Rehabilitation and Management of Polluted Soils in Poland Extent, Present

Use and Management Practices

T.I. Stuczynski, H. Terelak, [Link]

Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland

Introduction

Within the last decade Polish agriculture has undergone deep changes in terms of

economical, social and environmental aspects. Over forty years of socialism resulted in an

ineffective structure of agricultural and environmental management. Additionally, areas were

created that exhibited various types of degradation resulting from industrial activity and

mismanagement of soil and water resources. It is important to emphasize that soil pollution

with heavy metals and residues of organic compounds is localized. On the other hand the

perceived risk generated a number of comprehensive monitoring programs to spatially

characterize the status of soil degradation and pollution. This paper will address general

information regarding pollution status and management of soils in Poland, including

examples of case studies and projects devoted to remediation and reclamation.

Present and Outlook for Agricultural Production in Poland Relative to the EU Situation

The transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy striving to join the

European Union brought a number of challenges for rural communities and the agricultural

sector. Agriculture provides a relatively small contribution to Gross National Product at 6%

but the impact of agriculture on the country’s economy is much stronger than reflected by

statistical data (Wos et al., 1998; GUS, 1998b) This is associated with the fact that the

majority of Poland’s food demand is met by local agricultural production. Moreover,

agriculture and other activities in rural areas provide income and subsistence for nearly 30%
of the Polish population. The area of agricultural land in Poland is 18.5 million hectares

which is 14% of all agricultural land in the European Union. The number of operating farms

in Poland is equal to 26% of all farms in the EU (Krzyżanowska 1998). The share of arable

land and orchards compared to the overall total agricultural land in Poland is much higher

than in EU countries, while grasslands are half the EU average. Employment in Polish

agriculture is equal to 50% of total employment in the EU’s agriculture sector. This indicates

that labor efficiency in Polish agriculture is quite poor. There are two million farms operating

in Poland which means that employment in the agricultural sector per hundred hectares is 3 to

4 times higher than in the EU (Wos et al., 1998). At the same time land productivity is twice

as small due to the sandy texture of sixty percent of soils, the poor water retention, and high

acidity. Poor quality of agricultural land, along with a smaller area of agricultural land per

capita than the EU, means that the productive area, adjusted for soil quality, is much less than

the EU average. Land productivity is twice as large in the EU than in Poland. Average

yields commonly produced in the EU are only possible on experimental farms or large

intensive farms using new technologies. Introducing principles of a market economy in

agriculture eliminated subsidies for mineral fertilizers causing a dramatic decrease in their use

(Table 1). In the years 1975-1988 the average rate of NPK per hectare of agricultural land

came to 180 kg while currently this rate does not exceed 90kg (GUS 1998a). The use of

pesticides dropped almost three fold in spite of the fact that before the transition it was several

times smaller than in the EU (Table 1). The current use of fertilizers and pesticides does not

pose any great environmental threat, however there is some environmental risk associated

with improper use of chemicals in agriculture as farmers sometimes over apply chemicals and

may be unaware of proper environmental practices.

Regardless of certain limitations, Polish agriculture in relation to the EU standards

demonstrates significant potential. This potential is not used for several reasons. The first
reason is that employees are working on small farms because other job opportunities are

limited. This slows down the rate of innovation and technological development as production

is still very labor intensive. Another reason of low land productivity is lack of capital and

cash flow needed for proper farm operation (Krasowicz et al., 1996). Credits and loans are

available but most farmers are reluctant to taking loans due to fear of going in debt. The

average contribution of agricultural production to the income of an average farmer’s family

dropped from 70% to 40%. These factors combined caused limited competitiveness and

growth opportunities for most farms.

A typical feature of Polish agriculture is small concentrations of animal and crop

production. Seventy percent of cattle production is grown on farms with less than ten animals,

while in the EU such herds represent only 5.4% of cattle production (Krasowicz et al. 1996).

The average number of pigs on a farm is eight animals while in EU countries it is seven times

higher. The intensity and structure of agriculture production varies depending on the region.

In northern and western Poland, production is more intensive due to better management

practices and larger farms, the average being 16 hectares as compared to 4 hectares in

southern Poland.

Another trend is the elimination of smaller producers from the market and transition of

their land to stronger farms with growth potential. It is estimated that only 30% of currently

operating farms will be able to compete and adapt to the European market conditions after

Poland’s accession to the European Union (Wos et al., 1998). Poland does not use any

instruments of agriculture policy used in the EU. The extent of state protection of agricultural

production is much smaller in Poland than in the EU. Average farms in Poland are

multifunctional and unspecialized in any particular production type. Even though the soil

quality, climate and infrastructure are not optimal, there is significant potential for yield

increase and improvement of crop quality.

 Polish agricultural production contributes little to exports and food products are not

adequately promoted abroad. The slow development of exporting food products to the

European Union is the reason for the trade deficit in the food sector. In the years 1992-1997,

Polish exports of food products was only 55% of the value of imported food products (Wos et

al., 1998). The conditions of Polish agriculture described determine the status of agriculture

in the EU pre-accession period.

Expert analysis predicting future trends for agriculture production in Poland indicate the

prospects of development are poor. In the short term, before accession to the EU, there will

be temporary barriers limiting access to European markets. The local demand for food

products will grow slowly, not exceeding 1% per annum, while the quality expectations of the

consumers will grow steadily. In the next 10-15 years it is doubtful the demand will increase

significantly. Generally speaking, it is predicted that structural changes in agricultural

production until the year 2010 will depend on the following factors: the area of agricultural

land will be 17 million hectares, population will be from 40-41 million people, food

consumption will be similar to other Western European countries, consumption will be more

quality oriented, while agricultural policy will be environmentally oriented, Poland will be

self sufficient in food production, employment in agriculture will decrease, significant areas

of cropland will be converted to other functions such as parks, wildlife reserves and timber

(Krasowicz et al., 1996). Predicted changes in animal production for the year 2010 can be

seen in Table 2. Table 3 summarizes current and predicted crop production for the year 2010

based on the assumption that the technology will improve and significant areas of

agricultural land will be set aside. This estimate is provisional and cannot account for the

impact of economic factors and policy changes in the EU. It is assumed that yields produced

in experiments as a result of proper management practices will be achievable in common

agriculture in the next 10 years. It is important to emphasize that the increase of yields and

land productivity will be driven by market economic factors.

Categories and extent of soil pollution in Poland

There is hard data identifying problem areas with soils polluted with heavy metals,

hydrocarbons, sulfur and other toxic compounds. A typical example of such a polluted area is

the Silesia region of Poland. Some soils in this region are contaminated with metals as a

consequence of long term emissions of metal dust from smelters, either directly from stack

emissions or indirectly as a fugitive dust blowing from smelter waste piles. Economical

transition to a market economy and new environmental laws forced the smelting industry to

close the majority of old installations which were environmental hazards. This greatly

reduced the direct emissions from smelting processes, however the indirect threat from the

remaining waste piles remain. These sites require extensive rehabilitation and remediation

action in order to reduce their impact on human health and ecosystems.

The total concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) and sulfate sulfur were

analyzed in over 45 000 soil and plant samples collected from the arable land of Poland in the

years 1991-1997 (Terelak et al., 1996). The degree of soil polluted with metals and sulfur

was classified according to a system that consisted of 6 classes. These classes depended on

total metal content, soil pH, organic matter content, and soil texture. These properties are

known to control metal mobilization/immobilization and transfer to the food chain, (Kabata-

Pendias, 1993). Digital maps with scale of 1:500 000 demonstrating the degree of soil

pollution with heavy metals and sulfur are available at IUNG.

Background concentrations of cadmium reported in literature for soils of the world

range from 0.2 to 1.05 mg kg-1 of soil, depending on the geological origin of the parent

material, texture, intensity of weathering processes, organic matter and other factors. Studies
by different authors indicated, however, that background cadmium is usually not higher than

0,5 mg kg-1 of soil (Adriano 1992; Kabata-Pendias & Kabata, 1993; Dudka et al.,1994).

Our recent study, based on analyses of 45 000 samples, has indicated that cadmium in soils

of Poland ranges from 0.01 to 49.73 mg kg-1 of soil. The expected range, however, derived by

eliminating 5% of extreme values, is 0.1-0.48 mg kg-1 of soil (Table 4).

As suggested by Dudka (1992), using expected range as opposed to observed range

provides a more realistic characterization of soil metals in a given area. It is evident that

average cadmium concentration and its variability in agricultural soils of Poland is not

substantially different than that of soils from other countries (Kabata-Pendias & Pendias,

1993). The highest concentrations of cadmium were found in southern Poland, particularly in

Silesia. Accumulation of cadmium in these soils is partially related to industrial activities,

however, it can also be explained by composition and geological origin of parent rock

material, often containing metal ore outcrops. Importance of parent rock material properties

as a factor controlling cadmium level in soils is reflected in data from other studies conducted

in Czestochowa and Bielsko Biala Provinces, where high cadmium concentrations were found

in many soils that were not exposed to emissions from industry or to land disposal of high

cadmium waste (Terelak et al., 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997). As indicated before, there is

considerable concern about cadmium in crops in Silesia (wojewodztwo katowickie). As

demonstrated in Table 4, the average concentration of cadmium in soils of Silesia, a smelting

and mining region, is significantly higher than values typically found in other areas of

Poland.

Spatial and geostatistical analyses of our data provide strong evidence that as much as

88.2% of agricultural land in Poland is not contaminated with cadmium and contains only

background amounts of this element (0o). It should be emphasized that even in Silesia, 41.3%

of soils are not contaminated with cadmium, according to our rather conservative evaluation
criteria (Kabata-Pendias et al., 1993) (Table 4). It is important for Silesia that the majority of

soils (70.4%) are either not polluted (0o) or contain only slightly elevated (Io) levels of

cadmium. We recommend that such soils be used for production of most crops, however

growing vegetables should be limited. Slightly polluted soils (IIo) represent 1.2% of

agricultural land in Poland, Silesia contributes 12.6% (Table 4). Significant food chain

cadmium risk is related to higher degrees of soil contamination (IIIo-Vo). This element is

limited to small areas in Poland (0.6%), however in regions such as Silesia, these soils can

represent as much as 17% of agricultural land (Table 4).

In general, cadmium in soils of Poland does not pose a particular environmental risk as far

as food quality is concerned, except the heavily industrialized regions such as Silesia.

The average concentration of copper in soils of Poland is 6.6 mg kg-1 of soil, which is

similar to background levels reported for other countries (Kabata-Pendias & Pendias, 1993).

According to our studies copper in soils ranges from 0.2 to 293.3 mg kg-1 of soil (Table 4).

Soil contamination with copper poses certain risk only in areas with copper mining and

smelting industry. Even in Silesia (wojewodztwo katowickie), the average copper

concentration in soils is 11.2 mg kg-1 of soil, which is much below the upper limit of the

expected range for the whole country (Table 4). Over 97% of agricultural land in Poland is

characterized by natural (0o) concentrations of copper, and even in the Silesia region, 96% of

land would be characterized as being at natural concentrations for copper. As indicated in

(Table 4), elevated levels of copper were found in 2.2% of Polish soils (Io), mainly located in

the copper mining area within Legnica Province. On a national basis, the percentage of soils

contaminated with copper to a greater extent (IIIo-Vo) is relatively small. Therefore we

conclude, that copper is not a factor of concern, which could limit agricultural production,

except small areas affected by copper industry and soils formed on a parent rock material

which contain high amounts of this element.

 The average concentration of nickel in soils of Poland is 6.4 mg kg-1 of soil with a range of

0.1-328 mg kg-1 of soil. It is accepted that a value of 100 mg kg-1 of soil is the maximum

permissible level (Kabata-Pendias & Pendias, 1993). It is important that the upper level of

expected range for nickel (15.4 mg kg-1) throughout the country do not exceed the threshold

value. In the Silesia region the average concentration of soil nickel (13.3 mg kg-1 of soil) is

also well below the threshold values. We have established that 94.7% of agricultural land in

Poland is characterized by a natural content of nickel (0o) (Table 4). In Silesia, only 87% of

soils belong to this category. Larger areas of soils with elevated nickel levels in Silesia is

very likely associated with the use of nickel in smelting and galvanizing processes. Slight

pollution with nickel is present sporadically in Silesia and other regions, however, it does not

exceed 0.4% of the total agricultural land in Poland (Table 4). The latest data shows that soils

with a higher contamination of nickel (IIIo-Vo) are few. From our findings it can be

concluded that nickel distribution in soils of Poland do not significantly affect agricultural

production and crop quality, even in regions such as Silesia.

The average concentration of lead in agricultural soils of Poland is 13.8 mg kg-1 of soil with

a range of 0.1-1722 mg kg-1 of soil (Table 4). Extreme values reported were found in a

number of locations in Silesia associated with lead and zinc mining. In average soil lead in

this region (50.9 mg kg-1 of soil) is three times higher than what is found throughout the

country. The expected range for lead in all soils studied (7.6-25 mg kg-1 of soil) is remarkably

more narrow than the observed range (0.1-1722 mg kg-1 of soil) which indicates that

extremely high concentrations of lead are not very common. Over 97% of agricultural soils in

Poland exhibits natural content (0o) of lead (Table 4). In the Silesia region, soils not

contaminated with lead total 61.6% of agricultural land. Areas of soils containing elevated

levels of lead (Io) are 2.3% of the total farm land, while, in the Silesia region, such soils

occupy 21.6% of the agricultural land. Only a small proportion of the agricultural land in
Poland (0.3%) is classified as slightly polluted (IIo) with lead. In Silesia, however, 8.4% of

soils is slightly polluted. Soils representing medium pollution with lead (IIIo) appear locally in

southern Poland, particularly in Silesia, where 8.2% of land is polluted to this degree (Table

4). Higher degrees of pollution with lead are of little importance, except some locations in

Silesia.

The average concentration of zinc in agricultural soils of Poland is 32.7 mg kg-1 with an

observed range of 0.5-2837 mg kg-1 of soil (Table 4). The expected range (16.6-64.6 mg kg
-1
of soils), however, is significantly different than the observed one which indicates that

extreme values are not common throughout the country. Nevertheless, the upper limit of the

expected range is significantly higher than the value considered as the natural background (40

mg kg-1 of soil) (Kabata-Pendias & Kabata, 1993). The average concentrations above the

natural background are usually found in southern Poland. This can be explained by zinc

emission by the smelter industry located in Silesia. The origin of parent rock material plays

also an important role, particularly in areas which are not directly exposed to industrial

pollution. The total area of farm land characterized by natural content of zinc (0o) is 88%. The

elevated concentrations of zinc (Io) are found in 10.6% of soils. Environmental and food chain

risk caused by elevated levels of zinc in soils becomes an open question since zinc deficiency

in diet may be a problem in certain areas. Moreover zinc seem to play an important role in

controlling the cadmium uptake in cadmium contaminated soils, whenever the ratio Zn:Cd is

higher than 100 (Chaney et al. 1995).

The Silesia region (wojewodztwo katowickie) has the largest areas of zinc contaminated

soils, however even within this polluted region, soils not contaminated (0o) with zinc occupy

41.3%. The area of soils with natural and elevated levels of zinc in Silesia is as high as 74%,

however. Therefore in the Silesia region, zinc is a factor seriously potentially affecting the

quality of crops grown on 26% of agricultural soils (Table 4).

 The content of one of the group of persistent organic pollutants (polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs)) in agricultural soils in Central European countries as related to West

European countries was evaluated by Maliszewska-Kordybach (in press). Two countries,

have the most comprehensive data: Poland as the representative of Central Europe and the

UK as representative for Western Europe. PAHs emission data from both countries were

compared. Poland’s agricultural soils were evaluated on the basis of the results of the Polish

Arable Soils Monitoring Program carried out in the Institute of Soil Science and Plant

Cultivation in Pulawy. English soils, mainly grazing areas, were evaluated using work by

Cousin et al. (1997) from Lancaster University, UK. Evaluation of the data indicates rather

uniform levels of PAHs in agricultural soils from both Central and West Europe (0.3 - 0.5

mg/kg) and point out the need for further international studies in this field. About 1/3 of the

arable lands in Poland contain PAHs at the level <200 µg/kg and nearly 90 % of these

territories - including the areas exposed to anthropogenic activity, at the level <1000 µg/kg.

Less than 2 % of the samples represent areas with PAH content above the German

precautionary value of 3000 µg/kg (Soil background and reference values in Germany, 1995).

Elevated content of PAHs occurs mainly in soils from the areas with strong anthropogenic

stress (e.g. near petrochemical refineries in Plock and in Gdansk, steelworks in Nowa Huta, or

former Russian military basis near Zielona Góra). Soils with the higher PAHs content were

concentrated also in the highly industrialized Silesia region and within the influence of

Ostrava (Czech Republic) industrial district.

Soil and water polluted with pesticides is localized in storage and disposal areas and

does not occur on regular agricultural land since the application rates used are very small

(Table 1). There may be some cases of pesticid excessive use in horticulture and vegetable

production, however the high cost of chemicals effectively controls this risk. Studies by

Dwornikiewcz (1997) conducted on farms growing chops which require more extensive use
of pesticides, did not show any significant evidence of pesticide accumulation in soil or

movement to ground water.

There is a considerable environmental risk associated with storage of non-disposed

pesticides. It is estimated that there is 35 000 tones of stored pesticides kept. There are over

343 registered storage facilities for non-used chemicals of which 93 are soil pits. Many

facilities are not well protected and sealed, and there are evidences of chemicals movement to

the surrounding environment (Giza et al. 1999). Identification of such sites is needed to

develop and implement adequate remediation strategy.

Soil contamination with petrochemicals occurs around oil refineries, gas stations, pumping

stations, and pipelines. According to GIOS data (from Sliwka et al. 1999), 40% of 191

accidents demonstrating a serious environmental threat, were related to leaking

petrochemicals. It is estimated that 0.1-0.25% of oil products used enters the environment.

There are extensive areas of former soviet military bases with underground storage tanks

containing large amounts of fuels. The overall former use of such sites lead to contamination

of soil and ground water with fuel residues. It should be emphasized that the total area of land

contaminated by military bases comes to no more than few thousands hectares (Kamienski et

al., 1994). Moreover, the majority of this land is not used for agricultural production.

Properties regulating the vulnerability of soils to pollutants

It is well established that soils react to pollution factors depending on the chemical

character of polluting agent, soil physical, chemical and biological properties as well as soil

interactions with contaminants.

There is a lot of data characterizing mechanisms regulating metals behavior in a soil

system. Two sources of metal pollution can be identified: a) geogenic associated with

accumulation of metals in geological processes, b) anthropogenic associated with emissions

from industrial processes. The vulnerability of soils strongly depends on the pollution source.

Large amounts of metals present in some parent rock materials in Silesia which are associated

with carbonate zinc and lead ore outcrops are relatively strongly bound by soil matrix, while

metals from industrial emissions are more mobile and accumulate in crops or move to the

ground water (Piotrowska and Dudka 1997). Soil pH, organic matter, soil mineralogy (clay

minerals in particular), play a crucial role in controlling metal mobilization/immobilization

processes. Lowering soil pH will increase solubility and activity of metals in soil, promoting

their uptake by plants or leaching.

Organic matter can effectively absorb metals through the formation of metal chelates

(Kabata-Pendias & Kabata, 1993). Metals can also be immobilized by reaction with minerals

such as phosphates, carbonates and others. Preliminary data demonstrate that soil

amendment with sewage sludge promotes metal sorption in soil which is associated with

sludge organic matter binding capacity (Kukla et al., 1999). A proposal was recently

submitted to the Fifth EU Framework regarding environmental effects of land application of

biosolids. We do not know if this is going to be funded, however the concept addresses

important aspects of soil vulnerability to pollution with metals and nutrients originating from

sewage sludge and metal waste. This project expects to achieve safer management of sewage

sludge used to reclaim industrial sites and in agriculture. This is addressed by applying

models to determine and monitor environmental impacts associated with the use of sewage

sludges in agriculture and reclamation. A key objective is to determine which sludge and soil

properties interact under different climatic conditions to influence mobilization and

immobilization of metals, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling in sludge amended soils

In order to develop a comprehensive European approach to the assessment of

environmental impacts of sludge and waste management, extensive research is needed to

gather site and region specific information and parameters needed for characterization of soil

vulnerability affected by biosolid amendment.

The approach to soil vulnerability includes environmental evaluation and implementation of

novel sludge use, for remediation and revegetation of contaminated soils and industrial sites,

as a technique to prevent and/or reduce the risk of pollution from contaminated sites.

Existing georeferenced soil databases will be accessed to collect reference information on

metal content in soils, texture, pH, CEC, total organic carbon and nitrogen, hydraulic

properties of soil profiles and land cover. These soil properties are considered to control the

movement of metals and other pollutants within soil-groundwater environment. Climatic data

will be collected from archives. All data will be standardized to a similar format to assure

valid comparisons between regions. These soil data will be used in models to demonstrate the

spatial variability of nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals behavior and movement in sludge

amended systems. Identification of industrial sites (metal and mine waste dumps) will be

conducted, with the help of aerial photographs, to find potential sites for reclamation with

sewage sludge. Case studies will be conducted by taking measurements of various toxic

wastes deposited in Silesia, Poland. A special emphasis will be put on reducing the risk of

environmental pollution through erosion and leaching of soluble metals from waste piles.

Regarding soil vulnerability to organic pollutants including pesticides, biological

activity plays the most important role regulating soil response to such pollutants. Other

properties such as pH, soil moisture, redox conditions, availability of nutrients, organic matter

content and quality, and C:N ratio may also have direct or indirect impact on behavior and

transformations of organic contaminants (Maliszewska-Kordybach, 1993; Sztompka, 1995).

These properties influence enzymes activities involved in degradation of organic compounds.

Extensive studies conducted in Poland by Maliszewska-Kordybach (1993) characterize the

role of soil physical and chemical properties in controlling the bio-degradation of PAHs.
 Content of organic matter and properties of clay surfaces directly contribute to

sorption of organic compounds limiting their toxicity and risk for the ground water pollution

(Sadowski, 1996).

There is very little data available on degradation of pesticides as affected by different soil

properties and environmental conditions in Poland, however, before soil pollution with

pesticides is not a problem for regular agricultural land and is limited to areas of their storage

and disposal. Studies by Sadowski (1996) showed that application of herbicides causes their

accumulation in 0-20 soil upper horizon. There was no residue of atrazine, simazine, linuron

detected in deeper layers, however these compounds were present in water leaching through

the soil profile. The intensity of leaching and accumulation was mainly controlled by soil

texture and organic matter content.

Regarding soil vulnerability to PAHs Maliszewska-Kordybach (1993) found that their

persistence depends on the properties of these compounds and to a smaller degree on the

properties of the soil. Regression equations enabling the assessment of the range and rate of

PAHs disappearance from soils were developed based on data from incubation studies. The

influence of soil properties on PAHs sorption and decomposition was quite evident in the

initial period, shortly after soil was contaminated with PAHs. There was a significant

correlation observed between the rate of PAHs disappearance from soil, soil acidity, clay and

organic matter content.

Regarding soil vulnerability related to pollution from excessive use of fertilizers, it should

be noted that the current average application rate of NPK does not exceed 90 kg ha-1 (Table

1). This data shows the potential environmental impacts are minimal. Since the beginning of

the nineties, large areas of agricultural soils demonstrate negative nutrient balance leading to

degradation of soil fertility (Fotyma, 1998). Moreover, 60% of Polish soils exhibit different

degrees of acidity which inhibits nitrification process. This results in relatively high share of
ammonium nitrogen in the mineral pool (20-50%) (Fotyma & Fotyma, 1999) slowing down

nitrogen leaching process.

Factors and processes affecting soil response to pollutants in Poland

Factors influencing soil response to pollutants have been characterized in the previous

paragraph. However it is worth mentioning that existing soil databases provide georeferenced

information on soil properties such as soil pH, soil texture, organic matter content and can be

used for modeling purposes and to demonstrate pollutants behavior under changing

environmental conditions. The IUNG database contains information characterizing 45 000

soil samples collected from agricultural land (Terelak et al., 1997). Pedotransfer functions

can be used to predict the behavior of different pollutants in changing soil environments.

Data from specific studies characterizing pollutant transformations in soils, as affected by

changes in soil properties, can be used for modeling. It seems that changes in soil pH, which

are associated with leaching of base actions form soils, have a strong impact on pollutant fate

in soil environment. In metal contaminated areas, increased acid rainfall resulted in observed

changes in soil pH and will lead to mobilization of metals (Marchwinska et al., 1998).

Acidification of soils caused either by natural leaching or enhanced by anthropogenic

factors will have an impact on activity of soil enzymes involved in biodegradation of different

organic pollutants (Maliszewska-Kordybach, 1993).

Mineralization of soil organic matter can adversely affect the ability of soils to absorb and

immobilize organic contaminants. Possible changes in organic matter content will affect

biological activity which can result in decreasing soil potential for bio-degradation of organic

pollutants. Multidisciplinary studies are needed to characterize parameters for modeling

transformations and behavior of different pollutants as affected by soil physical, chemical and

biological properties.
Impact of soil pollution on crop production, environment, and socio-economic

conditions in Poland

In some reports the soils of Poland are characterized as strongly polluted [Glinski & Turski,

1990; Komitet Nauk. PAN 1993). Such opinions were often developed by using data typical

for heavily polluted industrial regions for general characterization of all arable land in Poland.

For example, according to the UNEP/ISRIC map, published in 1990 to demonstrate the status

of human induced degradation of soils of the world, the area of Poland was shown as strongly

degraded. This caused serious economic and social consequences associated with the

reduction of agricultural products export from Poland to foreign markets. This phenomenon

of exaggerating existing problems was quite widespread throughout Central and Eastern

Europe.

Agriculture in industrial areas such as Silesia is not very productive in terms of

cultivated areas and the amount of food produced, however there may be a dietary risk

through consuming food grown in this area. This is particularly true with vegetables grown in

private gardens. There are also soils in this region that have a naturally high background

content of heavy metals associated with parent rock material which must be taken into

consideration.

Relatively low metal contents of soils in most of Poland reflect in a low average

concentrations in crop plants of the whole country (Table 5). The Cd contents of carrots,

however, is of a special concern because of health-risk problems, especially in children’s

diets. Recently Cd concentration in carrots was surveyed in several other European countries,

and data reveal a much higher Cd contents than in carrots grown in Poland (Kabata-Pendias &

Pendias, 1999). Regional differentiation in the Cd contents of crop plants is significant

whereas it is negligible for other metals (Table 6). There is about three times more Cd in
wheat and rye grains from the industrial regions than agricultural areas, and almost five times

more Cd in carrots. Crop plants grown in industrial areas have more Cu and Zn by a factor of

about 1.2. Contents of Ni and Pb do not differ significantly. This data indicates Cd is the main

pollutant and seriously affects crop quality in the industrial Silesia region.

Studies on the transfer of Cd, Zn, and Pb from soils to plants show that not only the form in

which metals entered the soil environment but also the physiological properties of crop species

have a great impact on accumulation of metals in plant biomass (Kabata-Pendias &

Piotrowska, 1998). The results of this investigation confirmed an easy uptake of Cd by plants.

The variation in metal forms affect their availability to plants (Table). The addition of Cd and

Zn sulfates greatly increase the exchangeable forms of these metals, but not Pb. The response

of plants to increased exchangeable forms of Cd and Zn was manifested mainly by corn plants,

with a very small effect on the Pb concentration. Regardless of the source, Cd was the most

intensively absorbed metal. Trace metal concentrations in plants grown on the most polluted

soil with Zn-Pb smelter dust showed potato tubers most likely to accumulate both Cd and Pb,

especially in intact tubers (well washed). This observation is supported by the results of other

studies (Piotrowska & Kabata-Pendias, 1997).

Prediction techniques used to monitor and predict soil pollution development

As yet, there is no systematic approach to predict the future trend of soil pollution using

quantitative terms. Most studies focus on evaluation of the current status of soil degradation.

Most commonly, evaluation and prediction of soil pollution and soil vulnerability is based on

the descriptive approach, using relationship between pollution loads and changes of soil

properties as they affect the environment. Pedotransfer functions hold certain promises to

predict soil pollution and degradation development. This approach allows using data from

studies assessing responses of representative soil types to pollution. Spatial variability of soil
responses to pollution is identified using pedotransfer functions and georeferenced soil

databases. This integrated informational system combining soil databases with pollution

parameters is being developed at IUNG (Zaliwski 1999). More work is needed to develop or

adopt valid models predicting interactions of various pollutants with soil under different

environmental conditions.

It is important for establishing prediction framework that the overall emission of

various pollutants decreases as the industrial activity declines. Increased pollution prevention

is also achieved through more effective enforcement of environmental regulations. Changes in

regulations will play an important role in development of future pollution and soil

vulnerability trends. However, it is difficult to include the legal framework as an input into

models.

Predicting the future pollution trends should recognize the fact that the measures

undertaken in recent years such as installing scrubbers, introducing closed-cycle industrial

water systems and technologies designed to minimize waste production have contributed to a

general reduction of air, water and soil contamination. However, these measures have not

completely eliminated the impact of toxic waste piles on the environment. Water and wind

erosion, which are present in varying degrees of intensity depending on local conditions in

Silesia, lead to movement of toxic elements from dump sites to the biosphere. The most

troubling risks which come from stockpiling smelter waste ooccur when dump sites are

located in or near urban areas. These sites have a significant effect on nearby populations, and

unfortunately this is frequently the case in Upper Silesia. According to data supplied by the

Katowice Regional Statistics Department, the total area of smelter sites which require

reclamation comes to approximately 300 hectares (WUS, 1998). Recently we have tested the

potential of using aerial photographs and digital terrain models to monitor and predict the
movement of pollutants from smelter waste in Silesia Poland. These sites are known to

contain more than 87 million tons of waste.

It is important to emphasize that there is a certain risk for mobilization of heavy metals in

soils associated with their acidification. The emissions of SO2 and the severity of acid rains

have been decreasing in Poland (GUS, 1998c), however soil acidification is a natural process

occurring in humid zones at the rate depending on soil texture, soil saturation with bases,

weather conditions and management practices such as using mineral fertilizers and lime for

pH control. Existing databases were used to predict the extent of metal mobilization and

transfer to the food chain as affected by changes in soil pH and to identify areas of particular

risk. Identification of such areas is crucial since the use of lime has dramatically decreased in

recent years (GUS, 1998a).

In 1997 (SOVEUR), a project for the assessment of soil vulnerability for thirteen Central

and Eastern European Countries (CEEC) was established by ISRIC Wageningen, with the

support of FAO (Batjes & Bridges, 1997). The objective of this project is to model and

predict future development and environmental impacts of soil pollution with metals organic

contaminants nitrogen and phosphorus. The concept is based on the chemical time bomb

approach. Various models are used to reflect cycles and movement of pollutants, and predict

spatial dimension of environmental hazards. The input data, including soil and terrain

information and pollutants loads represent a standardized format allowing for valid regional

comparisons and simulations.

The potential of neural computing for predicting the movement of metals within the

soil-plant system has been studied by Stuczynski et al. (1997). This study shows that neural

networks can improve the predictability of metal accumulation in crops as compared to

traditional regressional models producing very poor determination coefficients (R2).

Laboratory and field methods for analysis of polluted soils

Poland’s methods for analysis of soil pollution are similar to those used in other European

countries. During the last decade ISO methods were adopted and implemented for soil

analysis, particularly in soil monitoring programs (Terelak et al., 1998). Sampling and

analytical protocols were developed to ensure the accuracy of the monitoring. For the state

soil monitoring program, soil profiles of 150 cm depth were dug to evaluate vertical

distribution of basic soil properties, metal concentrations, and PAHs.

Recently, clay dispersion of soil aggregates collected from different soil types, land

uses, and management systems was measured to evaluate stability of aggregates (Dexter &

Czyz, 1998). This data will be used to evaluate spatial variability of soil stability as affected

by management practices, land use etc. Pedotransfer will be used for modeling purposes.

Remediation and treatment techniques

The assessment of soil quality, based on the content of heavy metals, has been a broad

national program for industrialized areas. One of the most urgent problems is sewage sludge

disposal. Thus current research is focused on determining the suitability of sludges for the

remediation of contaminated sites (Stuczynski et al., in press).

Soil protection and remediation is of vital importance for both the environment and

agriculture. This is especially pronounced in densely populated and/or industrial areas where

special strategies are undertaken for the reclamation of degraded soils. One treatment

technique is related to the application of sludges to arable soils as well as for the remediation

of contaminated soils. This last field has recently received more attention in Poland. An

example of a case study of using sewage sludge for reclamation of contaminated land is

described as a pilot project in the last section of this paper.

 The phytoremediation concept was tested within the framework of collaborative

research involving the Institute of Ecology of Industrial Areas (IETU), Florida State

University (FSU), and Phytotech Inc., USA (Kucharski et al., 1998). The main objective of

this project was to implement phytoremediation at a full scale and to document the cost, and

efficiency of this technology. The tested technology was originally used for lead removal

from polluted soils. As the soils in Katowice region are highly contaminated with various

elements, it was important to make other elements extractable and available for

phytoextraction process. A one acre plot was used in this study which was located in

industrial part of the Katowice District, close to a derelict lead and zinc smelter. The

phytoextraction plan included the following phases: site identification, site characterization,

treatability study, selection of soil amendments to enhance metal mobility, toxicity test, seed

bed preparation, application of amendments , planting, crop protection, harvest and disposal.

Bioremediation of asphalt contaminated soils was studied in an incubation experiment

(Swinarski et al., 1998). Undisturbed samples of sandy soil polluted with coal tar were

bioremediated by forced aeration with periodical water flushing in nutrient amended system.

The length of the treatment period was 700 days. The rate of pollutant degradation process

was evaluated by online CO2 and O2 monitoring and effluent analyses. The effects of

temperature, nutrients availability and ozonation on degradation rates were studied. After the

first 50 days, the biological activity decreased and was strongly related to the temperature.

Degradation rates increased by a factor between 2.2 and 2.5 per each 10° C of temperature

increase up to the maximum at 38- 40° C. Use of pure oxygen instead of air and amendment

with nutrients did not enhance the rate of the degradation process. Lipophilic organics were

reduced by approximately 40%. Significant reduction of PAHs concentrations, up to 90% of

their initial concentration, was observed. Low molecular weight PAHs with 2-3 rings shifted

to low solubility compounds of 4-6 rings. PAHs concentrations in soil eluates ranged from 6
to 44 mg L-1 after 700 days of bioremediation as compared to a minimum of approximately

500 mg L-1 in eluates of untreated soil samples. Relative toxicity of soil eluates measured as

bioluminescence test decreased by factor of 27.

Legal, economic, and social aspects regarding contaminated land in Poland

A legal framework for environmental protection has already been established in

Poland. Environment Protection and Management Law is the most important act regulating all

aspects of using and protecting natural resources (Dz. U. 1994 r Nr 49, poz. 196). There is a

specific act regulating protection of agricultural and forest soils (Dz. U. 1995 Nr 16, poz. 78

and changes in: Dz. U. 1997, Nr 60 poz. 370 and Nr 80, poz. 505). The soil protection act

regulates all aspects of responsibility for protection and rehabilitation of soils. Three groups

of issues are regulated: rules creating a formal background for soil protection, reclamation

and rehabilitation of degraded soils, and improving quality of agricultural and forest soils.

These regulations established the layout for the National Land Conservation Fund. Resources

for this fund are generated through payments for converting agricultural land into industrial or

urban uses. The resources are used to support land conservation programs which are

dedicated to reduce erosion and degradation of soil fertility.

Entities responsible for soil pollution and degradation must compensate farmers for

their production loss caused by industrial activity. In cases of extreme degradation, industry

may be requested to buy the affected land at the market price.

Guidelines were developed for the classification of soils contaminated with trace metals to

facilitate appropriate land protection and land use (Kabata-Pendias et al., 1993). In spite of

elaborate monitoring programs, the net impact on the soil environment by a large amount of

trace metals is not yet fully predictable. Therefore, surveys of background levels and soil

contamination with metals have been carried out. Varying standards have been proposed for
classifying soils contaminated with metals and for the corresponding land use. These values

are usually established based on ecological risk assessment and safety for metal exposure to

humans associated with the consumption of crop products.

Extension services in contaminated area are trained to provide competent assistance to

farmers using scientific information and guidelines about how to change the crop structure

into industrial crops or other uses such as biomass production for fuel. Such strategies are

planned for polluted regions to protect the food chain against heavy metals transfer.

Unfortunately, there is minimal financial resources to initiate and support the implementation

stage.

Research programs for monitoring and rehabilitation of polluted land

There is increasing interest in developing strategies for the appropriate use of soil

resources. This has prompted policy makers and researchers, as well as legislators to initiate

projects evaluating the quality of soils and crops, particularly, those associated with heavy

metals, sulfur and organic contaminants such as PAHs. With this in mind, the Ministry of

Agriculture and Food Economy has contracted Regional Agro-Chemical Laboratories

(OSCHR) to conduct measurements of heavy metals and sulfur in soils and crops. The

obtained data was compiled and interpreted by the Institute of Soils Science and Plant

Cultivation (IUNG) (Terelak et al., 1997).

In 1995, in addition to this extensive survey, IUNG was contracted by the Ministry of the

Environmental Protection to set up sites for continuous monitoring of chemical properties of

arable soils (Terelak et al., 1998). This program has become an integral part of the State

Environment Monitoring System. This soil monitoring project evaluates the time course of

arable soils properties changes as measured at 216 monitoring sites. The results are used to
evaluate the extent of changes of the environmental quality of soils farming practices,

industry and other human impacts.

A mineral nitrogen monitoring program was established in 1997 (Fotyma and Fotyma

1999) to collect soil samples from 5000 soil profiles located throughout Poland. The program

evaluates the distribution of nitrogen forms in the spring and fall. Three years of data are now

available showing mineral nitrogen content in soils of different origin and management.

Remediation of polluted land in Poland

Mining and smelting in Upper Silesia have a long tradition going back to medieval times.

In the 13th century, silver and lead smelters were established near Bytom and Tarnowskie

Gory, and the mining and processing of zinc and lead ores has continued to date.

Unfortunately, the non-ferrous industry has many adverse ecological effects associated with

emissions of metallic dust. The reclamation of smelter waste sites, currently being carried out

within the framework of the Silesia Project, is a joint effort of local government, industry, and

international research institutions/agencies, including the US Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA), the Center for Research and Control of the Environment (OBIKS), Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and IUNG. The main objective of the Silesia Project is to develop

guidelines on all aspects of sludge use for the reclamation of degraded lands and waste sites.

Validation of biosolid used for reclamation of wastelands is a pilot project established in a

shutdown site of a Huta Warynski smelting plant. The revegetation of such wastes is a

challenging task for reasons of phytotoxicity. Since there was a lack of data concerning this

subject, a number of field and pot experiments were conducted. The field experiments were

designed to evaluate the impact of sludge and lime application rates on vegetation. In pot

experiments a number grass species have been tested for their adaptation to harsh
environmental conditions. The objective was to select the best performing species on the

basis of low metal absorption and salinity resistance.

The two hectare pilot area covered with two different metal waste was treated with sewage

sludge and lime. Prior to treatment this site was barren of vegetation. Sludge application at

the rate of 300 dry tons per hectare combined with the incorporation of lime, in an oxide and

carbonate form at the rate of up to 1 1/2 tons and 30 tons per hectare, ensured successful

revegetation.

The large spatial variability of properties responsible for phytotoxicity controls the spatial

variability of biomass production. In order to achieve an equally-distributed ground cover,

the reclamation work must be preplanned with a detailed grid-based spatial analysis of basic

waste chemical properties. This allows a site-specific treatment of the most problematic areas

with specially-designed rates of biosolids and lime as well as appropriate grass mixes.

Though the toxicity of the waste land was very high, the treatment used allowed the

establishment of ground cover over more than 80 percent of the area tested. This shows that

the adaptation capabilities of selected species were considerable. At the same time, when

tested on Doerschel waste the same approach failed miserably because of high concentrations

of soluble metals and salinity (Table 7).

The interpolation of waste properties overlaid with graphs of biomass performance enabled

the study to identify and quantify factors responsible for phytotoxicity. It was assumed that

areas with at least 80 percent of ground cover did not exhibit toxicity to plants even though

the total metals, the water extractable metals and the salinity were quite high (Figure 1).

The Welz plots were covered by vegetation which consisted predominantly of grasses. A

number of the twenty grass cultivars which were tested in pot experiments seemed to be

useful for revegetation purposes and demonstrated different degrees of adaptation to chemical

stress (Stuczynski et al., in press). The results allow us to propose a mixture of the most
acid/salt-tolerant species. Such a selection of cultivars may be needed for different types of

waste. This demonstration project was followed by the industry and implemented into a large

scale reclamation of the smelter waste disposal area.

Extensive reclamation work was conducted in Jeziorko, Grzybow and Lubaczow which is

an area affected by Europe’s largest sulfur strip mining operation (Lekan, 1980). Emission of

elemental sulfur dust is the main degradation factor leading to strong soil acidification as

reflected in pH ranging from 1.5 to 2.5. Extensive monitoring of soil pH was conducted on

over 6000 hectares of surrounding agricultural land. Lime application rates were calculated

based on the exchangeable acidity and the content of elemental sulfur in soils. Amounts of

lime required for neutralization of degraded soils came up to 100 tones per hectare in most

affected areas, the average rate however was 60 tones per hectare. Incorporation of lime into

the upper soil layers is an important part of the reclamation technology. Lime treatment

allowed successful restoration of soil functions including biological activity.

Bioremediation of soil contaminated with fuel residues was conducted at the former soviet

military base in Kluczewo (Lebkowska et al., 1997). Contaminated soil was piled and

inoculated with bacterial strains active in degradation of petrochemical compounds. After 22

days of the process 95% reduction of total hydrocarbons was achieved. The amount of

petroleum compounds was reduced by 98%.

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Table 1. Use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides in Poland

Inputs 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

NPK (kg ha-1 of ag land) 176 195 164 95 62 66 71 80

Active ingredient (kg ha-1) 1,23 1,09 0,68 0,53 0,52 0,47 0,50 0,50
GUS data (1998a)
Table 4. Soil pollution with heavy metals in Poland

Metal Area Geom. Range Percentage of agricultural land exhibiting different degrees of metal
mean mg/kg pollution
mg/kg observed expected 0o Io IIo IIIo IVo Vo 0o-Io IIo-Vo
Cd Silesia 1.06 0.10-49.73 0.37-3.06 41.3 29.1 12.6 8.6 5.5 2.9 70.4 29.6
Poland 0.22 0.01-49.73 0.1-0.48 88.2 10.0 1.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 98.2 1.8
Cu Silesia 11.2 1.0-66.5 6.6-19.0 96.0 3.8 0.2 0 0 0 99.8 0.2
Poland 6.6 0.2-293.3 3.2-13.5 97.5 2.2 0.2 0 0.1 0 99.7 0.3
Ni Silesia 13.3 0.5-80.5 6.8-26.1 87.0 12.6 0.4 0 0 0 99.6 0.4
Poland 6.4 0.1-328.3 2.6-15.4 94.7 4.9 0.4 0 0 0 99.6 0.4
Pb Silesia 50.9 10.0-1722.7 23.1-112.2 61.6 21.6 8.4 8.2 0.2 0 83.2 16.8
Poland 13.8 0.1-1722.7 7.6-25.0 97.2 2.3 0.3 0.2 0 0 99.5 0.5
Zn Silesia 116.2 5.0-2837.5 45.9-294.3 41.3 32.7 18.5 6.8 0.7 0 74.0 26.0
Poland 32.7 0.5-2837.5 16.6-64.6 88.0 10.6 1.2 0.2 0 0 98.6 1.4
Table 5. Trace metals in some crop plants, geometric mean (mg kg-1 air dried matter)

Plant Cd Zn Pb Cu Ni
a
Cereal grain (6 500) 0.06 33.3 0.23 0.44 3.74
b
Potato tubers (5 680) 0.11 19.9 0.33 0.61 4.46
Grass (3,760) 0.12 31.6 0.89 0.84 5.51
a
In parentheses number of samples collected in the period 1992/96 (Terelak et al. 1996).
b
Unpeeled tubers

Table 6. Metal contents in main crop plants grown in NE and SW regions

 of Poland, geometric mean (mg kg-1 air dried matter)

Crop Regiona Cd Cu Ni Pb Zn
Carrots- roots NE 0.13 3.71 0.97 1.05 27.85
SW 0.62 4.65 0.66 0.79 29.93
Potato – tubersb NE 0.10 3.09 0.57 0.64 18.77
SW 0.22 5.03 0.42 0.28 21.49
Rye – grain NE 0.06 3.52 0.43 0.25 31.81
SW 0.17 4.28 0.41 0.22 40.42
Wheat - grain NE 0.06 3.52 0.43 0.25 31.81
SW 0.17 4.28 0.41 0.22 40.42
a
NE - north-eastern agricultural region, SW - south-western industrial region
b
Unpeeled tubers

Table 7. Chemical properties of waste material sampled before (1994) and after (1995)
amendment with sewage sludge and lime
Waste Sampling Soluble Soluble Soluble pH EC
material time zinc cadmium lead
mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1
Welz Before 343 17.6 1.8 7.0 7.3
After 279 17.7 1.1 7.2 3.5
Doerschel Before 1670 108 5.4 5.8 16
After 983 57.4 2.9 6.0 9.0
values reported reflect averages of 80 samples of each material
 EC
Biomass mS/cm
t/ha
no vegetation 0.4 - 1.4
0.0 - 0.5 1.4 - 2.4
0.5 - 1.1 2.4 - 3.4
1.1 - 1.7 3.4 - 4.4
1.7 - 2.3 4.4 - 5.4
2.3 - 2.9 5.4 - 6.4
6.4 - 7.4

Water soluble Water soluble

zinc cadmium
mg/kg mg/kg
0-1 0 - 0.5
1-5 0.5 - 1.0
5 - 10 1-5
10 - 50 5 - 10
50 - 100 10 - 50
100 - 500 50 - 100
500 - 3400 100 - 200

vegetation boundaries

0 10 20

meters
Table 2. Predicted animal production (in thousands of tons)

Animal products Current Predicted for

Pork 2239 2583
Beef 745 1225
Mutton x 81
Poultry 480 658
Milk 11756 22428
Eggs 5815 10320
From Krasowicz et al. (1996)

Table 3. Comparison of current and predicted crop production

 Current Predicted
Indicators 1998 2010
Area of agricultural land (thousands ha) 18622 17000
Area of crops (thousands ha) 12892 11500
Area of grassland (thousands ha) 4046 3500
Share of cereal crops in crop structure (%) 66,1 57,4
Share of potato in crop structure (%) 11,8 5,2
Crop production (cereal units ha-1) 33,4 45,0
Animal units 100 ha-1 51,5 55,4
Area of fodder crops per animal unit 1,9 1,06
Use of mineral fertilizers (kg NPK ha-1) 90 125-175
Yields (tones ha –1):
winter wheat 3.39 5.0
rye 22.7 3.0
potato 1991-1993 16.9 22.0
hay 4.5 5.5
winter rape 1.92 2.8
sugar beets 33.4 46.0
From Krasowicz et al., (1996)

Figure captions

Figure 1. Standing biomas and chemical properties of Welz material