EVOLUTION

 The study of origin and development of various life forms are known as evolution.
 Evolution is defined as slow and progressive but gradual change in living organism,
which has taken place during billions of years to give rise complex form.
Origin of life
 Origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of universe.
 The Universe is very old-almost 20 billion years old. It contains huge galaxies.
 Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust.
 The origin of universe is explained by Big Bang theory.
 The Big Bang theory states that a huge explosion occurred, the universe expanded,
temperature came down and hydrogen and helium were formed later. The galaxies
were then formed due to condensation of gases under gravitation.
 The earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back.
 Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from molten masses
covered the surface.
 UV rays from the sun broke up water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen and lighter
hydrogen escaped.
 Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, carbon dioxide and
others.
 Ozone layer formed, as it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to fill depression and
form oceans.
 Life appeared 500 million (about 4 billion years back) years after the formation of
earth.
Theories of origin of life:
 Theory of special creation: it states that God created life by his divine act of creation. It
was proposed by Father Saurez and was supported by Milton.
 Theory of panspermia/cosmozoic theory: early Greek thinkers states that the spores or
panspermia came from outer space and developed into living forms.
 Theory of spontaneous generation states that life originated from decaying and rotting
matter like straw, mud, etc.
 Louis Pasteur rejected the theory of spontaneous generation and
demonstrated that life came from pre-existing life.
 In his experiment, he kept killed yeast cells in pre-sterilised flask and another
flask open into air. The life did not evolved in the former but new living
organisms evolved in the second flask.
 Theory of chemical evolution or Oparin-Haldane theory states that life originated from
pre-existing non-living organic molecules and that formation of life was preceded by
chemical evolution. Also known as modern theory of origin.
 The conditions on the earth that favoured chemical evolution were very high
temperature, volcanic storms and reducing atmosphere that contained CH4, NH3, water
vapour, etc.
Miller’s experiment: (2014, 16)

 Miller’s experiment provided experimental evidence for chemical evolution.

 The experiment was carried out by SL Miller and HC Urey in 1953.
 Miller and Urey created conditions similar to that of primitive atmosphere (i.e., high
temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere containing CH4, NH3, etc.) in the
laboratory by using apparatus and tubes.
 They created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 and water
vapour at 800:C.
 After a week they observed the formation of some complex organic compounds like
amino acid, sugar, nitrogenous bases, pigments and fats.

Origin of first cell:

 First non-cellular life forms originated three million years ago.
 These molecules were like RNA, protein and polysaccharides.
 Cellular life form first evolved about 2000 million years ago.
 These were single-celled formed in aquatic environment.
 This form of abiogenesis, i.e. the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary
forces from non-living molecules. It is accepted by many scientists.
Evidences of evolution:
1. Palaeontological evidences:
 Palaeontology is the study of fossils. The fossils are the remains of past organisms
preserved in sedimentary rocks.
 Various aged rock sediments comprise fossils of a plethora of life forms and those
forms probably died during the development of sediment.
 They are the remains of extinct species (e.g. Dinosaurs).
 The geological period in which fossils were found can be determined by examining
distinct sedimentary levels in which they were found.
 The study found that life forms changed with time and that certain life forms are
limited to specific geological epoch periods.
 As a result, new types of life are thought to have emerged at various points during
Earth's history.
 All of this is referred to as Paleontological evidence.
2. Morphological and anatomical evidences:
 The morphology and anatomy studied the external and internal structure of an
organism respectively.
 This can be explained as- homologous organ and analogous organ.
 Homologous organ: (2009)
 The organs with same structural design and origin but different functions are
called homologous organs.
 Examples are forelimbs of some animals like whales, bats and cheetah have
similar anatomical structure, such as humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals
and phalanges.
 Homology in organ indicates common ancestry.
 Other examples of homology are vertebrate hearts or brains. In plants also, thorns
and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represent homology.
 Homology is based on divergent evolution.
 The evolutionary process which produces new species diverged from a single
ancestral form and adapted to new invaded habitats and to modes of life
necessary there, is known as divergent evolution.
 Analogous organ: (2009, 11)
 Organs which are anatomically different but functionally similar are called
analogous organs. For example, wings of butterfly and birds.
 Analogy refers to a situation exactly opposite to homology.
 Analogous organs are a result of convergent evolution.
 Convergent evolution is the development of similar adaptive functional
structures in unrelated groups of organisms.
 Other examples of analogy are eyes of Octopus and mammals; flippers of
penguins and dolphins. In plants, sweet potato (root modification) and potato
(stem modification).
 3. Biochemical evidences:
 The metabolic processes in organisms are similar with same new materials and end
products. For example, energy released by oxidation is stored in ATP which then
powers the energy requiring process.
 Molecular homology is the similarity among animals at the molecular level. For
example, human DNA differs in only 1.8% of its base pairs from chimpanzee DNA and
there is no difference between the two in the amino acid sequence for the protein
cytochrome-c.

4. Biogeographical evidences:
 The species restricted to a region develop unique features. Also, species present in far
separated regions show similarity of ancestry.
 This can be explained with the help of adaptive radiation:
 Adaptive radiation:
 Adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process in which an ancestral stock gives rise
to new species adapted to new habitats and new ways of life. Examples are
Darwin’s finches. These were small black birds, which Darwin observed in
Galapagos Island.
 He observed many varieties of finches in the same island.
 All varieties of finches had evolved from original seed-eating finches.
 There was alternation in beaks enabling some to become insectivorous and some
vegetarian.

[Link] evidences:
 Study of comparative embryology shows common patterns of development.
 The principles of embryonic development were given by Von Baer.
 Ernst Haeckel propounded the theory of recapitulation or Biogenetic law which states
that an individual organism in its development (ontogeny) tends to repeat the stages
passed through by its ancestors (phylogeny), i.e. ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.
 This means that the life history of an animal reflects its evolutionary history.
 For example, during the life history, frog’s tadpole larva resembles fishes, the
ancestors of amphibian. The presence of gill clefts in all vertebrate embryos including
human provides strong evidence in support of organic evolution.

6. Anthropogenic evidences:
Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc. has resulted in selection of resistant varieties in a
lesser time scale. This is also true for microbes against which antibiotics or drugs have been
used. All these evidences tell us that ‘evolution is a stochastic process based on chance
events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms’.
 Parallel evolution:
Parallel evolution refers to independent development of similar characters in two animal
groups of common ancestry living in similar habitats of different continents. Examples are
Marsupial mammals in Australia show parallel evolution as they have evolved from placental
mammals. All these closely resemble and look similar to a corresponding marsupial.

Organic evolution:
 Organic evolution is the phenomenon in which simple organisms gave rise to the
complex organisms in the course of time.
 Some common theories to explain the process of organic evolution are Lamarckism,
Darwinism, Mutation theory and Modern synthetic theory.
 Factors involved in the process of organic evolution- mutation, recombination, gene
migration, genetic drift, natural selection. (2017)
Lamarckism:
 Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first to explain the scientific mechanism of evolution. His
theory is written in his famous book ‘Philosophie Zoologique’ which was published in
1809.
 His theory is known as Lamarckism which can be explained as follows-
 Internal vital force: Lamarck believed that every organism has some internal
vital forces/ will power and he can develop new structure/ organs accordingly.
 Body size: with the course of evolution, organism increases their body size.
 Fluctuation of environment and new needs: environment is dynamic and
changes over time. Whenever it changes, it become adverse for existing life
form, then it develops the new need accordingly as it need to fulfill the new
demands.
 Use and disuse theory: according to this theory organs that are used more
develops more while those that are not used becomes vestigial in the long
run. (2009)
 Inheritance of acquired character: the acquired characters are inherited and
passed on from one generation to another generation.
 Examples of Lamarckism:
 According to Lamarck, the long necked giraffe has evolved its long neck
because its ancestors stretched their neck to obtain food.
 Cave fishes are blind- eyes are degenerated due to lack of use for long time
period.
 Snakes are limbless due to continued disuse of limbs to suit their creeping
mode of locomotion and fossorial mode of living.
 Objection/ demerits/ criticism of Lamarckism-
 Weismann is the opponent of Lamarckian theory. In his experiment he
mutilated the tail of mice and reproduced for another generation. But there is
no sign of reduced tail.
 If acquired characters are inherited then why not brilliants, intelligency,
memory and health is acquired by individual.
  Bored pinnae or nose that is acquired by individual in his life time cannot pass
into the next generation.
 Neo-Lamarckism:
 The group of scientist (Herbert Spencer, Brown, Nageli, Dali etc.) supports the
Lamarck theory and constitutes the Neo-Lamarckism.
 Postulates of Neo-Lamarckism-
 Germ cells are not always immune from the effects of
environment.
 Germ cells may be affected directly by environment without any
effect on the somatic cells.
 Germ cells may carry acquired or somatic variation to the
offspring.
Darwinism:
 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was the beloved of nature.
 He visited many countries by a ship known as HMS-Beagle (1831-1836). During this time
he collected many specimens of plants and animals.
 During his voyage he read a book entitled with ‘An essay on the principle of population’
written by Thomas Malthus. By this book he influenced much and wrote a book entitled
with ‘Origin of species’, which published in 1859. (2009)
 In his book he explained the idea of evolution i.e., natural selection.
 Darwinian theories are as follows- (2017)
a) Universal occurrence of variations and rapid multiplication (overproduction):
 There is no two individuals of a species are like.
 Every species multiplies rapidly, so scarcity of food and space occurs.
b) Struggle for existence:
 Limited resources of our environment are the causes of struggle for
existence. It is of three main types-
 Intraspecific struggle: it is the struggle between the same individuals for
their existence. E.g., struggle between two dogs for a piece of flesh.
 Interspecific struggle: it is the struggle between individuals of different
species. E.g., tiger and deer; rat and cat etc.
 Environmental struggle: it is the struggle for existence between animals
and environment. E.g., flood, earthquake, volcanic eruption.
c) Survival of the fittest/ natural selection: (2019)
 Herbert Spencer gave the term ‘survival of the fittest’ which is called as
‘natural selection’ by Darwin.
 In the struggle for existence, the individuals those have more favourable
variations will enjoy a competitive advantage over others which have less
favourable variations, and will survive and reproduce.
 Nature selects only those which will be able to live in the changed
environment and other is rejected by nature (natural selection).
  E.g., Darwin explained evolution of long neck of modem giraffe by stating
the existence of long necked and short necked giraffe in the ancestral
population. After the change in the climate, resulting in presence of trees
and no grasslands, the longer-necked giraffe with longer forelegs were
more successful in reaching the soft leaves of trees for feeding. Therefore,
natural selection favoured longer necked progeny generation after
generation. Selection of longer neck through a long series of generations
resulted in the evolution of such long-necked modem giraffe.
d) Inheritance of useful variations:
 Those characters which are helpful to survive are inherited through
reproduction in the next generation. Later on this change becomes of their
own characters.
e) Origin of species/ descent of modification:
 Due to change of useful characters the individuals survive and may acquire
more useful characters to survive in the struggle.
 After many generations these individuals become quite different from the
ancestors from which they are evolved and give rise to new species.
 Criticism of Darwinism:
 Darwinism can explain to some extents the survival of the fittest but not the
arrival of the fittest.
 Darwin fails to explain vestigial organ and mutation that arise during life time
of an individual.
 Darwin fails to explain mechanism of appearance of variations.
 Natural selection does not explain the co-ordinated development and co-
adaptation.
Mutation theory of evolution:
 Proposed by Hugo de Vries.
 This theory is based on the breeding experiment he conducted for 13 years with the
evening primrose (Oenothera lamarckiana).
 Mutation theory states that new species arise from pre-existing ones in a single
generation by a sudden appearance of marked discontinuous, inheritable, genetic
variations called mutations. According to Hugo de Vries, evolution is a discontinuous
and jerky process, rather than a continuous and gradual one as held by Lamarck and
Darwin. In other words, mutation caused speciation and hence he called it saltation
(single step large mutation).
 Postulates/ features/ significance of mutation theory: (2012, 16)
 Mutations act as a raw material for evolution.
 Mutations are heritable and subjected to natural selection.
 Evolution is a discontinuous and jerky process.
 Mutations may occur in any direction and may be useful or harmful. The
harmful mutations can be eliminated, while useful mutations are selected by
nature.
  Mutations are recurring.
 Sometimes, new species are produced by a single mutation.
 Criticism of mutation theory:
 BM Davis claimed that the Oenothera lamarckiana was a hybrid plant, which
could be obtained by the hybridization of two wild species and it is not a
normal plant.
 Natural mutations are not common phenomenon.
 Most of the mutations are recessive and retrogressive.
 Theory failed to explain the role of nature.
Modern synthetic theory of evolution: (2013, 16)
 This theory is a modified form of Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection, so it is also called
Neo-Darwinism. This modern theory states that the variations which happen at the
gene level are only inherited (mutation) and accountable for evolution and not all the
variation as held by Darwin. The modern concept of evolution is the synthesis of
Darwin’s and Hugo de Vries’ Theories, so it is called Synthetic theory.
 The synthetic theory is the result of the work of many scientists, i.e., Dobzhansky, R.A
Fisher, J.B.S Haldane, Swell Wright, Ernst Mayr and G.L. Stebbins.
 The major postulates of Neo-Darwinism:
 The unit of evolution is population not species. Each species comprises of
many local populations.
 It is the gene pool of the population that undergoes variation and not the
individual.
 Natural selection refers to the differential amplification of fittest genes and
genotypes that are best suited to environment and natural selection is not
only the cause of evolution.
 The formation of new species is by the accumulation of inherited random
mutations and also by genetic recombination occurring due to independent
assortment, fertilization and crossing over.
 This theory recognizes four basic types of processes- Gene mutation, genetic
recombination, changes in chromosome structure and number and natural
selection.
Hardy – Weinberg Principle: (2012, 15)
 Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies are constant in a population
and they are constant from generation to generation.
 The gene pool remains constant, which is called genetic equilibrium.
2 2 2
 The principle can be represented mathematically as follows: (p + q) = p + 2pq + q = 1.
Where, p and q represent the individual allele frequencies.
 Therefore, p2 = frequency of homozygous condition represented by p and q2 =
frequency of homozygous alleles represented by q and pq = frequency of the
heterozygous condition
 Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: gene migration or gene
flow, genetic drift, mutation, genetic recombination and natural selection.
Gene Migration:
When migration of a section of population to another place and population occurs, gene
frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population. New genes/alleles are
added to the new population and these are lost from the old population. When gene
migration happens usually it is called gene flow.

Genetic drift:
 Random changes in the gene frequencies of a small population occurring by chance
constitute genetic drift.
 Founder effect: when few individuals move away from parental population (more
genetic variety) and become founder of a new isolated populations (less genetic variety)
such effect is called as founder effect.
 Bottle neck effect: when natural calamities or chance events result in drastic reduction
in population size and elimination of particular allele from the population such effect is
called as bottleneck effect.

Mutation:
Sudden changes in the number and structure of chromosomes that brings phenotypic and
genotypic changes, said to be mutations. Mutations have the ability to bring variation for
speciation.

Recombination:
Sexual reproduction does not generate genetic variety or new genetic information, but allows
recombination of genes. Therefore, the gene mixing during sexual reproduction is called
genetic recombination. In this process new combination of gene occurs during crossing over in
meiosis-I.

Natural selection:
 Natural selection is the most critical evolutionary process that leads to change in allele
frequency and favour or promote adaptation as a product of evolution.
 Types of natural selection: stabilising selection, directional selection and disruptive
selection.

Stabilising selection: the selection which tends to eliminate extremes from the population,
called stabilising selection. E.g., house sparrows killed in a severe snowstorm in New York
were found to have wings markedly longer or shorter than the mean.

Directional selection: this type of selection operates in response to gradual changes in the
environment. It forms the basis of artificial selection and acts to eliminate on the extreme of
the phenotypic range.
E.g., (a) DDT-resistant mosquitoes- in this sensitive mosquitoes were eliminated and
resistant one increase in number. So the population of resistant mosquitoes increased
showing directional selection.
(b) Industrial melanism.
 Disruptive selection: the selection which tends to eliminate intermediate types of
phenotypic range, called disruptive selection. E.g., in sea, the three types of snails i.e., white,
brown and black coloured are present. The white and black coloured snails are invisible
respectively when covered by barnacles and rock is bare. But brown coloured snails are eaten
by predators in both the conditions. So these are eliminated gradually.

Speciation: (2009, 13)

 The process of formation of new species from existing one is known as speciation.
 Species can be defined as the group of individuals with similar characteristics which has
ability to interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
 Types of speciation:
 Allopatric speciation: allopatric speciation is the formation of new species
through geographical isolation. E.g., Darwin’s finches.
 Sympatric speciation: sympatric speciation is the formation new species
within a single population without geographical isolation. E.g., Australian
marsupials.
 Peripatric speciation: when small groups of individuals break off from the
larger group and form a new species, this is called peripatric speciation.
 Parapatric speciation: Parapatric speciation is the development of
reproductive isolation among the members of a continuous population in the
absence of geographical barrier.
Mimicry:
 Mimicry is defined as the resemblances of one organism to another organism or to any
natural object for the purpose of concealment, protection or some other advantages.
 The organism which exhibit mimicry is known as mimics and object or organism which is
mimicked/ copied is known as model.
 The term mimicry in biology was introduced by Bates in 1862.
 Batesian mimicry: the mimicry in which an edible species resembles as an inedible
species, called Batesian mimicry. E.g., Monarch butterfly and Viceroy butterfly. The
Monarch butterfly is inedible and Viceroy Butterfly is edible.
 Mullerian mimicry: when two or more inedible or unpalatable species resembles each
other the mimicry is termed as Mullerian mimicry.

Allen’s law: it states, animals live in very cold climates, their extremities such as ears, tails, etc.
become progressively smaller.
Dollo’s law: it states evolution is irreversible.
Bergman’s law: it states that warm blooded animals become larger in northern and colder
parts of their range.
Cope’s law: it states that there is a tendency for animals to increase in size during the long
course of evolution.
Jordan’s rule: it states that fishes inhabiting water of low temperature tend to have more
vertebrae than those of warmer waters. It has been observed that cold water forms of many
species are frequently larger than the individual from warmer waters.

Geological time scale:

 The correlation between time periods of the past and fossiliferous rock, called
geological time scale. (2015)
 It represents- chronological order of earth’s history.
 Our earth is 4.5 billion years old whereas first life appeared before 3.9 billion years.
 Sequence: Era Period Epoch
 Geological time scale is necessary to determine the age of fossil because it is arranged
into eras, periods and epochs with complete description of climatic conditions, flora
and fauna of that area. (2015)
 Era:
 Azoic era: there is no life.
 Archaeozoic era: this is the age of early unicellular life during which monerans
evolved.
 Proterozoic era: age of early or first life in which eukaryotes evolved.
 Paleozoic era: age of ancient life.
 Mesozoic era: age of medieval life. Reptiles evolved. Jurassic period is the
golden age of reptiles.
 Cenozoic era: age of modern life. E.g., golden age of mammals.
  How age of fossils are calculated? (2012, 18)
 The age of a fossils are calculated by radioactive dating. It is a technique based on a
comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive
isotope and its decay products using known decay rates. Among the best known
techniques are carbon dating, potassium-argon dating and uranium lead dating.

Missing link: A hypothetical fossil form intermediate between two living forms is called
missing link. E.g., Seymouria is the missing link between amphibians and reptiles. (2019)

Protovirus: Giant molecules of nucleoproteins were formed by agglutination of nucleic acids

and proteins which give rise to protovirus. (2014)
Coacervates:
The organic molecule formed after chemogeny aggregated into various combinations due
to intermolecular attractions and precipitated out in aqueous medium in the form of large
colloidal particles. These colloids were called coacervates by Oparin. Coacervates were also
called microsphere by Sydney Fox. (2012)
Coacervates are considered as primitive cell because they exhibit certain features
found in present day cell like self-replication, presence of limiting membrane (boundary)
around their structure, etc. (2018)
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