Module II: Assessment of Cognition Abilities

History and Overview of intelligence testing.

Intelligence Tests- Seguin Form Board, Draw-A-person Intellectual Ability Test for Children

Wechsler Intelligence Scales (adult and child), Binet Kamat Test, Bhatia Battery of Intelligence

Test.

Cognitive Functions- PGI Memory Scale, Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-IV- India), Bender

Gestalt Test.

Cultural Free Tests- Raven's Progressive Matrices.

History and Overview of Intelligence Testing

What is Testing?

Testing, within psychology, refers to the systematic assessment of individuals' cognitive abilities,

personality traits, or other psychological characteristics using standardized procedures (American

Psychological Association [APA], 2020). The concept of intelligence testing originated from

Sir Francis Galton's work in the late 19th century, but it was Alfred Binet who developed

the first modern intelligence test in the early 20th century (Neisser et al., 1996).

Defining Intelligence

Intelligence, in the field of psychology, is a multifaceted construct that encompasses various

mental abilities, including problem-solving, reasoning, learning, and adaptation to new situations

(Sternberg, 2018). It is a complex trait influenced by both genetic and environmental factors

(Plomin, 2018). David Wechsler, a prominent figure in the field of intelligence testing, provided

his definition of intelligence as the "aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment" (Wechsler, 1958,

p. 7).

Origins of Intelligence Testing

The history of intelligence testing can be traced back to notable figures in psychology and

education. Sir Francis Galton, a British polymath, made early contributions by developing

measures to assess cognitive abilities. Édouard Séguin, a French physician, emphasised

individualized testing and education for individuals with intellectual disabilities. James McKeen

Cattell, an American psychologist, introduced the concept of mental testing and developed

various mental tests to quantify cognitive abilities.

Charles Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence, which proposed a general factor (g-factor)

and specific factors (s-factors), further enriched the field. Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon,

French psychologists, are renowned for developing the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale in the

early 20th century, which assessed a child's intellectual development and influenced the

subsequent development of IQ testing.

During World War I, the U.S. Army used intelligence testing to assess and classify draftees. This

led to the development of the Alpha and Beta tests. The Alpha test, administered in written form,

was designed for literate individuals, while the Beta test was for illiterate or non-English-

speaking individuals and used pictorial symbols. These tests aimed to evaluate soldiers' cognitive

abilities, such as verbal and nonverbal reasoning, to assign them to appropriate military roles

(Lorge & Welch, 1947).

The term "IQ," or Intelligence Quotient, is a numerical representation of an individual's cognitive

abilities. It was introduced by William Stern in 1912 and is calculated as a ratio of a person's

mental age to their chronological age, multiplied by 100 (Stern, 1912).

Timeline of Intelligence Testing and Measurement

Late 1800’s Sir Francis Galton laid down some of the first published works on Human

Intelligence. He said that intelligence is hereditary and that it could be

measured by how people performed on sensorimotor tests. ‘He suggested

discrimination of weights and audibility of shrill notes as tests to measure …

intelligence’ (2019, De Boeck et al). Galton’s work tied into the Eugenics

movement

1856 ‘Seguin developed a simple performance-based intelligence test using form

boards to evaluate eye–hand coordination, shape concept, visual perception,

and cognitive ability through nonverbal means. It is used to assess the

participants’ motor dexterity, visuomotor coordination, spatial organisation,

and speed and accuracy of performance, and can be used in children as young

as 3 years’. (2017, Koshy et al)

1890 James McKeen Cattell designed a series of Mental tests that was inspired by

Galton’s work as well as William Wundt’s Contributions to psychology.

‘Accuracy and time of differentiation were among his measures of

intelligence’ (2019, De Boeck et al). Cattell focused on the quantification of

intelligence.
1904 Charles Spearman started his research that has since become the foundation

of Psychometrics. He gave his g theory ‘which says that all measurements of

intelligence measure the same general intelligence’(2019, De Boeck et al).

1905 The Earliest Known Intelligence test came from Alfred Binet. Binet

concluded that ‘judgment is a crucial element in Intelligence’ (2019, De

Boeck et al). Binet’s concepts of Intelligence was based in education as the

initiation for this inquiry came from the French Government wanting a way

to identify students with learning disabilities. The Binet Simon Tests were

thus introduced, with a series of 30 problems with increasing difficulty.

1908 A revision of the Binet Simon Tests introduced the idea of Mental age of the

child. ‘The items were grouped into age clusters’, to determine this.

1912 William Stern Introduced the concept of Intelligence Quotient which was

‘the division of mental age by chronological age’ (2019, De Boeck et al).

1916 The Binet-Simon tests were introduced into the United States by Lewis M.

Terman as the Stanford-Binet test, but here they were used for the purposes

of eugenics rather than strictly on students.

1917 Army Alpha and Army Beta tests were Introduced by Robert Yerkes et al, ‘at

the end of World War I to test recruits before they were sent to Europe’. The

Alpha test consisted of Verbal and Numeric Problems and was presented in

English while Army Beta was a Non Verbal Test that did not require English

Proficiency. The test results were given in terms of positions one could be

appointed to in the army.

1926 This sees the introduction of the SATs. The Scholastic Aptitude tests had a

verbal and mathematics component.

1934 Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale of Kamat, i.e. BKT, was based on Stanford

Binet Intelligence Scale 1916 - Terman [Link] of the Stanford-

Binet was made in Kannada and Marathi by V. V. Kamat. The scales are

verbal in nature, and can be administered from age 3 to superior adult III

level

1938 Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices was developed. The test consists of

five sets of items. Within each set, the items become progressively more

difficult. The sets in turn become progressively more difficult.

1939 Weshler gives his definition on intelligence after determining Spearman’s

views to be too narrow. “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of

the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively

with his environment”

1949 Draw a person test was introduced by Karen Machover. A projective test to

assess intelligence.

1955 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is published. The tests were an

attempt ‘to see whether patterns of intelligence subtest scores could help with

differential diagnosis and treatment planning in psychiatry’(2019, De Boeck

et al).

Weshcler also moved away from the mental age based IQ measurement to

the Deviation IQ concept, ‘expressing how much someone’s performance

score deviates from the mean performance score of the person’s age group.
 When expressed on a standard scale with mean 100 and standard deviation

15, this is still the current notion of IQ’ (2019, De Boeck et al).

Early 1960’s In response to criticisms of culture impacting intelligence testing and results,

Johns Hopkins Perceptual Test was developed by Leon Rosenberg. This test

has a child try to match random forms.

1969 Malin adapted the WISC for children, known as MISIC, for the Indian

population. It included six verbal and five performance scales. Age-wise

norms are available. Norms for the Seguin Form Board Test were provided

by Verma, Pershad, and Randhwa for children from 3.5 years to 11 years.

1980 Howard Gardner introduces the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner’s

early work in psychology and later in human cognition and human potential

led to his development of the initial six intelligences. The nine Intelligences

currently are Verbal-linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial-visual, Bodily-

kinesthetic, Musical intelligences, Interpersonal intelligence, Intrapersonal,

Naturalist intelligence and Existential

1989 Proposed extensions of Intelligence to include Social Intelligence and

Practical Intelligence by Barnes, Wagner and Sternberg

1993/1995 Extension of the Intelligence domain to include emotional Intelligence

proposed by Goleman, Mayer and Salovey.

Intelligence Tests

Figure Drawing Methods:

- Draw-A-Person Test (DAPT)

IQ Assessment:

- Seguin Form Board Test (SFBT)

- Binet-Kamat Test Of Intelligence

- Bhatia Battery Of Performance Intelligence Test

- Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale For Children (WISC)

- Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Culture-free IQ test

- Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM)

Draw-A-Person Test (DAPT)

Figure Drawing Methods

Figure drawing methods are performance-based measures in which persons being examined

draw pictures of people or objects. The use of figure drawings in personality assessment is

based on the assumption that how people approach this task and the way they draw the figures

reflect some of their basic dispositions and concerns and their attitudes toward themselves and

other people. Figure drawing methods do not involve any test stimuli. The test materials consist

of only a pencil and blank sheets of paper on which examinees are instructed to make certain

kinds of drawings. The drawings are usually followed by an inquiry in which people are asked to

tell a story about their drawings or answer questions about them. Because figure drawing

methods are particularly helpful in evaluating children and adolescents, and are brief and easy to

administer, psychologists working with young people or in school settings are especially likely to

use them. Survey data indicate that the DAP is the fifth most frequently used personality

assessment instrument in examinations of children and adolescents, with the HTP ranking
sixth. In school settings, the DAP, HTP, and KFD are the three most frequently used personality

tests, and among psychological tests of all kinds used in schools.

Nature of Figure

Drawing Methods Figure drawing methods consist of blank sheets of paper on which

people make drawings of various kinds: human figures on the DAP; a house, a tree, and a

person on the HTP; and a family “doing something” on the KFD. Characteristics of these

drawings and what people say about them during an inquiry yield structural, thematic, and

behavioural data.

- The structural data in figure drawings consist of objective features of what people draw.

The core structural features of drawings include their line quality (heavy or light,

continuous or broken), the size of the figures (large or small), the placement of figures on

the page (middle, top, bottom, side), and any emphasis on or omission of basic parts (e.g.,

person with disproportionately small head or big ears, person with no hands or feet, house

with a tiny door, tree with no branches, family with no father).

- Thematic imagery emerges in figure drawing assessment when people are asked to

talk about what they have drawn. An examinee may describe a human figure as being

“sad” or “not able to do much” and a tree as “not growing as tall as most trees do,” in

which case the imagery might reflect such depressive phenomena as dysphoric mood, a

sense of helplessness, and low self-esteem. Similarly, comments that a person who has

been drawn “looks worried about what might happen to him” and that a house “looks like

it wouldn’t stand up very well if a hurricane came along” might reveal anxiety or

insecurity about unwelcome events occurring outside one’s control.

The behavioural data in figure drawing tests, as in other performance-based personality

assessment measures, consist of how people approach their task and how they interact with

the examiner. Examinees may draw slowly or rapidly, carefully or carelessly, eagerly or

grudgingly. They may accompany their drawing with comments that are compliant and

ingratiating (“I’ll be happy to do whatever you ask me to do”) or depreciatory and resistive

(“This seems like a silly thing to do”). These and other types of behaviour and commentary are

likely to mirror aspects of individuals’ problem-solving style and their test-taking and

interpersonal attitudes.

History of Figure Drawing Methods

The formal application of figure drawings in psychological assessment began with Florence

Goodenough. From her observations of children, she concluded that the amount of accurate

detail they include in their drawing of a human figure can provide such a measure.

Goodenough’s pursuit of this belief led her to develop the Draw-A-Man test, which was

published in 1926. The Draw-A-Man test soon became a popular assessment instrument and was

widely used in its original form for many [Link] current version of the Goodenough-Harris

method was published in 1988 by Naglieri, who clarified aspects of the scoring criteria and

provided new normative guidelines for assessing cognitive development in young people aged 6

to 17. Shortly after the Draw-A-Man test came into use, psychologists began considering the

possibility that children’s figure drawings could reveal differences among them in their

personality characteristics as well as their intellectual maturity. It was not until 1949, however,

that Karen Machover, published the first formal method for assessing personality with a figure

drawing task that she called the Draw-A-Person test.

 - The Machover Draw-a-Person test is a projective test that was designed in Sweden by

Karen Machover in 1949 for psychodynamic evaluations and diagnostic assessments of

children.

- Karen Machover developed the first measure of figure drawing as a personality

assessment.

- Projective technique which makes use of the drawing of the human figure as a specific

expression of one's needs and conflicts.

- The assumptions underlying the use of this technique are psychoanalytic in nature.

Age: 3 years and older

Rationale:

- Personality Characteristics (Qualitative Analysis)

- Intellectual Maturity (Quantitative Analysis)

History:

- Developed originally by Florence Goodenough in 1924, this test was first known as the

Goodenough Draw-a-Man test.

- Dale B. Harris later revised and extended the test and it is now known as the

Goodenough–Harris Drawing Test. Harris (Standardization, Scoring System, Draw

man, woman, Self)

Harris later revised the Draw-A-Man by expanding Goodenough’s scoring system and

enlarging the standardization sample for the test, and he suggested that children should be

asked to draw not only a man, but also a woman and a picture of themselves.

- Naglieri (1988)- Goodenough- Harris Method: 6 to 17 years

- DAP: SPED: 55 characteristics

Administration:

- Phase 1: Draw a person

- Phase 2: Draw the opposite sex

- Phase 3: Inquiry

Steps:

1. The participant is given a blank sheet of paper/ sheet vertically.

2. The participant is provided with a pencil that has an eraser on the top.

3. Another sheet is provided

4. The participant is asked first to draw an entire person, without specification of details

of age, sex, clothing, and so forth.

5. And then ask the participant to draw another person, without any specification other

than that it must be of the opposite sex from the first.

6. The examiner will then ask questions (Enquiry).

- the age of the figure drawn

- Describe the figure

- Figures likes and dislikes

7. The examiner, relying on clinical experience, then interprets the drawings and any

verbalizations the participant made while creating them in order to formulate a

description of the participant’s personality and identify signs of pathology.

8. Various features of the drawings that are assessed include sequence of sex (whether a

male or female is drawn first), the order in which body parts are drawn, distortions,

omissions, size, and clothing, as well as more structural elements, such as direction of

pencil strokes, shadings, and erasures.

Scoring: Multiple scoring and interpretation

Machover (Qualitative)

- Machover used a qualitative approach in her interpretation considering individual

drawing characteristics.

Quantitative

- Others have suggested a more quantitative approach that can be more widely used

analyzing selected characteristics that are in an index of deeper meanings.

- Psychologists started considering the test measures of differences in Personality as well

as Intelligence

- Elizabeth Koppitz gave the most popular quantitative approach. She developed a

measure of assessment that has a list of emotional indicators including the size of

figures, omission of body parts and some additional “special features”. The total

number of the indicators are simply added up to provide a number that represents

the likeness of the disturbance.

- Scores : 0 & 1

- Emotional Indicators (Quantitative; 30 drawing characteristics: age 5-12)

- Tharinger & Stark: Integrated System: 1 (absence of psychopathology) to 5 (severe

psychopathology)

Interpretation:

- It has been praised by clinicians because of the array of information it provides about the

covert behavior of the individual, and damned by many researchers because of the

untestability of many of its assumptions.

 - Accurate interpretation of the Machover material requires an integration of many

different theories from drive psychology, ego psychology, object relation theory and

other theories that relate to the self's development.

IQ Assessment

Seguin Form Board Test (SFBT)

● Edward Seguin (1856)

● Seguin Form Board Test (SFB) is one of the popular tests of intelligence for children.

SFB is one of the most popular tests among psychologists, due to the Flynn effect.

● Flynn Effect refers to the finding that the average human IQ has increased over time.

Substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test

scores

● Indian Adaptation:

- Bharat Raj, S.K. Goel (1970): 3 to 15 yrs

- Nair Hospital in 1990 extended the age norms: 3 to 20 yrs

● Age: in children as young as 3 years

● The form board consists of 10 differently shaped wooden blocks, and the participants

are required to fit the differently shaped blocks into their respective slots on the form

board. This culture-fair test, which can be easily administered in 10 min, is used for

preliminary assessment of mental age in a normal population.

● Simple performance-based intelligence test using form boards to evaluate eye–hand

coordination, shape concept, visual perception, and cognitive ability through nonverbal
 means. It is used to assess the participants’ motor dexterity, visuomotor coordination,

spatial organization, and speed and accuracy of performance

● The test is based on the single factor theory of intelligence measures , speed and

accuracy.

● Crude/Screwed IQ - not actual IQ

● It is useful in evaluating a child's eye-hand coordination, shape-concept, visual

perception and cognitive ability. The test primarily used to assess visuo-motor skills.

○ Mental dexterity (think quickly and adapt to new situations)

○ Speed-Accuracy Trade off

Disorders:

The test elicits interest in children, is easy to score and can be administered to even shy, speech

impaired, autistic spectrum and/or attention deficit and hyperactive children.

- Autism

- ADHD

- Cerebral Palsy

Administration:

● The task administration involved three consecutive trials with an instruction to start

placement of blocks at the command “Start.” Speed is stressed at the start of the test, with

no further between cues or assistance being provided to the child. The best time from

three trials was used to determine a mental age from the standard chart, which was

subsequently used in determination of the intelligence quotient.

Steps:

1. Keep the box closed, unless client opens

 2. There are 3 part series

3. The participant has to use only one hand (dominant)

4. Note the time

- Usually 56 seconds for the first trial

● Shortest 3 trials method

● Total of 3 trials method

● Invalid: Shapes unfit, loose fitting, use of non- dominant hand

Scoring:

- There are two methods:

1. Shortest trial method (STM)

2. Total time method (TTM)

TTM is greater than STM. STM has lower IQ

- Standardize the age > Convert to months for scoring.

- Bharat Raj developed Indian norms for test in Mental Age

IQ= MA/CA*100
 Wechsler Intelligence Scales (Adult and Child)

Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale For Children (WISC)

● David Weschler

● Definition of intelligence, "... the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to

think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.”

● Indian Adaptation: Malin’s Intelligence Scale for Indian Children (MISIC), Arthur

Malin (1949) (Age: 6 -15 years and 11 months)

● Age Range: 6 – 16.11 years

● In 1949, Wechsler developed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) so

that children from the age of 5 years 0 months could be assessed

● The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) is an individually administered

IQ test used with children aged from 6 to 16.

● Younger children are tested using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of

Intelligence (WPPSI). Older children and adults are tested using the Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

● There are 15 subtests on the WISC-IV but they may not all be used.

● In addition to subtest scores a combined composite score is reported (the IQ).

Composite scores relating to specific cognitive areas may also be reported (index

scores can be produced in the areas of Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning,

Working Memory and Processing Speed.)

● Part of the WISC test protocol is to see how children will do when presented with

questions of a type they haven't seen before.

 ● If your child is tested they will be given clear instructions and the testing will not proceed

unless the tester believes that they understand what they are required to do.

Scales:

- 10 Primary Scales

- 6 Secondary Subtests

Primary Index Scales (10)

1. Verbal Compression Index (VCI)

- Similarities

- Similarities measure logical thinking, verbal concept formation and

verbal abstract reasoning.

- Two similar but different objects or concepts are presented, and the

student is asked to tell how they are alike or different.

- Similarities is an untimed core Verbal Comprehension sub-test.

Examples:

- How are whales and lions similar?

- How are anger and delight similar?

- How are boys and girls similar?

- Vocabulary

- Vocabulary measures the students’ verbal fluency and concept

formation, word knowledge, and word usage.

- Vocabulary is an untimed core Verbal subtest

Example:

- Children are shown pictures or a word is said aloud. They are asked to

provide the name of the object or to define the word.

- What is this?

- What does simple mean?

The Vocabulary subtest includes the following abilities or traits:

Language development, Word knowledge, General verbal intelligence, Language

usage and accumulated verbal learning ability, Educational background and

Range of ideas, experiences, or interests that a subject has acquired.

- Comprehension

- Comprehension measures common-sense social knowledge, practical

judgment in social situations, and level of social maturation, along with

the extent of development of their moral conscience.

- Children are asked to explain situations, actions, or activities that they'd be

expected to be familiar with.

- Comprehension is a core Verbal Comprehension subtest.

- Example: Why do we turn out lights when we leave a room?

- Information
 - Information measures general cultural knowledge, long-term memory, and

acquired facts.

- Children are asked questions about different topics like geography, science

and historical figures. The questions shouldn't be difficult for a child with

a well rounded education but they do encompass a wide range of

knowledge.

- Information is a supplemental Verbal Comprehension subtest.

Example:

- Who was Queen Elizabeth I

- What do your lungs do?

- What is photosynthesis?

- Word Reasoning

- Word Reasoning measures verbal abstract reasoning requiring analogical

and categorical thinking, as well as verbal concept formation and

expression.

- Word Reasoning is a supplemental Verbal Comprehension subtest.

- Children are asked to identify the object described by clues they're given.

- Example: An item of clothing which you sleep in.

2. Visual Spatial Index (VSI)

- Block Design

- Block Design measures an individual’s ability to analyze and synthesize

an abstract design and reproduce that design from colored plastic blocks.
 - Spatial visualization and analysis, simultaneous processing, visual-motor

coordination, dexterity, and nonverbal concept formation are involved.

- The students use logic and reasoning to successfully complete the items.

- Block Design subtest is a timed core Perceptual Reasoning subtest.

- Children are given bi-colored blocks and must arrange them to duplicate

a printed image or modeled design.

- Visual Puzzles

3. Fluid Reasoning Index (FRI)

- Matrix Reasoning

- Matrix Reasoning measures visual processing and abstract, spatial

perception and may be influenced by concentration, attention, and

persistence.

- Matrix Reasoning is an untimed core Perceptual Reasoning subtest.

- Children are shown colored matrices or visual patterns with something

missing. The child is asked to select the missing piece from a range of

options.

- Figure weights

- Picture concepts

- Picture Concepts measures categorical, abstract reasoning.

- Students are asked to look at two (or three) rows of pictured objects and

indicate (by pointing) the single picture from each row that shares a

characteristic in common with the single picture(s) from the other row(s).

- Picture Concepts is an untimed core Perceptual Reasoning Subtest.

 - Example:

- Pick one picture from each

- row that go together

- Arithmetic

- Arithmetic measures numerical accuracy, reasoning and mental arithmetic

ability. Mental arithmetic and story problems play an important part in the

student’s success.

- Arithmetic is a supplemental Working Memory subtest.

Example:

- How many carrots are there in this picture?

- Michelle is 2 years younger than Peter and 5 years older than Sam. If Sam

is 6 how old is Michelle?

- Kathy's lunch bill was $22.50. If she leaves a 15% tip how much money

does she need to leave?

Working Memory Index (WMI)

- Digit Span

- Digit Span measures short-term auditory memory and attention.

- The digits have no logical relationship to each other and are presented in

random order by the examiner. The student must then recite the digits

correctly by recalling them in the same order.

- On the second part of this subtest the student must remember the order in

which digits are presented, but recite them in reverse order.

- Digit Span is an untimed core Working Memory subtest.

 Examples:

- For Digit Span forward tester would read numbers like "2, 3, 9, 1"

- and child would respond with the same numbers

- For Digit Span backward the tester would read numbers like "24, 3, 7, 12"

- and child would respond "12, 7, 3, 24"

- Picture Span

- A new Working Memory subtest that measures visual working memory.

The child views a stimulus page of one or more pictures for a specified

time and then selects the picture(s) (in sequential order, if possible) from

options on a response page.

- Letter-Number Sequencing

- Letter-Number Sequencing measures attention span, short-term auditory

recall, processing speed and sequencing abilities.

- The task involves listening to and remembering a string of digits and

letters read aloud at a speed of one per second, then recalling the

information by repeating the numbers in chronological order, followed by

the letters in alphabetical order.

- Letter- Number Sequencing is an untimed core Working Memory subtest.

- Example: A - 7 - X - 2 - M - 4

- Response: 2, 4, 7, A, M, X

4. Processing Speed Index (PSI)

● Coding :
 ○ Coding measures visual-motor dexterity, associative nonverbal learning,

and nonverbal short-term memory. Fine-motor dexterity, speed, accuracy

and ability to manipulate a pencil contribute to task success; perceptual

organization is also important.

○ Coding is a timed core Processing Speed subtest.

○ For children aged 6-7 the test is picture based. Children are given a

worksheet like the example below. The first line contains the key. They

must place a mark within all the other figures so that they match the key.

○ For children aged 8-16 the key consists of boxes containing a numeral

in the top line and a symbol in the bottom line. They must write the

symbol corresponding to each numeral in the worksheet provided.

● Symbol Search

○ Symbol Search requires the student to determine whether a target

symbol appears among the symbols shown in a search group. Memory

is not a primary requirement for success on this task; perception and

recognition are the two prime requirements, in addition to speed, accuracy,

attention, and concentration. The symbols are geometric forms, rather than

familiar letters or numbers.

○ Symbol Search is a timed core Processing Speed subtest

Uses:

The WISC is used not only as an intelligence test, but as a clinical tool. Some practitioners use

the WISC as part of an assessment to diagnose attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) and learning disabilities, for example. This is usually done through a process called

pattern analysis, in which the various subtests' scores are compared to one another (ipsative

scoring) and clusters of unusually low scores in relation to the others are searched for.

Scoring:
● Full Scale of Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) = sum of 7 primary subtests

○ Similarities

○ Vocabulary

○ Block Design

○ Matrix Reasoning

○ Figure weights

○ Digit Span

○ Coding

● General Ability Test (GAI) : Processing Speed Index (PSI) + Working Memory

Index (WMI)

○ Coding

○ Symbol Search

○ Digit Span

○ Picture Span

○ Letter-Number Sequencing

● Learning Disability can be detected if there high discrepancy between FSIQ & GAI

Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

● Indian Adaptation: Wechsler Adult Performance Intelligence Scale (WAPIS; Prabha

Ramalingaswami, 1974); 15-44 years: 5 subtests (Picture Completion, Digit Symbol,

Picture Arrangement, Object Assembly, Block Design)

● Age Range: 16 - 90 years

● 10 Core Subtests

● 5 Supplemental Subtests
Index Scales

1. Verbal Compression Index (VCI)

Similarities, Vocabulary, Information, Comprehension

2. Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)

Block Design, Visual Puzzles, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Completion, Figure

Weights

3. Working Memory Index (WMI)

Digit Span, Arithmetic, Letter-Number Sequencing

4. Processing Speed Index (PSI)

Coding, Symbol Search, Cancellation

Cancellation

● Cancellation measures visual vigilance/neglect, selective attention, and speed in

processing visual information in accordance with previous attempts along the

same line.

● Cancellation is a timed supplemental Processing Speed subtest

● Children scan a two-page spread of relatively small colorful pictures. The pictures

include animals and objects and the child's task is to identify all the appearances

of the target animal. The illustration below shows a similar type of exercises

where the child's role is to identify target letters amongst the clutter

Scoring:

● Full Scale of Intelligence (FSIQ)= 10 subtests Verbal Compression Index (VCI) +

Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) + Working Memory Index (WMI) + Processing Speed

Index (PSI)
 ● General Ability Index (GAI) = Verbal Compression Index (VCI) + Perceptual

Reasoning Index (PRI)

Binet Kamat Test

● Binet Kamat Test of Intelligence (BKT) is one of the widely used tests in India

since several decades, especially in clinical settings.

● Age: 3 to 22 years.

● Compared to other popular and comprehensive IQ tests, such as Wechsler’s tests, BKT is

simple to administer, score and interpret; economical in terms of cost; and still a valid

measure of intelligence despite the test being standardized several decades ago.

● These are the few of the reasons due to which many clinical psychologists use BKT in

their routine institutional-hospital setting. However, using BKT without

understanding some of the key issues can result in arriving at an erroneous IQ and/or

wrong conclusion about the intelligence of the subject. Some of the issues and concerns

that are relevant and need consideration in using BKT are: ratio IQ, Flynn effect, higher

standard deviation, profile analysis and so on (Roopesh, 2020).

Administration and Scoring

● The basal age must be approximated from the client’s chronological age. The

testing starts by administering the items of a particular year, less than the client’s

chronological age.

● The basal age is determined until the client passes all the items for the year. The test is

continued until the client fails all the items in a particular age and that age becomes the

terminal age.
● Basal age is the basic functioning level of the child. It is the age where the child is able

to pass all the items successfully.

● Terminal age is the age at which the client fails in all the items.

● Credit score is the score given when the client has passed in some items and failed in

some other items in a given age level. The test has a partial crediting system. From 3 to

10 years each item passed, get a credit of 2 months. A credit of 4 months is given for

each item passed from ages 12-16 years and for ages 19 and 22 each item passed

gets a credit of 6 months. All the partial credits (months) obtained up to the terminal

age are added to the basal age. This gives the M.A of the client (Roopesh, 2020).

● To calculate the IQ, IQ = (MA / CA) X 100

● Indian Adaptation: Kannada, Marathi, English Hindi (V.S. Kulashreshta, 1971) Age

Range: 3 - 22 years (Elder population with age correction)

● Age levels:

○ 3-10 (0/2)

○ 12 (0/4)

○ 14 (0/4)

○ 16 (0/4)

○ 19 (0/6)

○ 22 (0/6)

● 90 items (78 main, 21 alternate for sensorymotor disabilities)

● 6 subtests per age IQ Assessment

● 9 components (Language, Meaningful & Nonmeaningful memory, Conceptual reasoning,

verbal & non-verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, visuo-motor abilities, social

intelligence)

● Application: The BKT is one of the widely used tests of intelligence in clinical and

educational set up. It is used for assessment of mentally challenged, learning

disabled children with speech and language problems, slow learners etc. It can

also be used to assess intellectual level and functioning in different areas like

language, reasoning, memory, social competence etc in the clinical setting. And in

educational setting, BKT is used to assess general intellectual level of students to

compare it with their academic performance and achievements. Based on the

functioning level of students, educational training of students with learning

disabilities can be undertaken. The test has also been widely applied in educational

and psychological researches (Roopesh, 2020)

Bhatia Battery of Intelligence Test.

Cultural Free Tests

Raven’s Progressive Matrices RPM

● John Raven (1936)

● Culture-free measure; reduce culture bias

● Uses:

- Hearing & Speech impaired;

- identify cognitive strengths & weakness in neurological condition

 - Non-verbal estimate of fluid intelligence

● Increasing order of difficulty

● Speed-accuracy trade-off

STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (SPM)

The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) is a group or individually administered test that

nonverbally assesses intelligence in children and adults through abstract reasoning tasks. It is

sometimes called Raven's, although the SPM is only one of three tests that together comprise

Raven's Progressive Matrices. Appropriate for ages 8-65, the SPM consists of 60 problems (five

sets of 12), all of which involve completing a pattern or figure with a part missing by choosing

the correct missing piece from among six alternatives. Patterns are arranged in order of

increasing difficulty. The test is untimed but generally takes 15-45 minutes and results in a

raw score which is then converted to a percentile ranking. The test can be given to hearing

and speech-impaired children, as well as non-English speakers. The Standard Progressive

Matrices is usually used as part of a battery of diagnostic tests, often with the Mill Hill

Vocabulary Scales. The SPM is part of a series of three tests (Raven's Progressive Matrices) for

persons of varying ages and/or abilities, all consisting of the same kind of nonverbal

reasoning problems. The SPM is considered an "average"-level test for the general population.

● Age 8-65 yrs

● 60 problems (5 sets of 12)

● 6/8 alternate pcs

COLORED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (CPM)

The Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM), which includes the two easiest sets from the SPM

and a dozen other questions of similar difficulty, is designed for five- to 11-year-olds, persons

with mental or physical handicaps, and non-English speakers. The Raven’s CPM is

internationally recognised as a culture-fair or culture-reduced test of non-verbal

intelligence for young children (Raven et al., 1990). This easily administered, multiple-choice,

pencil and paper test has no time limit, and comprises three sets of twelve matrix designs

(3x12) arranged to “assess mental development up to a stage when a person is sufficiently able to

reason by analogy to adopt this way of thinking as a consistent method of inference” (Raven et

al., 1993). In this version of the Raven’s Progressive Matrices however, each item is printed

with a brightly coloured background, making the test more appealing for children. The

testee is shown a series of patterns with parts missing. The parts removed are of simple shape

and have been placed below the matrix, among other similarly shaped pieces (although the

figures on those pieces do not complete the pattern) (Martin & Wiechers, 1954). The problems

are easy to begin with, but grow more difficult as the 25 test proceeds “because the figures in

the patterns to be completed remain simple but the relations between the figures become

increasingly complex” (Martin and Wiechers, 1954). The testee can either point to the pattern

piece s/he has selected or write its corresponding number on the record form (Lezak, 1995). The

total score is the total number of matrices completed correctly, and the test is thus scored out of

36.

● Age 5-11 years; elderly; learning issues

● 36 items (Set A, AB, B); 12 items each: untimed

ADVANCED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (APM)

The Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) is generally for ages 11 to adult or, specifically, for

gifted students. It consists of a practice and screening test (Set I) and a 36-problem series for

use with persons of above-average intellectual ability. The advanced form of the matrix contains

more items (48), presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items are presented

in black on a white background similar to the standard version, and also becomes

increasingly difficult throughout the test. These items are suitable for adults and adolescents

of above-average intelligence. You can take a free logical reasoning test to get a taste of what

such a test is about.

● 48 items

● Set 1 (12 items): untimed

● Set 2 (36 items): timed (30/40 mins) /untimed

● Age 11 & above

● High IQ

● 8 alternate pcs

Scoring: Set Scores > Total Score > Discrepancy Score (Obtained score – Minus Expected

Scores) > Standard Scores & Percentile > Grade (1 to 5)

Cognitive Functions- PGI Memory Scale, Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-IV- India),

Bender Gestalt Test.

Post Graduate Institute Of Memory Scale (PGI)

- Dr. Dwarka Pershad & Dr. Santosh Verma (1990)

 - Memory: Temporal lobe: Ability to retain and reproduce impressions once perceived

intentionally

- Right temporal - nonverbal information , left temporal- information

● Rationale: Quantify cognitive dysfunction/impairment/deficit/decline in

alcohol/substance use, h/o epilepsy, long-history of psychosis, head injury, mania

● Age Range: 20 to 50 years

● Uses: Plan rehabilitation strategy, help judiciary for compensation

● Administration time: 20 mins

10 subtests

1. Remote Memory: how are you?, birthday, wedding anniversary, who is your younger sibling

2. Recent Memory: what did you eat dinner, breakfast

3. Mental Balance: recite from a-z, count backwards 20, 3’s from 40

4. Attention-Concentration: the numbers in serial

5. Delayed Recall: words will be read out, after a min they have to recall

6. Immediate Recall: immediately repeating- sentences

7. Retention of Similar Pairs: a pair of words will be told, they have to identify pairs

8. Retention of Dissimilar Pairs

9. Visual Retention: see shapes and draw whatever they remember

10. Recognition: see images and point out whatever they remember
Measures:

● Verbal & non-verbal memories (Neurological theories)

● Very STM, STM, LTM (Experimental Evidences)

● Recent, remote, immediate memories (Clinical Practice)

Scoring: RS > converted Scores (based on the grade of the client) > Dysfunction Rating

Grade Norms (education levels):

● 0-5

● 6-9

● 10 & above

Converted Score Interpretation:

● 0-2 (3 Dysfunction rating)

● 3-4 (2 Dysfunction rating)

● 5+ (0 Dysfunction rating)

BENDER-GESTALT TEST (BGT)

- The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (1938), usually referred to as the Bender Gestalt or

simply the Bender

- Developed by Lauretta Bender in 1938

- Uses: used as a screening device for neuropsychological impairment by assessing a

client's visuoconstructive abilities.

- The Bender Gestalt is limited to relatively severe forms of brain damage, especially in

the right parietal region of the right hemisphere.

 - Severe forms of brain damage - Right Parietal Lobe; MR, LD, ADHD, ASD,

Alzheimer’s, Schizophrenia

- Drawing features: figure size, placement, line quality, order and organization of the

designs, distortions, erasures, reworking, omissions

- The original version consisted of nine designs that were sequentially presented to

subjects with the request that they reproduce them on a blank paper.

- The subject's designs were then rated on their relative degree of accuracy and overall

integration.

- Its popularity can be partially accounted, it is brief, economical, flexible, nonthreatening,

nonverbal, and extensively researched

BG-I

- 9 designs

- Copy Phase: timed, show

- 1 design at a time, not allowed to rotate, left side, graphite pencil, 1 sheet

- Recall Phase: timed, immediate: STM, delayed: LTM

Bender-Gestalt-II (BG-II)

- Developed by Gary Brannigan & Scott Decker (2003)

- 4 years to 85+

- by adding the floor (4) & ceiling (3) items

- 16 designs

- Copy + Recall

- Motor Test (trace): 4 mins

- Perception Test (match): 4 mins

- Bender-Gestalt-II was developed by Gary Brannigan and Scott Decker in 2003.

- The ratings were then totaled to form an overall or global rating of all of the designs

which focused on types and numbers of specific errors. The 2003 revision retained all of

the original designs.

- However, four easier items were added to create a lower "floor” and three more

difficult items were added to create a higher "ceiling.”

- These additions enabled the test to be normed on and used with young children down to

the age of 4 and adults up to the age of 85+.

- Norms for the Bender–2 were based on a large, nationally representative sample that

closely paralleled the U.S. census (200; based on age, sex, race/ethnicity/geographic

region, and socio-economic level).

- In addition, data were gathered from a sample of persons with mental retardation,

learning disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), serious emotional

disturbance, autism, Alzheimer’s disease, and giftedness.

- The Bender–2 in part addresses this issue with its use of a global scoring system based

on ratings of the overall quality of each of the designs rather than noting various

types of specific errors. However, these global ratings are also based on various errors

that might be present in the designs.

- The original Bender (BG-I) was not only used to screen for neuropsychological

impairment, but many systems for interpreting Bender performance were developed to

represent personality characteristics. Bender has generally been found to be valid in

predicting the absence or presence of psychopathology based on clusters of indicator s,

but it has not been as successful for specific, single indicators. With the possible
 exception of impulsivity and anxiety, the Bender I is generally ineffective in identifying

specific personality characteristics or specific psychiatric diagnoses.

Administration

BG-I

- Administration of Bender-Gestalt I occurs in two phases.

1. Copy phase

2. Recall Phase

- When administering the Bender Gestalt, the examiner presents the cards directly in front

of the client one at a time.

Copy Phase:

- Clients are requested to draw the designs presented to them one at a time (the "copy"

phase) with a number 2 pencil on a single, blank, 8.5-by-11-inch sheet of white paper

that has been presented to the client in a vertical position.

- A sharpened backup pencil should be available in case a client breaks the graphite on the

pencil. Pencils should include erasers at the top.

- The following verbal directions are taken from Hutt and are recommended as a standard

procedure: “I am going to show you these cards, one at a time. Each card has a simple

drawing on it. I would like you to copy the drawing on the paper, as well as you can.

Work in any way that is best for you. This is not a test of artistic ability, but try to copy

the drawings as accurately as you possibly can. Work as fast or as slowly as you wish.”

- After the person has completed it, the next one should be presented until the entire nine

designs have been reproduced. No comments or additional instructions are to be given

while clients are completing the drawings.

 - If clients ask specific questions, they should be given a noncommittal answer such as "Do

the best you can' or "Begin wherever you like. It’s up to you.”

- Timing should begin immediately following the presentation of the first design.

- This sequence should be continued and the total time noted after the last drawing has

been completed.

- Although examinees are allowed to pick up the cards, they are not allowed to turn them

unless they are in the process of completing their drawing.

- If it looks as if they have turned the design and are beginning to copy it in the new

position, the examiner should straighten the card and state that it should be copied from

this angle. As many sheets of paper may be used as desired, although clients are

presented with only one sheet initially.

- There is no time limit, but it is important to note the length of time required to complete

the test, as this information may be diagnostically significant. An observation form is

included that enables examiners to note physical and test-taking observations for each of

the designs as well as record the scores.

Recall phase

- The next, "recall" phase begins when the examiner removes the designs and the paper

with the reproductions on them and gives clients a new blank sheet of paper, are asked to

reproduce as many designs as possible from memory.

- Recall phase is also timed. Begin timing as soon as clients begin their first drawing and

stop when they have indicated that they cannot recall any more of the designs (after

approximately 2 minutes).
 - This variation provides an assessment of their level of short-term, visual-motor recall.

In addition to the standard procedure for using the Bender Gestalt, a memory task is often

diagnostically useful.

- Typically, adult brain-injured subjects are not able to recall the designs as well as

persons who are non-brain-injured.

Scores:

● Each design scored based on manual criteria. Design A (Configuration Score) not

considered in Total score. TS converted to z score.

● Scoring for both the copy and recall phases require examiners to rate each of the

designs drawn on a scale between 0 and 4 where:

● 0= No resemblance

● 1=Slight-vague resemblance

● 2=Some-moderate resemblance

● 3=Strong-close resemblance, accurate reproduction

● 4=nearly perfect (Brannigan & Decker, 2003)

- The scores are totaled with higher scores indicating better performance.

- Scores for examinees below age 8 can range between 0 to a maximum of 52. In contrast,

scores for examinees above the age of 8 can range from 0 to a maximum of 48.

- The raw scores are then converted to standard scores (M 100, SD 15) using age-

referenced tables in the manual.

- For BG-Il practitioners do not have to use separate scoring systems for children and

adults.
 - The Global Scoring on the Bender–2 allows for raw scores to be converted into

standard scores ranging between 40 and 160.

- The Motor Test is scored a:

- 1 if the line touches both of the medium-size dots at either end of the design and

does not cross any of the borders. The line can touch the border of the design but

cannot go over it.

- In contrast, a 0 is scored if the line extends outside the box or if it does not touch

both of the medium-size dots (which represent the end points).

- A total of 12 points is possible.

- The Perception Test is scored a

- 1 for a correct response and a 0 for an incorrect response.

- Thus a total of 10 points is possible.

- A table at the back of the Observation Form converts both the Motor Test and

Perception Test to percentile rankings.

- It is strongly suggested that examiners transform the completion times for the copy and

recall phases into standard (z) scores and percentile ranks.

Scoring Systems

- A wide number of scoring systems for adults and children have been developed for the

Bender Gestalt, each having various advantages and disadvantages.

Prominent Scoring Systems

1. Pascal & Suttell: Quantitative

2. Max Hutt: Qualitative (Adults)

3. Koppitz: 12 emotional indicators for children

Adults Scoring:

- One of the earliest and most widely accepted scoring systems for adults was developed

by Pascal and Suttell. It has not gained wide acceptance in clinical settings, primarily

because of its complexity and time inefficiency. (Quantitative)

- Another early adult system was developed by Max Hutt in the 1940s and later formally

published in 1960. He also listed “12 essential discriminators of intracranial damage”

(Fragmentation, Closure Difficulty, etc). Lacks (1984) adapted this system and provided

a detailed scoring manual along with substantial empirical support. It is

straightforward and time efficient, typically taking three minutes or less to score.

The system is limited to persons 12 years of age or older. (Qualitative- Adults)

Children’s scoring

- A system for children was developed by Koppitz. Koppitz has listed emotional

indicators that have been found to be good predictors of the general presence of

psychopathology when three or more are present. Koppitz: 12 emotional indicators for

children

- Koppitz’s approach provides general interpretative guidelines based on indicators for

developmental maturation, organicity, visual-motor perception difficulties, and

emotional indicators but places these in the context of what would be expected for a

particular individual having a specified chronological age.

1. Confused order

2. Large size

3. Box around design

4. Expansion
 5. Fine line

6. Careless overwork (or heavily reinforced lines)

7. Second attempts (without correcting the original)

8. Small size

9. Wavy line

10. Dashes for circles

11. Increased size

12. Elaboration

Interpretation

- In order to perform well on the Bender, clients must have adequate fine motor

coordination and the ability to make accurate perceptual discriminations. In contrast,

errors may reflect poor fine motor coordination, difficulties actually perceiving the

design, problems executing the drawing itself, or difficulties integrating the perception

and motor requirements.

- Difficulties with poor performance may be the result of delays in visuo-motor abilities,

brain dysfunction, emotional disturbance, or a combination of all of these factors.

- The Global Scoring on the Bender-Gestalt II allows for raw scores to be converted

into standard scores ranging between 40 and 160.

- Brannigan and Decker (2003) provide these classifications for Bender-Gestalt II

standard scores:

- Extremely high or extremely advanced= 145-160

- Very high or advanced=130-144

- High or advanced=120-129
- High average=110-119

- Average=90-109

- Low average=80-89

- Low or borderline delayed=70-79

- Very low or mildly delayed=55-69

- Extremely low or moderately delayed=40-54

 WECHSLER MEMORY SCALE (WMS)

● David Wechsler (1945)

● Wechsler Memory Scale-I was officially introduced to the profession in 1945, it has been

in clinical use since 1940

● The Wechsler Memory Scale has been officially revised three times

● WMS-IV-Adult Battery

● Uses: Alzheimer’s, ADHD, LD, ASD, MR, Schizophrenia, TBI, Depression, Mild

Cognitive Impairment, Alzheimer's

● Age Range: 16 – 90.11 years

● The WMS-I and II were standardized on very small, unrepresentative samples (about 200

and 87 adults, respectively).

● In addition, the norms for those aged 20–24 and 51–64 were extrapolated. Individuals

from ages 20–64 could be assessed.

● Based on the theory that memory and learning are closely linked.

● Learning – process of acquiring new information

● Memory – the persistence of learning in a state that can be revealed at a later time

Memory is the indicator that learning has occurred

● WMS-IV measures the ability to learn and remember information that is presented

verbally and visually.

● The WMS assesses three factors:

(1) the learning and immediate recall of verbal and visual material,

(2) attention and concentration, and 16 History of the Origins and Evolution of WMSs

(3) long-term autobiographical memory and orientation with regard to time and place.
 ● Although the WMS does not assess delayed recall, it does include limited measures of

long-term episodic and semantic memory

● Administration: Approx 3 hrs

● Optional Brief Cognitive Status Exam (Orientation, Time Estimation, Mental Control,

Clock Drawing, Incidental Recall, Inhibition, and Verbal Production)

● The WMS-I and II have the same seven subtests, although the content of each subtest

varies between versions. Each version is scored in the same manner.

● Like the two prior revisions of the WMS, the WMS-IV was designed to assess delayed

recall.

● Although the standardization of the WMS-IV appears quite good, one oddity deserves to

be mentioned. The publisher reports that the normative sample was stratified according to

five educational levels: 0–8 years of education (never attended high school); 9–11 years

(attended but did not graduate from high school); 12 years (high school graduate or

equivalent); 13–15 years (some college); and 16 or more years (college degree or further

education). The publisher also notes that for 16- to 19-year-olds, information on parent

education was obtained using a question on the consent form that asked the parent or

examinee to specify the highest grade completed by each parent living in the home, and

for examinees residing with both parents, the average of the two History of the Origins

and Evolution of WMSs 45 education levels was used. It is not clear why the average of

the examinee’s parental education was used, and not the amount of education completed

by 16- to 19-year-olds.

Process of Learning and Remembering

 ● ENCODING: External information is transformed into mental representations or

memories.

● CONSOLIDATION: Biological process that solidifies information from immediate

memory into long-term memory.

● RETRIEVAL: Bringing stored information into conscious awareness, or remembering.

Development of Test

● Revision of the WMS-III

● Added items include a brief evaluation of cognitive status

● Revised to include two batteries:

○ An adult battery (ages 16-69)

○ Older Adult battery (ages 65-90)

■ Shorter

■ Developed to decrease testing time, reduce examinee fatigue, and improve

the psychometric functioning of the subtests in older adults

■ No manipulatives are required for the older battery, thus increasing kit

portability

■ Examinees ages 65-69 may be administered either battery

○ Found that memory performance declined during long testing sessions – WMS-IV

reduced test time

○ Wanted to make sure that the WAIS-IV and WMS-IV didn’t test memory in the

same way – removed

○ Digit Span and Letter-Number Sequencing Subtests

○ WMS-IV : Focuses on components of visual working memory

 ○ WAIS-IV : focuses on auditory working memory

○ Included a Brief Cognitive Status Exam, designed to identify significant cognitive

difficulties that may indicate dementia or other cognitive impairment.

○ Conducted three pilots and a tryout phase before Standardization

6 Subtests

1. Logical Memory (1 & 2)

2. Verbal Paired Associates (1 & 2)

3. Design Memory (1 & 2)

4. Visual Reproduction (1 & 2)

5. Spatial Addition (16-69 yrs)

6. Symbol Span

Index Scales

1. Auditory Memory Index (AMI): consists of four subtests and is a measure of the

immediate and delayed recall of verbally presented material consisting of paragraphs and

easy and hard associates.

2. Visual Memory Index (VMI): consists of four subtests and is a measure of the immediate

recall and delayed recall and recognition of visually presented information.

3. Visual Working Memory Index (VWMI): consists of two new subtests (Spatial Span and

Symbol Span) and assesses visual working memory.

4. Immediate Memory Index (IMI): composed of four subtests, two of which measure the

immediate recall of verbally presented material and two of which measure the immediate

recall of visually presented material.

 5. Delayed Memory Index (DMI): also composed of four subtests. One assesses the

delayed recall of two verbally presented paragraphs of meaningful material. The second

assesses the delayed recall of easy and hard associates. The third assesses the delayed

recall and recognition of visual details and visuospatial locations of geometric designs.

The fourth assesses the delayed recall and recognition of simple geometric designs, visual

memory, and motor functioning.

● Also included is a Brief Cognitive Status Exam

Scores
 - After the test battery is administered, a raw score is derived based on the seven subtests.

- A correction for age is then added to the raw score to derive a corrected score.

- The corrected score is used to derive a Mental Quotient, which History of the Origins

and Evolution of WMSs 13 corresponds to the FSIQ (Full Scale IQ) from the WBIS.

- A WMS MQ that is significantly lower than the WBIS IQ reportedly suggests a

memory disturbance.

- Just how large the IQ-MQ difference had to be to be clinically significant was never

specified in the manual for either test, but presumably was at least equal to or greater than

one standard deviation. Milner (1975 ), Prigatano (1974 ), and Quadfasel and Pruyser

(1955 ) have suggested that IQ scores 10–12 points greater than MQs suggest memory

deficits.

RS > Scaled score > Sum of Scaled Scores > Percentile Rank > Qualitative Description

Scores:

1. Primary Subtest Scaled Scores

2. Index Scores

3. Process Scores (Visual & Auditory)

4. Contrast Scaled Scores (Examinee’s performance relative to their performance on other

measures)