were huddled. New arrivals were herded about, kept standing in lines for
hours or days, yelled at, and abused. Assigned numbers, they submitted their bodies to
the pokings and proddings of silent nurses and doctors who were charged with ferreting
out the slightest signs of sickness, disability, or insanity. That test having been passed,
the immigrants faced interrogation by an official through an interpreter. Those with
names deemed inconveniently long or difficult to pronounce often found themselves
permanently labeled with abbreviations of their names or with the names of their
hometowns. But millions survived the examination, humiliation, and confusion to take
the last short boat ride to New York City. For many of them and especially for their
descendants, Ellis Island eventually became, not a nightmare, but the place where life
began.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

Semi colon
The semicolon separates equal and balanced sentence elements, usually main clauses, sometimes
items in series.

• Use a semicolon between main clauses not joined by and, but, or another coordinating
conjunction.
o Main clauses contain a subject and a predicate and do not begin with a subordinating
word. When you join two main clauses in a sentence, you two primary options for
separating them:
▪ Insert a comma and a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
• The drug does little to relieve symptoms, and it can have side effects.
▪ Insert a semicolon
• The side effects are minor; some leave the patient quite ill.
• Error: Comma splice or a fused sentence.
o If you do not link main clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction and you
separate them only with a comma or with no punctuation at all, you will produce a
comma splice or a fused sentence.
• Comma splice: The side effects are minor, some leave the patient quite ill.
• Fused sentence: The side effects are minor some leave the patient
quite ill.
• Examples:
o Faulty: More and more musicians are playing computerized instruments more and more
listeners are worrying about the future of acoustic instruments.
o Correct: More and more musicians are playing computerized instruments; more
and more listeners are worrying about the future of acoustic instruments.
o Faulty: The computer is not the first new technology in music the pipe organ and
saxophone were also technological breakthroughs in their day.
o Correct: The computer is not the first new technology in music; the pipe organ and
saxophone were also technological breakthroughs in their day.
o Faulty: Musicians have always experimented with new technology audiences have
always resisted the experiments.
o Correct: Musicians have always experimented with new technology; audiences
have always resisted the experiments.
o Faulty: Most computer musicians are not merely following the latest fad they are
discovering new sounds and new ways to manipulate sound.
o Correct: Most computer musicians are not merely following the latest fad; they are
discovering new sounds and new ways to manipulate sound.
o Faulty: Few musicians have abandoned acoustic instruments most value acoustic sounds
as much as electronic sounds.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o Correct: Few musicians have abandoned acoustic instruments; most value acoustic
sounds as much as electronic sounds.
• Use a semi colon between main clauses related by however, for example, and so on.
o Two kinds of words can relate main clauses: conjunctive adverbs, such as consequently,
hence, however, indeed, and thus, and other transitional expressions, such as even so,
for example, and of course. When either of these two connect two main clauses, the
clauses should be separated by a semicolon:
• An American immigrant, Levi Strauss, invented blue jeans in the 1860s;
eventually, his product clothed working men throughout the west.
o The position of a semicolon between two main clauses never changes, but the
conjunctive adverb or transitional expression may move around within a clause; this
distinguishes these expressions from a semicolon.
• Blue jeans have become fashionable all over the world; however, the
American originators still wear more jeans than anyone else.
• Blue jeans have become fashionable all over the world; the American
originators, however, still wear more jeans than anyone else.
• Examples:
o Faulty: Music is a form of communication like language the basic letters however are
not letters but notes.
o Correct: Music is a form of communication like language; the basic letters,
however, are not letters but notes.
o Faulty: Computers can process any information that can be presented numerically as a
result they can process musical information.
o Correct: Computers can process any information that can be presented
numerically; as a result, they can process musical information.
o Faulty: A computer’s ability to process music depends on what software it can run it
must moreover be connected to a system that converts electrical vibration into sound.
o Correct: A computer’s ability to process music depends on what software it can
run; it must, moreover, be connected to a system that converts electrical vibration into
sound.
o Faulty: Computers and their sound systems can produce many different sounds indeed
the number of possible sounds is infinite.
o Correct: Computers and their sound systems can produce many different sounds;
indeed, the number of possible sounds is infinite.
o Faulty: The powerful music computers are very expensive therefore they are used only
by professional musicians.
o Correct: The powerful music computers are very expensive; therefore, they are used
only by professional musicians.
• Use semicolon to separate main clauses if they are complicated or contain commas, even
with a coordinating conjunction.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o This makes the sentence easier to read

▪ By a conscious effort of the mind, we can stand aloof from actions and their
consequences; and all things, good and bad, go by us like a torrent.
• Use a semicolon to separate items in a series if they are long or contain commas
▪ The custody case involved Amy Dalton, the child; Ellon and Mark Dalton, the
parents; and Ruth and Hal Blum, the grandparents.
• Examples:
o Faulty: The Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of the world by clear barriers:
the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea to the east and west, respectively, the Indian Ocean
to the south, and 1600 miles of mountain ranges to the north.
o Correct: The Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of the world by clear
barriers: the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea to the east and west, respectively; the
Indian Ocean to the south; and 1600 miles of mountain ranges to the north.
o Faulty: In the north of India are the world’s highest mountains, the Himalayas, and
farther south are fertile farmlands, unpopulated deserts, and rain forests.
o Correct: In the north of India are the world’s highest mountains, the Himalayas;
and farther south are fertile farmlands, unpopulated deserts, and rain forests.
o Faulty: India is a nation of ethnic and linguistic diversity, with numerous religions,
including Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity, with distinct castes and ethnic groups, and
with sixteen languages, including the official Hindi and the “associate official” English.
o Correct: India is a nation of ethnic and linguistic diversity, with numerous
religions, including Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity; with distinct castes and ethnic
groups; and with sixteen languages, including the official Hindi and the “associate
official” English.
o Faulty: Between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, the British colonized most
of India, taking control of government, the bureaucracy, and industry, and they assumed
a social position above all Indians.
o Correct: Between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, the British colonized
most of India, taking control of government, the bureaucracy, and industry; and they
assumed a social position above all Indians.
o Faulty: During British rule the Indian’s own unresolved differences and their frustrations
with the British erupted in violent incidents such as the Sepoy Mutiny, which began on
February 26, 1857, and lasted two years, the Amritsar massacre on April 13, 1919, and
violence between Hindus and Muslims during World War II that resulted in the
separation of Pakistan from India.
o Correct: During British rule the Indian’s own unresolved differences and their
frustrations with the British erupted in violent incidents such as the Sepoy Mutiny,
which began on February 26, 1857, and lasted two years; the Amritsar massacre on April
13, 1919; and violence between Hindus and Muslims during World War II that resulted
in the separation of Pakistan from India.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

• Misuses of semicolon
• Delete or replace any semicolon that separates a subordinate clause or a phrase from a main
clause.
o Faulty: Pygmies are in danger of extinction; because of encroaching development.
o Correct: Pygmies are in danger of extinction because of encroaching
development.
o Faulty: According to African authorities; only about 35,000 pygmies exist today.
o Correct: According to African authorities, only about 35,000 pygmies exist today.
• Delete any semicolon that introduces a series or explanation
o Colons and dashes, not semi colons, introduce series, explanations, and so forth.
▪ Faulty: Teachers have heard all sorts of reasons why students do poorly;
psychological problems, family illness, too much work, too little time.
▪ Correct: Teachers have heard all sorts of reasons why students do poorly:
psychological problems, family illness, too much work, too little time.
▪ Correct: Teachers have heard all sorts of reasons why students do poorly--
psychological problems, family illness, too much work, too little time.
• Never overuse semicolon even if required by a rule.
• Examples of misuses of semicolon
o Faulty: The doctor gave everyone the same advice; get exercise.
o Correct: The doctor gave everyone the same advice: get exercise.
o Faulty: The main religion in India is Hinduism; a way of life as well as a theology and
philosophy.
o Correct: The main religion in India is Hinduism, a way of life as well as a theology
and philosophy.
o Faulty: Unlike Christianity and Judaism; Hinduism is a polytheistic religion; with deities
numbering in the hundred.
o Correct: Unlike Christianity and Judaism, Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, with deities
numbering in the hundred.
o Faulty: In Hindu belief, there are four types of people; reflective, emotional, active, and
experimental.
o Correct: In Hindu belief, there are four types of people: reflective, emotional,
active, and experimental.
o Faulty: Each type of person has a different technique for realizing the true, immortal
self; which has infinite existence, infinite knowledge, and infinite joy.
o Correct: Each type of person has a different technique for realizing the true,
immortal self, which has infinite existence, infinite knowledge, and infinite joy.
• Semicolon rules from Reader’s Digest
o Place the semicolon outside the quotation marks.
o Use a semicolon after a closing parenthesis if the construction of the sentence requires.
Never use a semicolon before a parenthesis.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

• Semicolon rules from Oxford Practical English Usage by M Swan

o Semicolon is sometimes used instead of full stops when the ideas are closely connected
▪ Some people work best in the mornings, others do better in the evenings.
▪ It is a fine idea; let us hope that it is going to work.
o Semicolons can also be used to separate items in a list, particularly when these are
grammatically complex
▪ You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscription is paid
regularly; that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you
undertake to make good any damage.
• Distinguishing the comma, semicolon, and the colon
• The comma chiefly separates both equal and unequal sentence elements
• It separates main clauses when they are linked with a coordinating conjunction
• An airline once tried to boost sales by advertising the tense alertness of its crews, but nervous
pilots did not want to hear about pilots’ sweaty palms.
• It separates subordinate information that is part of or attached to a main clause.
• Although the airline campaign failed, many advertising agencies, including some clever ones,
copied its underlying message.
• The semicolon chiefly separates equal and balanced sentence elements. Often the first clause
creates an expectation, and the second clause fulfills the expectation.
• It separates complementary main clauses that are not linked by a coordinating conjunction
• The airline had highlighted only half the story; the other half was buried in the copy.
• It separates complementary main clauses that related by a conjunctive adverb or other
transitional expression.
• The campaign should not have stressed the pilots’ insecurity; instead, the campaign should
have stressed the improved performance resulting from that insecurity.
• The colon chiefly separates unequal sentence elements.
• It separates a main clause from a following explanation or summary, which may or may not be
a main clause.
• Many successful advertising campaigns have used this message: the anxious seller is hard
working and smarter than the competitor.

Apostrophe
• Use the apostrophe to indicate the possessive case for nouns and indefinite pronouns
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o Possession may be shown with an of phrase (the hair of the dog); or it may be shown
with the addition of an apostrophe (the dog’s hair)
o Add –‘s to singular nouns and indefinite pronouns
• Bill Boughton’s skillful card tricks amaze children.
• Anyone’s eyes would widen. [ indefinite pronoun]
• Most tricks will pique an adult’s curiosity, too.
▪ Add –‘s as well to singular nouns that end in –s
• Henry James’s novels reward the patient reader.
• Los Angeles’s weather is mostly warm.
• The business’s customers filed suit.
▪ Exception: We do not pronounce the possessives –s of a few singular nouns
ending in an s or z sound: names with more than one s sound(Moses), names
that sound like plurals(Rivers, Bridges), and nouns followed by a word beginning
in s. In these cases, many writers add only the apostrophe to show possession.
• Moses’ mother concealed him in the bulrushes.
• Joan Rivers’ jokes offend many people.
• For conscience’ sake she confessed her lie.
▪ However, usage varies widely, and the final –s is not wrong with words like these
(Moses’s, Rivers’s, conscience’s)
o Add –‘s to plural nouns not ending in –s.
• The bill establishes children’s rights.
• Publicity grabbed the media’s attention.
o Add only an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s.
• Workers’ incomes have not risen much over the past decade.
• Many students benefit from several years’ work after high school.
• The Jameses’ talents are extraordinary.
▪ Note the difference in the possessives of singular and plural words ending in –s.
The singular form usually takes –s: James’s. The plural only takes the apostrophe:
Jameses’.
o Add –‘s only to the last word of compound words or word groups
• The council president’s address was a bore.
• The brother-in-law’s business failed.
• Taxes are always somebody else’s fault.
o With two or more words, add –‘s to one or both depending on meaning
▪ Individual possession
• Zimbale’s and Mason’s comedy techniques are similar. [ Each comedian
has his own technique]
▪ Joint possession
• The child recovered despite her mother and father’s neglect. [ The
mother and father were jointly neglectful]
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o Examples:
• In the myths of the ancient Greek, the goddesses’ roles vary widely.
• Demeter’s responsibility is the fruitfulness of the earth.
• Athena’s role is to guard the city of Athens.
• Artemis’s function is to care for wild animals and small children.
• Even a single goddess’s responsibilities are often varied.
• Over several centuries’ time, Athena changes from a mariner’s goddess
to the patron of crafts.
• Athena is also concerned with fertility and with children’s well-being,
since Athena’s strength depended on a large and healthy population.
• Athena often changes into birds’ forms.
• In Homer’s Oydyssey she assumes a sea eagle’s form.
• In ancient Athens the myths of Athena were part of everyone’s
knowledge and life.
• A cherished myth tells how Athena fights to retain possession of her
people’s land when god.
• Athena’s and Poseidon’s skills are different, and each promises a special
gift to Athenians.
• The other gods decide that the Athenians’ lives depend more on Athena.
• Delete or replace any apostrophe in a plural pronoun, a singular verb, or a possessive
personal pronoun.
o Not all words ending in –s take apostrophes. Three kinds of words are more likely to
attract unneeded apostrophes.
o Plural nouns
• Faulty: The unleashed dog’s began travelling in a pack.
• Correct: The unleashed dogs began travelling in a pack.
• Faulty: The Jonese’s and Ali’s were feuding.
• Correct: The Jonese’s and Ali’s were feuding.
o Singular verbs
• Faulty: The subway break’s down less often now.
• Correct: The subway breaks down less often now.
• Faulty: It run’s more reliably.
• Correct: It runs more reliably.
o Possessive personal pronouns
▪ His, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, and whose are possessive forms of the pronouns
he, she, it, we, you, they, who. They do not take apostrophes.
▪ The possessive pronouns are often confused with contractions it’s, you’re, and
who’s.
o Examples:
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

• Faulty: The responsibility for the fertility of both animal’s and plant’s is
her’s.
• Correct: The responsibility for the fertility of both animals and
plants is hers.
• Faulty: The goddesses festival came at harvest time, with it’s celebration
of bounty.
• Correct: The goddess’s festival came at harvest time, with its
celebration of bounty.
• Faulty: The peoples prayer’s to Demeter thanked her for grain and other
gift’s.
• Correct: The people’s prayers to Demeter thanked her for grain and
other gifts.
• Use an apostrophe to indicate the omission in a standard contraction

It is, it has It’s Let us Let’s

he is he’s Does not Doesn’t
She is She’s Were not Weren’t
They are They’re Class of 2009 Class of ‘09
You are You’re Of the clock O’ clock
Who is, who has Who’s madam Ma’am
• Note: contractions are easily confused with possessive pronoun

Contraction Possessive pronouns

It’s its
They’re their
You’re your
Who’s whose
• Example
▪ Faulty: Legislators know their going to cut the budget to eliminate it’s deficit.
▪ Correct: Legislators know they’re going to cut the budget to eliminate its
deficit.
• Forming contractions:
o She would
▪ She’d rather be dancing.
o Could not
▪ I couldn’t see her properly in the crowd.
o They are
▪ They’re at the front door now.
o He is
▪ He’s my brother.
o Do not
▪ We don’t like the beach.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o She will
▪ She’ll come tomorrow.
o Hurricane of 1962
▪ The recent storm was nearly as bad as the hurricane of ’62.
o Is not
▪ Isn’t that your cousin?
o It is
▪ It’s a fact.
o Will not
▪ The door won’t budge.
• Increasingly, the apostrophe does not mark plural abbreviations, dates, and words or
characters named as words
▪ BAs
▪ PhDs
▪ 1990s
▪ 2000s
▪ 3s
▪ 5s
• Incorrect use of apostrophe
▪ Faulty: In Greek myth the goddess Demeter has a special fondness for Eleusis,
near Athens, and it’s people.
▪ Correct: In Greek myth the goddess Demeter has a special fondness for
Eleusis, near Athens, and its people.
▪ Already correct: She finds rest among the people and is touched by their
kindness.
▪ Faulty: Demeter rewards the Eleusians with the secret for making they’re land
fruitful.
▪ Correct: Demeter rewards the Eleusians with the secret for making their
land fruitful.
▪ Faulty: The Elseusians begin a cult in honor of Demeter, whose worshipped in
secret ceremonies.
▪ Correct: The Elseusians begin a cult in honor of Demeter, who’s worshipped in
secret ceremonies.
▪ Faulty: Its unknown what happened in the ceremonies, for no participant ever
revealed their rituals.
▪ Correct: It’s unknown what happened in the ceremonies, for no participant
ever revealed their rituals.
• Rules from
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

Quotation Marks
Direct and Indirect quotation
Direct quotation
According to Lewis Thomas, “We are, perhaps uniquely among the earth’s creatures, the
worrying animal. We worry away our lives.”
Quotation within quotation
Quoting a phrase by Lewis Thomas, the author adds, “We are ‘the worrying animal.’”
Indirect quotation
Lewis Thomas says that human beings are unique among animals in their worrying.
Quotation marks with other punctuation marks
Commas and periods
Human beings are the “worrying animal,” says Thomas.
Thomas calls human beings “the worrying animal.”
Semicolons and colons
Machiavelli says that “the majority of men live content”; in contrast, Thomas calls us
“the worrying animal.”
Thomas believes that we are “the worrying animal”: we spend our lives afraid and
restless.
Question marks, exclamation points, dashes
When part of your own sentence
Who said that human beings are “the worrying animal”?
Imagine saying that human beings “worry away our lives”!
Thomas’ phrase –“the worrying animal”- seems too narrow.
When part of the original quotation
“Will you discuss this with me?” she asked.
“I demand that you discuss this with me!” she yelled.
“Please, won’t you-“she paused.
Handling quotations from speech or writing
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

Ellipsis mark for omissions

“We are … the worrying animal,” says Thomas.
Worrying places us “uniquely among the earth’s cre
atures… we worry away our lives.”
Punctuating signal phrases with quotations
Introductory signal phrase
He says, “We worry away our lives.”
An answer is in these words by Lewis Thomas: “We are, perhaps uniquely among the
earth’s creatures, the worrying animal.”
Concluding signal phrase
“We are the worrying animal,” says Thomas.
“Who says?” she demanded.
“I do!” he shouted.
Interrupting signal phrase
“We are,” says Thomas, “perhaps uniquely among the earth’s creatures, the worrying
animal.”
“I do not like the idea,” she said; “however, I agree with it.”
Human beings are “the worrying animal,” says Thomas. “We worry away our lives.”

Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation

“In formulating any philosophy,” Woody Allen writes, “the first consideration must always be:
What can we know? Descartes hinted at the problem when he wrote, ‘My mind can never know
my body, although it has become quite friendly with my leg.’”
Capitalization in quotation marks
First letter of direct quotation will be capital but not when the dialogue tag interrupts it.
“Unlike coughs and hiccups,” she explained, “sneezes feel as if they come from inside the
head.”
Begin a new paragraph for each speaker (standard)
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

“What shall I call you? Your name?” Andrew whispered rapidly, as with a high squeak the latch
of the door rose.
“Elizabeth,” she said. “Elizabeth.”
Quoting titles
She published an article titled “Marriage in Grace Paley’s ‘An interest in life.’”

Placing other punctuation marks outside or inside

Place commas and periods inside the quotation marks

• Swift uses irony in his essay “A Modest Proposal.”

• Many first-time readers are shocked to see infants described as “delicious.”
• “’A Modest Proposal,’” writes one critic, “is so outrageous that it cannot be
believed.”
• Exception: When parenthetical source follows a quotation
o One critic calls the essay “Outrageous” (Olms 26).
Place colons and semi colons outside the quotation marks

• Some years ago the slogan in elementary education was “learning by playing”; now
educators are concerned with basic skills.
• We all know what is meant by “inflation”: more money buys less.
Place dashes, question marks and exclamation marks inside the quotation marks if they
belong to the quotation. Don’t use any other punctuation marks such as comma or period.

• “But must you-” Marcia hesitated, afraid of the answer.

• “Go away!” I yelled.
• Did you say, “Who is she?” (When both the quotation and sentence end in question
mark, use only the quotation question mark.)
• One evocative line in English poetry-“After many a summer dies the swan”- comes
from Alfred, Lord Tennyson.
• Who said, “Now cracks a noble heart”?
• The woman called me “stupid”!
Punctuate the following:
What did Dr. King mean by this statement? The teacher asked. Perhaps we should
define promissory note first. Then she explained that a person who signs such a note
agrees to pay a specific sum of money on a particular date or on demand by the holder
of the note. One student suggested, Maybe Dr. King meant that the writers of the
Constitution and Declaration promised that all people in America should be equal. He
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

and over 200,000 people had gathered in Washington, DC, added another student.
Maybe their purpose was to demand payment, to demand those rights for African
Americans. The whole discussion was an eye opener for us (including me) who had
never considered that those documents make promises that we should expect our
country to fulfil.
Correct:
“What did Dr. King mean by this statement?” The teacher asked. “Perhaps we should
define promissory note first.” Then she explained that a person who signs such a note
agrees to pay a specific sum of money on a particular date or on demand by the holder
of the note. One student suggested, “Maybe Dr. King meant that the writers of the
Constitution and Declaration promised that all people in America should be equal.” “He
and over 200,000 people had gathered in Washington, DC,” added another student.
“Maybe their purpose was to demand payment, to demand those rights for African
Americans.” The whole discussion was an eye opener for us (including me) who had
never considered that those documents make promises that we should expect our
country to fulfil.
1.
“What did Dr. King mean by this statement?” The teacher asked. “Perhaps we should
define promissory note first.”
“What did Dr. King mean by this statement? Perhaps we should define promissory note
first.”
2.
“He and over 200,000 people had gathered in Washington, DC,” added another student.
“Maybe their purpose was to demand payment, to demand those rights for African
Americans.”
“He and over 200,000 people had gathered in Washington, DC. Maybe their purpose
was to demand payment, to demand those rights for African Americans.”

10. Use commas with quotations

▪ The words he said, she writes, and so on identify the source of a quotation. These signal phrases
before, after, or in the middle of the quotation. A signal phrase must always be separated from
the quotation by punctuation, usually a comma or commas.
▪ Ordinarily use a comma with a signal phrase before or after a quotation
o Eleanor Roosevelt said, “You must do the thing you think you cannot do.”
o “Knowledge is power,” writes Francis Bacon.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Do not use a comma when a signal phrase follows a quotation ending with an exclamation point
or a question mark:
o “Claude!” Mrs. Harrison called.
o “Why must I come home?” he asked.
▪ Do not use a quotation introduced by that or with a quotation integrated into your sentence
structure
o James Baldwin insists that “one must never, in one’s life, accept … injustices as common
place.”
o Baldwin thought that the violence of a riot “had been devised as a corrective” to his
own violence.
▪ Use a colon instead of a comma when the signal phrase is actually a complete sentence and the
quotation is very formal or longer than a sentence.
o The bill of rights in unambiguous: “Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”
▪ With an interrupted quotation, precede the signal phrase with a comma and follow it with the
punctuation required by the quotation.
o Quotation
▪ “The shore has a dual nature, changing with the swing of the tides.”
o Signal phrase
▪ “The shore has a dual nature,” observes Rachel Carson, “changing with the swing
of tides.” [The signal phrase interrupts the quotation at a comma and this ends
with a comma]
o Quotation
▪ “However mean your life is, meet it and live it; do not shun it and call it hard
names.”
o Signal phrase
▪ “However mean your life is, meet it and live it,” Thoreau advises in Walden; “do
not shun it and call it hard names.” [The signal phrase interrupts the quotation at
a semicolon and thus ends with a semicolon.]
o Quotation
▪ “This is the faith with which I return to the South. With this new faith we will be
able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope.”
o Signal phrase
▪ “This is the faith with which I return to the South,” Martin King, Jr., proclaimed.
“With this new faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a
stone of hope.” [The signal phrase interrupts the quotation at a period and thus
ends with a period.]
▪
▪ Note: Using a comma instead of a semicolon or period after these signal phrases would result in
an error called the comma splice: two main clauses separated only by a comma.
▪ Place commas that follow quotations within quotation marks.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ “Death is not the greatest loss in life,” claims Norman Cousins.

▪ “The greatest loss,” Cousins says, “is what dies inside us while we live.”
▪ Examples of incorrect punctuation
o Example one
o Faulty: The shoplifter declared “I didn’t steal anything.”
o Correct: The shoplifter declared, “I didn’t steal anything.”
o Example two
o Faulty: The shoplifter declared “I didn’t steal anything.”
o Correct: The shoplifter declared, “I didn’t steal anything.”
o Example three
o Already correct: The writer and writing teacher proposes an “open ended writing
process” that “can change you, not just your words.”
o Example four
o Faulty: “I think of the open ended writing process as a voyage in two stages” Elbow says.
o Correct: “I think of the open ended writing process as a voyage in two stages,”
Elbow says.
o Example five
o Faulty: “The sea voyage is a process of divergence, branching, proliferation, and
confusion” Elbow continues “the coming to land is a process of convergence, pruning,
centralization, and clarifying.”
o Correct: “The sea voyage is a process of divergence, branching, proliferation, and
confusion,” Elbow continues; “the coming to land is a process of convergence, pruning,
centralization, and clarifying.”
o Example six
o Faulty: “Keep one session of writing long enough to get loosened up and tired” advises
Elbow “long enough in fact to make a bit of a voyage.”
o Correct: “Keep one session of writing long enough to get loosened up and tired,”
advises Elbow, “long enough in fact to make a bit of a voyage.”
o Example seven
o Faulty: “In coming to new land” Elbow says “you develop a new conception of what you
are writing about.”
o Correct: “In coming to new land,” Elbow says, “you develop a new conception of
what you are writing about.”

Colon
• Use the colon to introduce and separate
o The colon is mainly a mark of introduction: it signals that the words following will
explain or amplify. It also has some conventional uses, such as in expressions of time.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o In its main use as an introducer, a colon is always preceded by a complete main clause
[independent], not starting with a subordinating word. A colon may or may not be
followed by a main clause. This is one way the colon differs from the semicolon. The
colon is interchangeable with the dash, though the dash is more informal and more
abrupt.
o Note: Don’t use a colon more than once in a sentence. The sentence should end with
the element introduced by the colon.
• Use a colon to introduce a concluding explanation, series, appositive, or long or formal
quotation.
o Depending on your preference, a complete sentence after the colon may begin with a
capital letter. Just be consistent throughout an essay.
o Examples:
o Soul food is a varied cuisine: it includes spicy gumbos, black-eyed peas, and collard
greens.
o Soul food has a deceptively simple definition: African American ethnic cooking.
o Sometime a concluding explanation is preceded by “the following” or “as follows” and a
colon:
o A more precise definition might be the following: ingredients, cooking methods, and
dishes originating in Africa, brought to the New World by black slaves, and modified or
supplemented in the Caribbean and the American South.
o Series
▪ At least three soul food dishes are familiar to most Americans: fried chicken,
barbecued spareribs, and sweet potato pie.
o Appositive
▪ Soul food has one disadvantage: fat.
o Long or formal quotation
▪ The comma generally separates a signal phrase from a quotation. But when you
introduce a long or formal quotation with a complete sentence, use a colon
instead.
▪ One soul food chef has a solution: “Soul food doesn’t have to be greasy to taste
good. Instead of using ham hocks to flavor beans, I use smoked turkey wings.
The soulful, smoky taste remains, but without all the fat of pork.”
• Use a colon to separate titles and subtitles and the subdivisions of time
o Titles and subtitles
▪ Charles Dickens: An Introduction to His Novels
▪ Eros and Civilization: An Inquiry Into Freud
o Time
▪ 1:30 AM
▪ 12:26 PM
• Use a colon only when required
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o Use the colon only at the end of a main clause. Do not use it directly after a verb or
preposition.
▪ Faulty: Two critically acclaimed movies of Stephen Spielberg are: Schindler’s List
and Saving Private Ryan.
▪ Correct: Two critically acclaimed movies of Stephen Spielberg are
Schindler’s List and Saving Private Ryan.
▪ Faulty: Shakespeare had the qualities of a Renaissance thinker, such as :
humanism and an interest in Greek and Roman literature.
▪ Correct: Shakespeare had the qualities of a Renaissance thinker, such as
humanism and an interest in Greek and Roman literature.
• Examples of colon
• Faulty: Mix the ingredients as follows sift the flour and salt together, add the milk, and
slowly beat in the egg yolk.
• Correct: Mix the ingredients as follows: sift the flour and salt together, add the
milk, and slowly beat in the egg yolk.
• Faulty: In remote areas of many developing countries, simple signs mark human
habitation a dirt path, a few huts, smoke from a campfire.
• Correct: In remote areas of many developing countries, simple signs mark human
habitation: a dirt path, a few huts, smoke from a campfire.
• Faulty: In the built up sections of industrialized countries, nature is all but obliterated by
signs of human life, such as: houses, factories, skyscrapers, and highways.
• Correct: In the built up sections of industrialized countries, nature is all but
obliterated by signs of human life, such as houses, factories, skyscrapers, and highways.
• Faulty: The spectacle makes many question the words of Ecclesiastes 1.4 “One
generation passeth away, and another cometh; but the earth abideth forever.”
• Correct: The spectacle makes many question the words of Ecclesiastes 1.4: “One
generation passeth away, and another cometh; but the earth abideth forever.”
• Faulty: Yet many scientists see the future differently they hold that human beings have
all the technology necessary to clean up the earth and restore the cycles of nature.
• Correct: Yet many scientists see the future differently: they hold that human
beings have all the technology necessary to clean up the earth and restore the cycles of
nature.
• Faulty: All that is needed is: a change in the attitudes of those who use technology.
Correct: All that is needed is a change in the attitudes of those who use
technology.
• Distinguishing the colon and the semicolon
o The colon is a mark of introduction that separates elements of unequal importance,
such as statements and explanations or introductions or quotations. The first element
must be a complete main clause; the second element need not be.
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪The business school caters to working students: it offers special evening courses
in business writing, finance, and management.
▪ The business has one goal: to train students to be responsible, competent
businesspeople.
o The semicolon separates elements of equal importance, almost always complete main
clauses.
▪ Few enrolling students know exactly what they want from school; most hope
generally for a managerial career.

• Rules from Reader’s Digest

o Do not use a colon to introduce a series of items that are the direct objects of
preposition or verb or that follow a form of the verb to be
▪ Wrong: The requirements of a good secretary are: ability to take rapid dictation
and to transcribe it rapidly; ability to spell correctly and to use the dictionary to
the best advantage.
o Dash and colon
▪ Do not use a dash with a colon.

Dash
• Use a dash to indicate shifts in tone or thought and to set off some sentence elements
• Dash is mainly a mark of interruption: it signals an insertion or break
• Use a dash or dashes to indicate shifts and hesitations
o Shift in tone
▪ The novel—if one can call it—appeared in 2004.
o Unfinished thought
▪ If the book had a plot—but a plot would be conventional.
o Hesitation in dialog
▪ “I was worried you might think I had stayed away because I was influenced by –
“He stopped and lowered his eyes.
▪ Astonished, Ali asked, “Influenced by what?”
▪ “Well, by—“Blackburn hesitated and for an answer pointed to the table.
• Use a dash or dashes to emphasize nonessential elements
o Dashes may be used in place of commas or parentheses to set off and emphasize
nonessential. Dashes are especially useful when these elements are internally
punctuated. Be sure to use a pair of dashes when the element interrupts a main clause.
o Appositive
▪ The qualities Monet painted—bright, sunlight, rich shadows, deep colors—
abounded near the rivers and garden she used as subjects.
o Modifier
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Though they are close together—separated by only a few blocks—the two

neighborhoods could be in different countries.
o Parenthetical expressions
▪ At any given time there exists an inventory of undiscovered embezzlement in—
or more precisely not in—country’s businesses and banks.
• Use a dash to set off introductory series, concluding series, and explanations
o Introductory series
▪ Shortness of breath, skin discoloration or the sudden appearance of moles,
persistent indigestion, the presence of small lumps—all these signify cancer.
o Concluding series
▪ The patient undergoes a battery of tests—CAT scan, bronchoscopy, perhaps
even biopsy.
o Concluding explanation
▪ Many patients are disturbed by the CAT scan—by the need to keep still for long
periods in an exceedingly small space.
• Use the dash only where needed
o Don’t use the dash when commas, semicolons, and periods are more appropriate. And
don’t use too many dashes. They can create a jumpy or breathy quality in writing.
▪ Not: In all his life—eighty seven years—my great-grandfather never allowed
his picture to be taken—not even once. He claimed the “black box”—the
camera—would steal his soul.
▪ But: In all his eighty seven years my great-grandfather did not allow his
picture to be taken even once. He claimed the “black box”—the camera—would
steal his soul.
• Distinguishing dashes, commas, and parentheses
o Dashes, commas, and parentheses may all set off nonessential elements
o Dashes give the information the greatest emphasis
▪ Many students—including some employed by the college—disapprove of the
new work rules.
o Commas are less emphatic
▪ Many students, including some employed by the college, disapprove of the new
work rules.
o Parentheses are the least emphatic, signaling that the information is just worth a
mention.
▪ Many students (including some employed by the college) disapprove of the new
work rules.
o A dash sets off concluding series and explanations more informally and more abruptly
than a colon does.
• Examples:
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Faulty: What would you do if someone like Adolf Hitler that monster appeared
among us?
▪ Correct: What would you do if someone like Adolf Hitler— that monster—
appeared among us?
▪ Faulty: The movie theatre business is undergoing dramatic changes changes that
may affect what movies are made and shown.
▪ Correct: The movie theatre business is undergoing dramatic changes—
changes that may affect what movies are made and shown.
▪ Faulty: The closing of independent theatres, the control of theatres by fewer and
fewer owners, and increasing ownership of theatres by movie studios these
changes may reduce the availability of noncommercial films.
▪ Correct: The closing of independent theatres, the control of theatres by
fewer and fewer owners, and increasing ownership of theatres by movie studios
—these changes may reduce the availability of noncommercial films.
▪ Faulty: Yet at the same time the number of movie screens is increasing primarily
in multiscreen complexes so that smaller films may find more outlets.
▪ Correct: Yet at the same time the number of movie screens is increasing —
primarily in multiscreen complexes —so that smaller films may find more
outlets.
▪ Faulty: The number of active movie screens that is, screens showing films or
booked to do so is higher now than at any time since World War II.
▪ Correct: The number of active movie screens— that is, screens showing
films or booked to do so— is higher now than at any time since World War II.
▪ Faulty: The biggest theatre complexes seem to be something else as well art
galleries, amusement arcades, restaurants, spectacles.
▪ Correct: The biggest theatre complexes seem to be something else as well— art
galleries, amusement arcades, restaurants, spectacles.

Parentheses
• Parentheses always comes in pairs: one before and one after the punctuated material.
• Use parentheses to enclose parenthetical expressions
o Parenthetical expressions include explanations, digressions, and examples that may be
helpful or interesting but are not essential to meaning. They are emphasized least when
set off with a pair of parentheses instead of commas or dashes.
▪ The population of Philadelphia (now about 1.5 million) has declined since 1950.
▪ Ariel (published in 1965) contains Sylvia Plath’s last poems.
o Note: Don’t put a comma before a parenthetical expression enclosed in parentheses:
▪ Faulty: Philadelphia’s population compares with Houston’s, (just over 1.6
million).
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

▪ Correct: Philadelphia’s population compares with Houston’s (just over 1.6

million).
o A comma, semicolon, or period falling after a parenthetical expression should be placed
outside the closing parentheses:
▪ Philadelphia has a larger African American population (nearly 40 percent), while
Houston has a larger Latino population (nearly 28 million).
o When it falls between other complete sentences, a complete sentence enclosed in
parentheses has a capital letter and end punctuation:
▪ In general, coaches will tell you that scouts are just guys who can’t coach. (But
then, so are brain surgeons)
• Use parentheses to enclose labels for lists within sentences.
▪ Outside the Middle East, the countries with the largest oil reserves are (1)
Venezuela (63 million barrels), (2) Russia (57 billion barrels), and (3) Mexico (51
billion barrels).
• Examples
▪ Those who produce and distribute films(and not just the big studios) argue that
the multiscreen theatres give exhibitors too much power.
▪ But because they now have more competition (television and DVD players, for
instance), the studios are permitted to own theatres.

Brackets
• Their main purpose is to indicate that you have altered a quotation. If you need to explain,
clarify, or correct the words of the writer you quote, place your additions in a pair of brackets:
▪ “That Texaco station [just outside Chicago] is one of the busiest in the nation,”
said a company spokesperson.
• Use brackets if you need to alter the capitalization of a quotation so that it will fit into your
sentence
▪ “[O]ne of the busiest in the nation” is how a company spokesperson described
the nation.
• You may also add words where it would be unclear.
▪ “Despite considerable achievements in other areas, [humans] still cannot control
the weather and probably will never be able to do so.”

Ellipsis mark
• Indicates an omission from a quotation, although it may also show an interruption in dialog.
o Omission of the middle of a sentence
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

• “Natural ecosystems…maintain the world exactly as we would wish it to

be maintained.”
o Omission of end of a sentence, without source citation
• “Earth is our home….” [The sentence period, closed up to the last word,
precedes the ellipsis mark]
o Omission of the end of a sentence, with source citation
• “Earth is our home…” (Wilson 27). [The sentence period follows the
source citation]
o Omission of parts of two or more sentences
• Wilson writes, “At the heart of the environmentalist world view is the
conviction that human physical and spiritual health depends on
sustaining the planet…where humanity and its ancestors existed for all
the millions of years of their evolution.”
o Omission of one or more sentences
• As Wilson puts it, “At the heart of the environmentalist world view is the
conviction that human physical and spiritual health depends on
sustaining the planet in a relatively unaltered state… When we debase
the global environment and extinguish the variety of life, we are
dismantling a support system that is too complex to understand, let alone
replace, in the foreseeable future.”
o Omission from the middle of a sentence through the end of another sentence
• “Earth is our home…. When we debase the global environment and
extinguish the variety of life, we are dismantling a support system that is
too complex to understand, let alone replace, in the foreseeable future.”
o Omission of the beginning of the sentence, leaving a complete sentence
▪ Bracketed capital letter
• “[H]uman physical and spiritual health,” Wilson writes, “depends on
sustaining the planet in a relatively unaltered state."
▪ small letter
• Wilson writes, “human physical and spiritual health depends on
sustaining the planet in a relatively unaltered state."
▪ Capital letter from the original
• Hami comments, “… Wilson argues eloquently for the environmentalist
wordview.” [ellipsis is needed because quoted part of the sentences
begin with a capital letter and it is not clear that the beginning of the
original sentence has been omitted]
o Use of a word or phrase
• Wilson describes the earth as “our home.” [no ellipsis needed]
o Note: use ellipsis when omission is unclear.
• The ellipsis mark indicates pauses or unfinished statements
Punctuation Notes by Syed Noor Hussain

o In informal writing or dialog

• “I wish…” His voice trailed off.

Capitalization
• The first word of a sentence begins with a capital letter.
o After a full stop
o After an exclamation mark
o After a question mark
• Proper names
o Mount Everest, River Ravi
• The days of week and months of the year
o Monday, Friday, Saturday, July, December
• The first word in direct speech
o He said, “Run for your life!”
• Names of Organizations and titles
o Joan of Arc, Alexander the Great, The Department of Trade
• The first and other important words in the titles of books, plays, films, etc.
o The History of Rasselas
o Lord of Flies
o Kind Hearts and Coronets