C hapter II LOADS ON BRIDGES

Dead loads: Live loads truck loadings, lane loadings, extra-legal

loads; wind loads; thermal, centrifugal, traction loads; seismic loads;
flood loads

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you will be able to:
1. describe bridge mechanics.
2. classify the various design loads in the design of bridges.
3. solve for the value of the different component of bridge loads

Introduction

Bridge structures are designed to accommodate a variety of loads. The safety

of bridge construction during use is determined by these loads and their
combinations.

Bridge design requires careful consideration of the design loads. Bridge

structures must be designed to resist various kinds of loads: vertical as well as
lateral. Generally, the major components of loads acting on bridges are dead and
live loads, environmental loads (temperature, wind, and earthquake), and other
loads, such as those arising from braking of vehicles and collision. Vertical loads
are caused by the deadweight of the bridge itself and the live load, whereas the
lateral loads are caused by environmental phenomena such as wind and
earthquakes.
Bridge structures serve a unique purpose of carrying traffic over a given
span. Thus, they are subjected to loads which are not stationary.
Bridge Mechanics

Bridge mechanics describes how forces operate on a structure, and how the
structure responds to those loads. The figure that follows is a schematic of a typical
bridge. It is a single span, simply supported bridge, as shown by the bearing
symbols, with one fixed end (the triangle) and the other end free to roll or slide (the
circle).

Numerous bridge structures exist, with various spans and configurations, for
illustrative purposes, this basic model suffice the diagram demonstrates the idea of
load path, or the path forces take when they transfer a truck's weight to the ground
below it. A single truck's weight is first applied to the deck, which is the upper
surface, and then transferred to the superstructure components that hold the deck

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up. The loads are carried by the main longitudinal structural components to the ends
of the bridge, where they are supported by bearings and rest on the abutments.

The weight of the cars and the bridge is distributed to the earth beneath the
abutment footing by the abutments. If a bridge is constructed on end-bearing piles,
the footing carries the loads further into the ground, where they are supported by
rock or another dense material. Otherwise, a spread footing spreads the load
straight to the earth.

Source: [Link]
source/maintenance/str/bi/reference-manual/[Link]?

Bridge engineers must consider a wide variety of loads which vary based on:
1- Duration (permanent or temporary)
2- Direction (vertical, longitudinal, etc.)
3- Deformation (concrete creep, thermal expansion, etc.)
4- Effect (shear, bending, torsion, etc.)
Bridges are always subjected to different types of loads, which can be divided
into three main categories: vertical loads, transversal loads, and longitudinal loads.
For the first category, representative loads include dead loads, live loads, and
impact.

The second category is described by loads such as earthquakes, wind,

centrifugal force, and lateral shock. Longitudinal loads are often described by loads
like friction, wind, thermal, earthquakes, and braking. In general, the principal
loading which highway bridges are designed by is shown in the following diagram.

Figure 1. Loads on Bridges

Loads on Bridges

Vertical Transversal Longitudinal

Dead Load Wind Wind

Live Loads Eadrthquake Earthquake
Impact Loads Lateral Shock Braking
Centrifugal Thermal
Friction
 Source: [Link]

Types of Loads for Design of Bridge Structures

Various design loads to be considered in the design of bridges are:

Load Type Definition Example

Dead Loads Permanent loads due to the Bridge deck, beams,

weight of the bridge structure columns, and abutments.
and fixed elements.

Live Loads Temporary loads from moving Trucks, cars, pedestrians,

vehicles, pedestrians, and and bicycles.
other dynamic forces.

Environmental Loads Forces due to environmental - Snow Loads: Weight of

conditions. accumulated snow on the
bridge.

- Wind Loads: Forces due

to wind acting on the
bridge.

- Seismic Loads:
Earthquake-induced
forces.

- Thermal Loads:
Expansion and
contraction due to
temperature changes.

Impact Loads Dynamic effects caused by Heavy trucks suddenly

sudden braking, acceleration, stopping on the bridge.
or other live load actions.

DEAD LOAD
This includes the deck slab, primary members (beams or girders), secondary
members (including all bracing, connection plates, etc.), stiffeners, Diaphragms, floor
beam, cross frame.

Superimposed dead loads are those loads placed on the superstructure after
the deck has cured and began to work with the primary members in resisting loads.
This include surfacing (asphalt pavement), sidewalks (foot path), median, guard
rails, handrail, lighting poles, signing, water lines, cables, pipes and other utilities.

Steel grid (open or filled) or wood; while the girders may be of different

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properties reinforced, pre-stressed concrete, steel or wood. However, the dead load
of components can be determined from their section properties depending on the
unit weight of their materials (AASHTO LRFD 2017).
Table 1. Unit Weights of Materials (AASHTO
LRFD)

The unit weight of

reinforcement amount is
generally taken as
0.005kcf plus the unit
weight of plain concrete
which generally equals
0.145 kcf. So, in absence
of more precise
information, take the unit
weight of reinforced
concrete (𝛾𝑐)= 0.150 kcf.

DEAD LOAD ON DECK

SLAB

The deck slab must support its own dead weight plus the live load. The dead
weight of deck slab depends on its thickness which is related to the span length in
the slab bridges type. In beam type, slab-girder bridge the deck slab thickness
depends on the girder spacing.

The deck slab includes integral wearing surface which is nonstructural layer
with typical thickness of 0.5 in. Thus, the total or overall thickness of the deck slab
which should be used for dead load calculations is greater than its structural
thickness, while the strength calculations are related to the structural thickness.

DEAD LOAD on GIRDERS

A bridge girder must support its own weight as well as the dead weight of the
tributary area of the deck slab it supports. Also, the girder must support the dead
weight of some essential items that might not be obvious to the junior engineers. A
typically designed girder should support, in minimum, deadload from the following
items:

 Tributary area of the deck slab including the wearing surface

 Future wearing surface layer
 Girder own weight including the haunch
 Traffic barriers including parapets and railing
 Permanent or stay in place (SIP) deck forms to support concrete
slab during construction
 Diaphragms and applicable cross frames
 Intermediate and bearing stiffeners if built-up steel girders are used.
 Construction loads.

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DEAD LOADS ON BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE
Dead loads on highway bridge superstructure include:
 Weight of all structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)
 Weight of all wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
Calculations of these loads are related to the weights of deck slab and its
supporting girders (if present). The deck may be reinforced concrete, steel

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

PROBLEM No. 1
A 75 ft simple span beam bridge with a concrete deck slab and four supporting steel
girders spaced at 10 ft on centers has the cross section shown below. The deck is
8½ in. thick cast from 4.5 ksi concrete and contains ½ in. thick integral wearing
surface. The steel girders are made of Gr. 50 [𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 50 ksi and 𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = 60 ksi] steel
built to act compositely with deck using 4 in. long and ¾ in. diameter headed shear
studs welded to the girder. Calculate the unfactored gravity loads act on an interior
girder. Assume the following dead weights: 25 lb/ft2 of deck due to future wearing
surface; 200 lb/ft of girder length due to SIP forms, cross frames and detailing; and 353 lb/ft
due to traffic barrier.

SOLUTION:
COMPONENTS OF DEAD LOADS:
Deck slab

𝑾𝒅 = 𝒉𝒅. 𝒃𝒇. 𝜸𝒄

𝑏𝑓 = 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒

= 10 𝑓𝑡
𝑾𝒅 = ( 8 . 5 / 1 2 ) (1 0 ) 0 .1 5 ) = 1 .0 6 3 ki p / ft
Haunch

𝑾𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉. 𝒃𝒉. 𝜸𝒄

𝒉𝒉 = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓

𝑾𝒉 = (1.25/12)(12/12)(0.15) = 0.16 kip/ft

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 Steel girder:
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔. 𝛾𝑠

𝐴𝑔 = 𝐴𝑓,𝑡𝑜𝑝. 𝐴𝑤. 𝐴𝑓,𝑏𝑜𝑡 = 0.75(12) + 0.4375(36) + 0.875(16)

= 38.75 𝑖𝑛2
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔. 𝛾𝑠

= (38.75/144)(0.49) = 0.177 kip/ft

Traffic Barriers
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎. 𝑁𝑏𝑎/𝑁𝑔

𝑊𝑏𝑎 = 0.353 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡

𝑊𝑝 = 0.353(2)/4 = 0.177 kip/ft
PROBLEM No.2
Compute the superimposed dead load for the bridge cross-section shown below. The
design has a beam spacing of 8.0 ft and deck thickness of 8 in are used. A half-inch
wearing surface is assumed for the deck. An average haunch depth of 2 in is specified.
The haunch is a small layer of concrete between the stringer and concrete slab. The
span is simply supported (i.e., not continuous), so it may be analyzed as a simple
beam.

GIVEN:
Span length of 45 ft (center to center of bearings).
Average haunch depth of 2 in.
Unshored construction. Span is simply supported.
Account for 25 psf future wearing surface.
Designed for HS-20 live load.
Overpass is a major highway with AADT of 3,000

SOLUTION:
a. Effective Flange Width,
The effective flange width is defined as, the minimum of the following:

¼ (Span Length) = (0.25) (45) = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕

Center-to-center between stringers = 𝟖 𝒇𝒕

12 (Min. slab thickness) = (12) (7.5 in) (1ft/12in) = 7.50 𝑓𝑡

𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 7.5 𝑓𝑡
Dead Load on Stringer,

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2

𝑫𝑳𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒃 = 𝒃(𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒃 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔)(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆)

𝟏𝒇𝒕 𝒌
= (𝟖 𝒇𝒕)(𝟖 𝒊𝒏) (𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟑 )
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

𝑫𝑳𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 = 𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 + 𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒄. 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍

𝒌 𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌
= (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕) + (𝟓%) ( 𝒇𝒕 )
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

𝑫𝑳𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒉 = 𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 (𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔)(𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆)

= (𝟏 𝒇𝒕)(𝟐 𝒊𝒏)(𝟏𝒇𝒕/𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒌/〖𝒇𝒕〗^𝟑 )
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒌/𝒇𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒌/𝒇𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒌/𝒇𝒕

= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟑 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

b. Superimposed Dead Load on Stringer

Account for future wearing surface:

(𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒘𝒂𝒚)(𝒇𝒖𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆)

𝑺𝑫𝑳𝒘𝒔 =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝒌
𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝒕 (𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝟐 )
𝒇𝒕
= 𝟔 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑺𝑫𝑳𝒘𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟑 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

Weight of parapet by computing the area of its cross section,

𝑨𝟏 = (𝟕 𝒊𝒏)( 𝟐𝟏 𝒊𝒏) = 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝒊𝒏𝟐

𝟏
𝑨𝟐 = ( ) (𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏)( 𝟐𝟏 𝒊𝒏) = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟐
𝟐

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 𝑨𝟑 = (𝟗. 𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏)( 𝟏𝟎 𝒊𝒏) = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 𝒊𝒏𝟐
𝟏
𝑨𝟒 = ( ) (𝟔 𝒊𝒏)(𝟏𝟎 𝒊𝒏) = 𝟑𝟎 𝒊𝒏𝟐
𝟐
𝑨𝟓 = (𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏)( 𝟑 𝒊𝒏) = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝒊𝒏𝟐

𝑨𝑷 = 𝟑𝟑𝟖. 𝟖𝟖 𝒊𝒏𝟐

𝑾𝑷 = (𝟑𝟑𝟖. 𝟖𝟖 𝒊𝒏𝟐 )(𝟏𝒇𝒕𝟐 /𝒊𝒏𝟐 )(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒌/𝒇𝒕𝟑 )

= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 𝒌/𝒇𝒕
Since, there are two parapets on the bridge which are distributed over
all six stringers:
𝒘𝑷
𝑺𝑫𝑳𝑷 = 𝟐 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒔 ( )
𝑵𝒐. 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔
= 𝟐 ((𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 𝒌/𝒇𝒕)/(𝟔 𝒕𝒔𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔))
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝒌/𝒇𝒕

𝑺𝑫𝑳 = 𝑺𝑫𝑳𝒘𝒔 + 𝑺𝑫𝑳𝑷

𝟎.𝟏𝟖𝟑𝒌 𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟖𝒌
= 𝒇𝒕 + 𝒇𝒕

𝑺𝑫𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟏 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

PROBLEM No. 3
A 75 ft simple span beam bridge of concrete deck slab and four supporting steel
girders spaced at 10 ft on centers has the cross section shown below. The deck is 8½
in. thick cast from 4.5 ksi concrete and contains ½ in. thick integral wearing surface.
The steel girders are made of Gr. 50 [𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 50 ksi and 𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = 60 ksi] steel built to
act compositely with deck using 4 in. long and ¾ in. diameter headed shear studs
welded to the girder. Calculate the unfactored gravity loads acting on an interior girder.
Assume the following dead weights: 25 lb/ft 2 of deck due to future wearing surface;
200 lb/ft of girder length due to SIP forms, cross frames and detailing; and 353 lb/ft
due to traffic barrier.

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SOLUTION: 34
COMPONENTS OF DEAD LOADS
 Deck slab
𝑾𝒅 = 𝒉𝒅 . 𝒃𝒇 . 𝜸𝒄

𝒃𝒇 = 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒃 = 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒊𝒓𝒅𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝒕

𝟖. 𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝑾𝒅 = ( ) (𝟏𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟑
𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕

 Haunch
𝑾𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉 . 𝒃𝒉 . 𝜸𝒄
𝒉𝒉 = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏.
𝟏.𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝑾𝒉 = ( 𝟏𝟐 ) (𝟏𝟐) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒇𝒕
 Steel girder:
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔 . 𝛾𝑠
𝐴𝑔 = 𝐴𝑓,𝑡𝑜𝑝 . 𝐴𝑤 . 𝐴𝑓,𝑏𝑜𝑡
= 0.75(12) + 0.4375(36) + 0.875(16)
= 38.75 𝑖𝑛2
38.75 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑔 = ( ) (0.49) = 0.132
144 𝑓𝑡
 Traffic barriers
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎 . 𝑁𝑏𝑎 /𝑁𝑔
𝑊𝑏𝑎 = 0.353 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡
0.353(2) 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑝 = = 0.177
4 𝑓𝑡
 Estimated dead weight of stay-in-place forms, stiffeners, cross frames, and
detailing: 𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 0.200 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡
 Future wearing surface
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 𝑞𝑤𝑠 . 𝑏𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑞𝑤𝑠 = 0.025 2
𝑓𝑡
𝑏𝑤𝑠 = 𝑏𝑓 = 10 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 0.025(10) = 0.25
𝑓𝑡
Total dead weight due to DC and DW
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝑑 + 𝑊ℎ + 𝑊𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝 + 𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 1.063 + 0.016 + 0.132 + 0.177 + 0.200 = 1.588
𝑓𝑡

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𝑊𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
= 0.25
𝑓𝑡

Dead Load shears in girders:

𝑳 𝟏.𝟓𝟖𝟖(𝟕𝟓)
𝑽𝑫𝑪 = 𝑾𝑫𝑪 . 𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝟐

𝑳 𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟎(𝟕𝟓)
𝑽𝑫𝑾 = 𝑾𝑫𝑾 . = = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝟐 𝟐

Dead load moments in girders:

𝑳𝟐 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝟖(𝟕𝟓)𝟐
𝑴𝑫𝑪 = 𝑾𝑫𝑪 . = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟔𝟑 𝒌𝒊𝒑 − 𝒇𝒕
𝟖 𝟖

𝑳𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟎(𝟕𝟓)𝟐
𝑴𝑫𝑾 = 𝑾𝑫𝑾 . = = 𝟏𝟕𝟓. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝒊𝒑 − 𝒇𝒕
𝟖 𝟖
PROBLEM No. 4
Cross section of a highway bridge shown above, with a single span of 85 ft. It consists
of an 8½ in. thick reinforced concrete deck (including ½ in. thick integral wearing
surface) cast from 4500 psi concrete. The deck is supported on and acts compositely
with AASHTO–PCI Type IV precast, prestressed concrete girders having a
compressive strength of6000 psi, which spaced at 7 ft 8 in. on centers. The cross-
sectional area of each girder is 789in2. The parapets weigh 353 lb per linear ft. Assume
the dead load due to future wearing surface (FWS) as 35 lb/ft2. Calculate the gravity
loads for design of an interior girder of the bridge.

SOLUTION:
COMPONENTS OF DEAD LOADS
 Deck slab
𝑊𝑑 = ℎ𝑑 . 𝑏𝑓 . 𝛾𝑐

𝒃𝒇 = 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒃 = 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒊𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒔 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟕 𝒇𝒕

35
 8.5 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑑 = ( ) (7.67)(0.15) = 0.815
12 𝑓𝑡
 Concrete girder:
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔 . 𝛾𝑐
𝐴𝑔 = 789 𝑖𝑛2
789 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑔 = ( ) (0.15) = 0.822
144 𝑓𝑡
 Traffic barriers 36
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎 . 𝑁𝑏𝑎 /𝑁𝑔
𝑊𝑏𝑎 = 0.353 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡 2
0.353(2) 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑝 = = 0.177
4 𝑓𝑡
 Future wearing surface
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 𝑞𝑤𝑠 . 𝑏𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑞𝑤𝑠 = 0.035 2
𝑓𝑡
𝑏𝑤𝑠 = 𝑏𝑓 = 7.67 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 0.035(7.67) = 0.268
𝑓𝑡
Total dead weight due to DC and DW
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝑑 + 𝑊𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 0.815 + 0.822 + 0.177 = 1.814
𝑓𝑡
𝑊𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
= 0.268
𝑓𝑡

Dead Load shears in girders:

𝑳 𝟏.𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟒(𝟕𝟓)
𝑽𝑫𝑪 = 𝑾𝑫𝑪 . 𝟐 = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝟐

𝑳 𝟎.𝟐𝟔𝟖(𝟕𝟓)
𝑽𝑫𝑾 = 𝑾𝑫𝑾 . 𝟐 = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝟐

Dead load moments in girders:

𝑳𝟐 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟒(𝟖𝟓)𝟐
𝑴𝑫𝑪 = 𝑾𝑫𝑪 . = = 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟐𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝒊𝒑 − 𝒇𝒕
𝟖 𝟖

𝑳𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟖(𝟖𝟓)𝟐
𝑴𝑫𝑾 = 𝑾𝑫𝑾 . = = 𝟐𝟒𝟐. 𝟎𝟑𝟖 𝒌𝒊𝒑 − 𝒇𝒕
𝟖 𝟖
PROBLEM No. 5
A simple span non-composite steel girder bridge with a span of 40 ft is shown. The
overall width of the bridge is 33ft, 4 in. the clear (roadway) width is 28ft, 0 in. The
roadway is a concrete slab 7 in thick supported by four W33X130 A36 steel girders
that are spaced at 8ft, 4 in apart. The compression flange is continuously supported
by the concrete slab, and additional bracing is provided at the ends at span. Non
composite construction is assumed, Dead load per longitudinal construction is
assumed, Dead load per longitudinal girder (stringer) is 1.304 kips/ft for slab, stringer,

curbs, railings, and beam details. Determine maximum live load, dead load, and
maximum shear. Use AASHTO HS 25 loading.
SOLUTION:

The reaction at A is
(𝟖.𝟑𝟒 𝐟𝐭+𝟐𝟐.𝟑𝟑 𝐟𝐭)(𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬) (𝟖.𝟑𝟒 𝐟𝐭+𝟐𝟐.𝟑𝟑 𝐟𝐭)(𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)
+ = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟓 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬
𝟒𝟎 𝐟𝐭 𝟒𝟎 𝐟𝐭

The live load moment is

𝑴𝑳 = (𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟔 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)(𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟕 𝐟𝐭) − (𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)(𝟏𝟒 𝐟𝐭)

= 𝟓𝟔𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬

From the table of maximum moments in AASHTO App. A, the moment for HS
25 loading is: (𝟒𝟒𝟗. 𝟖 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)(𝟏. 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟓𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬

37
AASHTO: The live loading is not reduced because the bridge is loaded with two lanes
only.

The live load distribution factor is :

𝑺 𝑺
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 (= 𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞)
𝟓. 𝟓 𝟏𝟏
𝟖.𝟑𝟑 𝐟𝐭
= = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟓 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
𝟓.𝟓

.𝑺 = 𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐧 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐭 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝟐 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬

(Note that wheel line = wheels corresponding to one-half width of truck longitudinally
or one-half of lane)

The live load impact is:

𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝑰= = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝟑𝟎% 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐝]
𝑳 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟎 𝐟𝐭 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓

The maximum design live load moment per stringer is

𝑴𝑳+𝑰 = 𝑴𝑳

× (𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐛𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫)

× (𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫)

𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟓
= (𝟓𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬) ( )
𝟐 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬

× (𝟏. 𝟑𝟎)

= 𝟓𝟓𝟑. 𝟔𝟖 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬

𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬 𝟐
𝐖𝐃 𝐋𝟐 (𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 𝐟𝐭 ) (𝟒𝟎 𝐟𝐭)
𝐌𝐃 = =
𝟖 𝟖
= 𝟐𝟎𝟔. 𝟖 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬

The maximum dead load shear at span ends is:

𝐖𝐃 𝐋 (𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 𝐟𝐭 − 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)(𝟒𝟎 𝐟𝐭)

𝐕𝐃 = = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟕 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬
𝟐 𝟐

38
The reaction at A is:

(𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)(𝟏𝟐 𝐟𝐭) + (𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬)(𝟐𝟔 𝐟𝐭)

𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬 + = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬
𝟒𝟎 𝐟𝐭
𝟏.𝟓𝟏𝟓
𝐕𝐋+𝐈 = (𝟔𝟗. 𝟎 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬) (𝟐 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬) (𝟏. 𝟑𝟎) = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟗 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬

From the influence line analysis, the maximum live shear at midspan occurs with a
40 kips load at midspan.
The reaction at A is

(𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔)(𝟔 𝒇𝒕) + 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 + (𝟐𝟎 𝒇𝒕 + 𝟑𝟒 𝒇𝒕)

𝟒𝟎 𝒇𝒕

= 𝟓𝟓. 𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔

𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟓
𝐕𝐋+𝐈 = (−𝟐𝟒. 𝟓 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬) ( ) (𝟏. 𝟑𝟎)
𝟐 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬

= −𝟐𝟒. 𝟏 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬

39
 ACTIVITY
PROBLEM SOLVING. Solve the following problem and write your answer in the
space provided:
1. An interior prestressed concrete girder (or beams) for two-lane simply
supported highway bridge with an 80ft span is to be designed. The five
girders are spaced at 7ft 6 in. Design load is AASHTO HS 20-44.
Determine the maximum dead load shear.
 Superimposed dead load (parapet/curb/future wearing surface) is
427 lb/ft.
 The slab has an integral wearing surface of 050 in.
PROBLEM No. 2

Given the following conditions, determine the wearing surface dead load of the
continuous beam bridge

 Two spans, continuous structure with ADTT = 500

 Both spans are 100ft in length.
 8.5’’ slab with 0.5’’ integral wearing surface, and 1.5’’ average haunch.
 Composite sections.
 15 psf stay-in-place form, and 25 psf future wearing surface.
 50 ksi steel and 4.5 ksi concrete.
PROBLEM No. 3
Determine the dead load moments of the interior stringer simple span with 70-ft
length, if:

 Hs20-44 live loading.

 Barrier area = 2.6 [Link].
 Compressive Strength = 5 000 psi.
 Steel Strength = 270 000 psi
 Deck and girder made of same strength concrete.
LIVE LOADS

Truck Loadings, Lane Loadings, and Extra-Legal Loads

A load that moves along the length of a span. For instance, when a person is
walking or a truck that is passing by the bridge. However, because of the development
and civilization faced by communities, bridge or structural engineers should possess
the quality of being futuristic. They should not only design based on the current
situation that the bridge will face, but they should also be able to detect the potential
situations that the bridge will encounter in the future. In that way, they will be ensured
that the bridge will stand for hundreds or even thousands of years.

For live loads on bridges as specified in the AASHTO (American Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials) Standard Specifications, the live loads
discussed and referred through that book applies to short-span bridges, not to long-
span bridges: “Primarily, the specifications set forth the minimum requirements which
are consistent with the current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary
to suit local conditions. They ordinarily apply to ordinary highway bridges, and
supplemental specifications may be required for unusual types and for bridges longer
than 500 feet.” Also, Modern highway traffic has evolved over a period of several
hundred years. Today's vehicular traffic, which consists of various types of vehicles,
from motorcycles and small compact cars to multi-axle vehicles carrying wide loads,
has come a long way from the old days of horse-and-buggy and oxcart traffic.
Consequently, the per- wheel load of vehicles has increased from a few hundred
pounds to several thousand pounds, and the types of vehicles vary from simple two-
axle vehicles to multi-axle trucks with trailers, tractor/semitrailer combinations, and
longer combinations.

From a historical perspective, the genesis of highway design live loads goes
back to the mid-nineteenth century. The first live-load procedure for highway bridges
was proposed and used by Squire Whipple in 1846. In his Essay No. 2, he regarded
it "proper to consider the whole area of the roadway covered with men, which is about
100 lb to the square foot, as the greatest load to which the bridge can be exposed,"
and this standard continued to be in use for many years.

However, after many bridge failures, the American Society of Civil Engineers
created a committee to determine "the most practical means of averting bridge
accidents." This committee, in its March 3, 1875, report, made recommendations for
both the railroad and highway bridge loadings. It divided highway bridges into three
categories [Edwards, 1959]:

A. City and suburban bridges and those over large rivers, where great
concentration of weight is possible.
B. Highway bridges in manufacturing districts or on level, well-ballasted roads.
C. County road bridges, where roads are unballasted and the loads hauled are
consequently light.
Highway loadings are rather complex. At any given time, a bridge deck may be
loaded randomly with a multitude of vehicles.

The effect of live load on a bridge is a function of several parameters, such as

the gross vehicle weight, axle loads, axle configuration, span length, position
(longitudinal and transverse) and number of the vehicles (multi presence) on the
bridge, speed of the vehicles, stiffness characteristics of the bridge superstructure,
and bridge configuration (straight, skewed, or horizontally curved).

Truck Load

Truck loads are hypothetical design loading used to simulate a single truck on
a bridge. It is the weight that the truck carries while on the bridge. In 1935, what was
then called AASHO issued a loading scheme based on a train of trucks. These are
identified as H-20-35 and H-15-35.

Since the demand for heavier trucks is rapidly increasing, the introduction of
five new truck classes was made in 1944 to satisfy these demands. To meet the
demands of heavier trucks, the introduction of five new truck classes was made in
1944.

These classes have the following designations and gross vehicle weights:

❏ H10-44 (20,000 lb - 89 KN)

❏ H15-44 (30,000 lb - 133 KN)

❏ H20-44 (40,000 lb - 178 KN)

❏ HS15-44 (54,000 lb - 240 KN)

❏ HS20-44 (72,000 lb - 320 KN)

 Today, all but the H10-44 vehicles are still included in the AASHTO standard
specifications. To load a structure one such truck per lane, per span is used. The truck
is then moved along the length of the span to determine the point of maximum
moment. Recently, to account for higher loading conditions, some states have begun
using the so-called HS-25 design vehicle, which represents a 25 percent increase in
loading over the standard HS20-44 truck for a total gross vehicle weight of 90,000 lb
(400 KN).
As shown in the figure that follow, it can be observed that the HS trucks have
a variable spacing between the two rear axles. This distance between axles, varying
from 14 to 30 ft (4.27 to 9.14 m), is used to create a live loading situation which will
induce maximum moment in a span. For simply supported bridges, this value will be
the 14 ft minimum. In continuous spans, however, the distance between axles is varied
to position the axles at adjacent supports in such a fashion as to create the maximum
negative moment.

Figure 2. AASHTO Standard H & HS Design Trucks.

(Adapted from Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges)

In designing, it is important to stress that the H and HS trucks are not

representation of an actual truck be used to transport goods and materials. They are
approximations designed to simulate the greatest bending and shear forces caused
by actual trucks. It is assumed that any legal actual vehicle crossing the bridge will not
produce stresses exceeding those caused by the hypothetical design vehicle.
LANE LOAD

Lane load is a hypothetical design loading used to simulate a train of trucks

moving across a bridge. The design was developed to better model loading on long
spans, where a string of light vehicle might be critical. It approximates a 20 - ton truck
followed by a 15-ton truck.

The assumption of uniformly distributed lane loading obviates the necessity of

having more than one design truck in a lane. Regardless of the span length and
number of spans, resulting in a simple design procedure for long span bridges is
applied.

Figure 3: AASHTO Standard H & HS Lane Loading.

(Adapted from Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges)

Lane loading has two classes of loadings, and in each class two different
loadings are provided. These loadings are designated in the same manner as the truck
loadings (namely, H15-44, HS15-44, H20-44, HS20-44). Basically, the lane load
consists of a uniform load accompanied by a concentrated load. The value of the
concentrated load is different for shear than for moment.
 As the truck loadings, the loads for H15 lane loading, including the concentrated
loads, are only three-fourths as heavy as those for the HS20 lane loading. Both the
concentrated and the uniform load specified for lane loading are assumed to be
distributed over a 10-ft width normal to the centerline of the lane. Different
concentrated loads are to be used for calculating forces in the supporting members.
The lighter concentrated loads are to be used for calculating bending moment; the
heavier concentrated load is used for calculating shear.

EXTRA LEGAL LOAD

Extra Legal Load refers to a load that exceeds the standard legal load limits set
by transportation authorities. It is typically requiring special permits and are subject to
specific regulations to ensure the safety and integrity of the bridge structure. Also, it
includes oversized or overweight vehicles that surpass the maximum allowable weight
or dimensions for standard road use.

 The conditions that will be considered to permit loadings on highways which

are heavier and wider than the typical AASHTO loadings. The following
provisions will be identified as extra-legal loadings:
 The legal load of a given jurisdiction is significantly greater than the AASHTO
design loads.
 The roadway is expected to carry unusually high percentages of truck traffic.
 Due to unusual circumstances, many trucks can collect on certain areas of the
bridge.
 Special industrial loadings are common due to the location of the bridge.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM NO. 1
Determine the maximum moment and shear due to HS20 loading in a T-beam of a
two-lane T-beam having a simple span of 100 ft. The T-beams are spaced at 7.5 ft on
center. According to AASHTO, the following are the specifications of HS20 truck:
Spacing between two rear axles :14ft – 30ft
Weight of the Front Axle: 8kips
Weight of the middle Axle: 32 kips
Weight of the Rear Axle: 32 kips
Load Lane Width: 10 ft
Concentrated Load for Moment: 18 kips
Concentrated Load for Shear: 26 kips
Uniform Load per linear Foot: 0.64 k/ft
Given:

Length of span = 100 ft

Spacing = 7.5 ft.
Required:

48
5
 Maximum moment and shear due to HS20 loading.

Solution:

𝒂. 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Summation of forces,
(𝟖 + 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟑𝟐)(𝒙) = (𝟑𝟐)(𝟏𝟒) − (𝟖)(𝟏𝟒)
𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟕 𝒇𝒕
𝒂𝒃
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 @𝑰𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝑳
(𝟓𝟐. 𝟑𝟑)(𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝟕)
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟒𝟔

𝑩𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆
𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟕𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟐

𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (𝟖)(𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟐) + 𝟑𝟐(𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟒𝟔 + 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟕𝟐)

= 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟒
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟒𝒌. 𝒇𝒕
Since the attained maximum moment was only based on the position of the axels, and
neither implies the lateral distribution load of other wheel loads on the span nor the
effect of impact. The Design of Live-Load shall be obtained.
Distribution Factor,
𝐒 𝟕. 𝟓
𝐃𝐅 = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝟔 𝟔
Impact Factor,
𝟓𝟎
𝑰=
𝑳 + 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟓𝟎
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟏𝟐𝟓

𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐

49
Design Live-Load Moment for T-beam,
𝟏
𝑴𝑳+𝑰 = 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆 − 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ( ) (𝑫𝑭)(𝟏 + 𝑰)
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟒 ( ) (𝟏. 𝟐𝟓)(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐)
𝟐

𝑴𝑳+𝑰 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟗𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟒𝒇𝒕.

b. Maximum Shear

Since the problem is described as a two-lane bridge, it falls under the category “c”,
which is the provision to be followed for transverse position of two AASHTO trucks for
maximum value of beam reaction. In addition, the truck was positioned on the point
where one wheel load is positioned directly over a beam, thus identified under the
category “ii”.
This concludes applying the formula:

𝟏𝟎
𝑹 = 𝑷 (𝟑 − )
𝒔
For HS20 and H20 trucks, the live load “P” must be
16 kips. Whereas 20 kips shall be used for H25 and
HS24 loading.
𝟏𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌 (𝟑 − )
𝟕. 𝟓
𝑹 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 (𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥)

𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆 = 𝟏𝟔𝑫𝑭 = (𝟏𝟔)(𝟏. 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 (load for middle wheel)

𝑷𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕 = 𝟒𝑫𝑭 = (𝟏𝟔)(𝟏. 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟔 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 (load for front wheel)

∑ 𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎
 𝟓(𝟕𝟐) + (𝟐𝟎)(𝟖𝟔) + (𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟕)(𝟏𝟎𝟎) = 𝑹(𝟏𝟎𝟎)

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔

Loads of the support,

𝑽𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐(𝟓) + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔(𝟐𝟎)

= 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
Total Shear Live-Load,

𝑽𝑳 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟕(𝟏) + 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖

= 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌

Design Live-Load Shear at the Support,

𝑽𝑳+𝑰 = 𝑽𝑳 (𝟏 + 𝑰)

= 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝟔(𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐)

𝑽𝑳+𝑰 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟎𝟏 𝒌
PROBLEM NO. 2
Steel beams are used to support the deck of a bridge with simple span of 25m. The
live load on each beam are as follows: Front Wheel = 35.6 kN, Rear Wheel = 142.4
kN, Wheelbase = 4.3 m

Given:
Front Wheel = 35.6 kN
Rear Wheel = 142.4 kN
Wheelbase = 4.3 m

Required:
a. Determine the maximum support reaction
b. Determine the maximum moment
c. Determine the maximum shear at midspan

Solution:

Total Load:

𝑷 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑵 + 𝟑𝟓. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑵

a. Maximum support reaction,

51
 𝑷𝑳 − 𝑷𝒔 𝒅
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑹𝒃 =
𝑳
(𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑵)(𝟐𝟓 𝒎) − (𝟑𝟓. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵)(𝟒. 𝟑 𝒎)
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝟓
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑵
b. Maximum moment,

(𝑷𝑳−𝑷 𝒅)𝟐
𝒔
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑳
[(𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑵)(𝟐𝟓 𝒎) − (𝟑𝟓. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵)(𝟒. 𝟑 𝒎)]𝟐
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
(𝟒)(𝟏𝟕𝟖)(𝟐𝟓)

𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟕. 𝟑 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

c. Maximum shear at midspan,

𝑢2 0.5
=
8.2 12.5
𝑢2 = 0.328

𝑽𝒄𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑷𝒃 𝒖𝟏 + 𝑷𝒔 𝒖𝟐
𝑽𝒄𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟓) + 𝟑𝟓. 𝟔(𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟖)
𝑽𝒄𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑵

PROBLEM NO. 3

Three equal wheel loads 9f 30 kN each, separated by 2 m. between each load, roll as
a unit across a 12 m. span. Determine the following:
a. Which of the following gives a maximum moment.
b. Which of the following gives the location of the middle 30 kN to obtain the
maximum moment?
c. Which of the following gives the maximum shear?
Solution:

a. Maximum Moment,
2𝑅 = 90
𝑅 = 45
𝑀 = 𝑅 (6) − 30(2)
𝑀 = 45(6) − 30(2)
𝑀 = 210 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚

b. The location of 30kN is at the midspan.

c. Maximum Shear,

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝟏𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎(𝟏𝟐) + 𝟑𝟎(𝟏𝟎) + 𝟑𝟎(𝟖)
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵
PROBLEM NO. 4
A truck with axle loads of 40kN and 60kN on a wheelbase of 5m. rolls across a
10 m span. Find the following:
a. maximum bending moment.
b. maximum shearing force.
c. location of the 40 kN from the left support when the maximum moment
occurs.
Solution:

a. Maximum bending moment,

𝟒𝟎(𝟓) + 𝟔𝟎(𝟔) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙
𝒙 = 𝟐𝒎

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0

𝟏𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟒)
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵

𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝑹𝟐 (𝟒)
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟒𝟎(𝟒)
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

b. Position for max. shear

∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0
10𝑅2 = 60(10) + 40(5)
𝑅2 = 80 𝑘𝑁 (𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)

c. Distance pf 40kN from the left support

Distance from left support = 1m.

PROBLEM NO. 5
Given the following condition: a truck is moving along a 20 m span of the beam, the
front axle is 8 kN, the middle is 16 kN and the rear is 16 kN. The middle load is spaced
3m from the front and 6m from the rear. Solve the following.
a. the maximum moment produced by the load
b. the position of the 8kN from the center of the span to obtain maximum moment
in the beam.
c. the maximum shear.
Solution:

a. Maximum Moment,
First possible position:
 40𝑥 = 9(9) + 16(6) + 16(0)
𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝒎

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
20𝑅1 = 40(9.1)
𝑅1 = 18.2 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 𝑅1 (9.1) − 8(3)
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 18.2(9.1) − 8(3)
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 141.62 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚

Second possible position:

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎(𝟕. 𝟗)
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵

𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖(𝟕. 𝟗)

𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟐 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

b. Location of 8 kN from the center of the beam for max. moment = 3.9m
c. Maximum Shear,

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔(𝟐𝟎) + 𝟏𝟔(𝟒) + 𝟖(𝟏𝟏)
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵 (𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓)

LIVE LOAD: LANE LOADING

PROBLEM 1
Determine the absolute maximum moment in the simply supported bridge deck shown
in the figure

Solution:
The magnitude and position of the resultant force of the system are determined first

+↓ 𝐹𝑅 = ∑F; 𝐹𝑅 = 2 + 1.5 + 1 = 4.5𝑘

↻ +𝑴𝑹𝑪 = 𝟒. 𝟓(𝒙) = 𝟐(𝟎) + 𝟏. 𝟓(𝟏𝟎) + 𝟏(𝟏𝟓)

𝑥 = 6.67𝑓𝑡

Let us first assume that the absolute maximum moment occurs under the 1.5-k load

↺ +𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎;

−𝑨𝒚 (𝟑𝟎) + 𝟒. 𝟓(𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕) = 𝟎

𝑨𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟎𝒌

Now using the left section of the beam,

↺ +𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎;

−𝟐. 𝟓(𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕) + 𝟐(𝟏𝟎) + 𝑴𝑺 = 𝟎

𝑴𝑺 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕 𝒌 ∙ 𝒇𝒕

PROBLEM 2

A truck with axle loads of 40 kN and 60 kN on a wheel base of 5 m rolls across a 10-
m span. Compute the maximum bending moment and the maximum shearing force.

Solution:

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵

𝒙𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎(𝟓)
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒙= = = 𝟐𝒎
𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝟎
For Maximum Moment under 40 kN wheel:
 ∑ 𝑴𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟎𝑹𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎)

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝑵

𝑴𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝑹𝟏

𝑴𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟓(𝟑𝟓)

𝑴𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵 . 𝒎

For Maximum Moment under 60 kN:

∑ 𝑴𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎)

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵

𝑴𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵 = 𝟒𝑹𝟐

𝑴𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵 = 𝟒(𝟒𝟎)

𝑴𝑻𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵 . 𝒎

𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵 . 𝒎

The Maximum Shear will occur when the 60

kN is over a support:
∑ 𝑴𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎 ;

𝟏𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟖)

𝑹𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

PROBLEM 3

A tractor weighing 14kN with a wheel base of 3m carries an 8kN load on its rear wheel.
Compute the maximum bending moment when crossing a 6m span.
 8kN
6kN

6m

Solution:

Determine magnitude and location of the resultant force.

∑𝑭𝑹 = 𝟎
𝑭𝑹 = 𝟖 + 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟒𝒌𝑵

𝑭𝑹 (𝒙) = ∑𝑭(𝒙)
𝟏𝟒(𝒙) = 𝟖(𝟎) + 𝟔(𝟑)
𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗

Case 1: @ 8kN

Assume that the maximum bending moment is at 8kN.

+↺ ∑𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟒(𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟓) − 𝑨𝒚(𝟔) = 𝟎

𝑨𝒚 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒌𝑵

Using the left side section of the beam,

+↺ 𝑴𝑺 = 𝟎

𝑴𝑺 − 𝟓. 𝟒𝟗𝟓(𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟓) = 𝟎

𝑴𝑺 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝟏 𝒌𝑵 · 𝒎

Case 1: @ 6kN

Assume that the maximum bending moment is at 6kN.

+↺ ∑𝑴𝑨 = 𝟎

𝟏𝟒(𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟓) − 𝑩𝒚(𝟔) = 𝟎

𝑨𝒚 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝑵

Using the left side section of the beam,

+↺ 𝑴𝑺 = 𝟎
 𝑴𝑺 − 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟓(𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟓) = 𝟎

𝑴𝑺 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟒 𝒌𝑵 · 𝒎

Since 12.941 kN·m ˃10.74 kN·m, therefore the absolute bending moment occurs at
8kN.

WIND LOAD

Wind loads are a major component of lateral loads that act on a structure. These
loads often called environmental loads affect all structures. Wind loads are produced
by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitude of wind loads that may act on
a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its
surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself.
Bridges are frequently built on exposed sites and are subjected to severe wind
conditions. Wind load on bridge superstructures depends on the type of bridge, e.g.,
slab stringer, truss, arch, cable-stayed, or suspension. Other parameters which affect
wind loads on bridge superstructures are the wind velocity, angle of attack, the size
and the shape of the bridge, the terrain, and the gust characteristics.

Wind effects on bridge structures may be threefold:

 Static wind pressures
 Dynamic (oscillatory) wind movements
 Buffeting between adjacent structures

 Static wind pressures are those that cause a bridge to deflect or deform.
This is horizontal pressure which tries to push a bridge sideways.

 Dynamic wind movement gives rise to vertical motion, creating oscillations

in any direction. It affects long-span flexible bridges, such as suspension
bridges and cable-stayed bridges. Such bridges are prone to movement
under wind forces, which may cause them to oscillate in a number of
different modes, at low frequencies, which may be catastrophic under
suitable wind condition [Davenport, 1962a,b, 1966; Lin, 1979; Scanlan,
1978, ab, 1981, 1986; Scanlan and Wardlow, 1977].

 Buffeting is caused by the close proximity of the bridge structures. In such

a case, the turbulent eddy formations from the windward bridge will excite
the leeward bridge. Buffeting is caused by the close proximity of the bridge
structures. The turbulent eddy formations from the windward bridge will
excite the leeward bridge. It is a random forced vibration generated by the
structure under the action of natural wind fluctuation components.
Static wind force, the main wind force acting on a bridge structure, develops
due to the result of steady wind that exerts a fairly constant pressure in the general
direction of the wind. Pressure due to wind is calculated by applying the familiar
principle of fluid mechanics. According to Bernoulli’s Theorem, when an ideal fluid
strikes an object, the increase in static pressure equals the decrease in dynamic
pressure. The intensity of this pressure is expressed as:

𝟏 𝟐
𝐩= 𝛒𝐕
𝟐
where:
q = dynamic pressure in N/m^2
ρ = is the mass density of the air (0.00233 slugs/ft^3 or 12.02 N/m^3 at sea
level at 15°c)
V = wind speed in m/s

Expressing the wind speed V in m/s, the dynamic pressure q in N/m2 is given by:

𝟏 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟐 𝟐
𝐪= ( ) 𝐕 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝐕 𝟐
𝟐 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏

The wind speed V to be used in the determination of the design loads on a

structure depends on its geographical location.

NSCP 2015 provides a contour map of the basic wind speeds for the
Philippines. This map, which is based on data, collected as the result from PAGASA,
gives the 3-second gust speeds in km/h. These speeds are for open terrain at the
heights of 10 m above ground level. To account for the variation in wind speed with
the height and the surroundings in which a structure is located and to account for the
consequences of the failure of structures,

ASCE 7 Standard modifies Eq. as:

𝐪𝐳 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝐊 𝐳 𝐊 𝐳𝐭 𝐊 𝐝 𝐕 𝟐

where:
𝐪𝐳 = is the velocity pressure at height z in 𝐍/𝐦𝟐
V = is the basic wind speed in m/s obtained from Fig. 207A.5-1A through
207 A.5-1C in NSCP 2015
𝐊 𝐳 = is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient obtained from Table
207 B.3-1
𝐊 𝐳𝐭 = is the topographic factor obtained from Section 207 A.8 and Table
207 A.8-1
𝐊 𝐝 = is the wind directionality factor obtained from Section 207 A.6 and
Table A.6-1.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

PROBLEM 1
Evaluate the wind load on the bridge deck with the following profile shown. The bottom
of the bridge deck is 7m above the ground and located in a category III area.

Given:

𝒛𝒆 = 𝟕 𝒎 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎

𝒛𝒃,𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 (basic wind velocity)

Solution:

a. Mean wind velocity, 𝒗𝒎 (𝒛):

𝒗𝒎 (𝒛) = 𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) ∗ 𝒄𝒐 (𝒛) ∗ 𝑽𝒃
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆,
𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝒄𝒐 (𝒛) 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝟏.

Solving for the roughness factor,

𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎 (roughness length under terrain category III)

𝒛𝟎,𝑰𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎 (𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝑰𝑰)

𝒛𝟎 𝟎.𝟑
𝒌𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗(𝒛 )𝟎.𝟎𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗(𝟎.𝟎𝟓)𝟎.𝟎𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟓
𝟎,𝑰𝑰

𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎

𝒛𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒎

Since, 𝒛𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒛 ≤ 𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝒛
𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) = 𝒌𝒓 ∗ 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝒛𝒐
𝟖. 𝟓
𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝟎. 𝟑
𝒄𝒓 (𝟖. 𝟓 𝒎) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓 𝒎

𝒗𝒎 (𝒛) = 𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) ∗ 𝒄𝒐 (𝒛) ∗ 𝑽𝒃

𝒗𝒎 (𝒛) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓(𝟏. 𝟎)(𝟒𝟎)
𝒗𝒎 (𝒛) = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔

b. Win d Turbulence, 𝑰𝒗 (𝒛)

 Since it was already proved that 𝒛𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒛 ≤ 𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 , the formula for wind turbulence
becomes:
𝒌𝟏
𝑰 𝒗 ( 𝒛) = 𝒛
[𝒄𝒐 (𝒛) ∗ 𝒍𝒏 (𝒄 )]
𝒐

𝒌𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒙,

𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟏. 𝟎

𝟏. 𝟎
𝑰𝒗 (𝟖. 𝟓) =
𝟖. 𝟓
[𝟏. 𝟎 ∗ 𝒍𝒏 (𝟎. 𝟑)]

𝑰𝒗 (𝟖. 𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟗

c. Peak velocity pressure, 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛)

𝒒𝒑 (𝒛) = [𝟏 + (𝟕 ∗ 𝑰𝒗 (𝒛))][𝟎. 𝟓𝝆(𝑽𝒎 )𝟐 (𝒛)] = 𝒄𝒆 (𝒛) ∗ 𝒒𝒑

𝑵
𝒒𝒑 (𝒛) = [𝟏 + (𝟕(𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟗))][𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏. 𝟐𝟓)(𝟐𝟒. 𝟐)𝟐 (𝒛)] = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟓
𝒎𝟐
𝒒𝒑 (𝟖. 𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐

𝒇𝒘𝒌 = 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒆 )(𝒄𝒇,𝒙 )(𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒇,𝒙 )

𝒅𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎 + 𝟏. 𝟎 𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒎
𝒃 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎

𝒃
𝒄𝒇,𝒙 = 𝐦𝐢𝐧[𝟐. 𝟒; 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟑 ( )); 𝟏. 𝟑]
𝒅𝒕𝒐𝒕
𝟏𝟎.𝟓
= 𝐦𝐢𝐧[𝟐. 𝟒; 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟑 ( )); 𝟏. 𝟑]
𝟑.𝟓

= 𝐦𝐢𝐧[𝟐. 𝟒; 𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝟏. 𝟔; 𝟏. 𝟑)]

𝑭𝒘𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟐(𝟏. 𝟔)(𝟑. 𝟓)
PROBLEM 2
You are designing a bridge carrying I-10 over the Apalachicola River between Jackson
and Gadsden Counties. The bridge consists of three spans with lengths of 170’-210’-
170’. The superstructure is a steel I-girder with 7.5’ girder depth. There are 5 girders
at 9’ spacing with a 2% cross-slope. Cross frames are spaced at 15 feet. The bottom
of the girders is 40 feet above the ground and normal water elevation. Assume
construction will take 2 years and after the contractor starts girder erection, there will
be 6 weeks before the deck is poured. Determine the Construction Active Wind Load.

Solution:

The height to the centroid of exposed area (z) is:

The velocity pressure coefficient (KZ) is:

𝐾𝑍 = 2.01(𝑧⁄900)0.2105 = 2.01(44⁄900)0.2105 = 1.065 ≥ 0.85

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, V = 20 MPH. Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85.
The spacing to depth ratio is:
𝑆⁄𝐷 = 9 𝑓𝑡⁄7.5 𝑓𝑡 = 1.2 ≤ 3

So, CP = 2.2 applied to the projected height of the girders.

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 7.5 𝑓𝑡 + 2%(5 − 1)(9 𝑓𝑡) = 8.2 𝑓𝑡

The Construction Active Wind Pressure (applied to the projected height) per SDG
𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.065)(202)(0.85)(2.2) = 0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓

The Construction Active Wind Load (applied to the windward girder or divided
between all girders) is:

𝑤 = (0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(8.2 𝑓𝑡) = 0.02 𝑘𝑙𝑓

PROBLEM 3

Based on Problem 2, determine the construction of inactive wind load.

Solution:

The KZ, G and CP variables remain the same as calculated for the construction
of active wind load.

The projected area is the same.

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, the basic wind speed for Jackson and Gadsden
counties is 110 MPH.
 Per SDG section 2.4.3.C, since the exposure period is less than a year,

RE = 0.6.

The Construction Inactive Wind Speed is: 𝑉 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)

𝑅𝐸 = (110 𝑀𝑃𝐻)(0.6) = 66 𝑀𝑃𝐻

The Construction Inactive Wind Pressure (applied to the projected height) is:
𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.065)(662)(0.85)(2.2) = 0.022 𝑘𝑠𝑓

The Construction Inactive Wind Load (applied to the windward girder or divided
between all girders) is: 𝑤 = (0.022 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(8.2 𝑓𝑡) = 0.18 𝑘𝑙𝑓

Note that the construction active wind load is 10 times the construction inactive wind
load, but the construction active wind speed is only 3.3 times the construction inactive
wind speed. Because the velocity term is squared, a small increase in wind speed
causes a much larger increase in pressure.

When using the wind load in a Strength III limit state, include the 1.25 load factor per
SDG Table 2.4.3-1.

Calculate the Wind Load Applied to Cross-Frames

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-3, CP = 2.9. The wind pressure was calculated based on a
pressure coefficient of 2.2, so the pressure needs to be adjusted by the ratio of 2.9/2.2.
𝑃𝑍 = (0.022 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(2.9⁄2.2) = 0.029 𝑘𝑠𝑓

Since the cross-frame spacing is 15 ft, use 15 ft as the loaded length of the bridge.

According to SDG 2.4.3.E, apply wind to the height of a single girder to calculate the
cross-frame load. The girder height is 7.5 ft.
The tributary area is:
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (15 𝑓𝑡)(7.5 𝑓𝑡) = 112.5 𝑓𝑡2

The Construction Inactive Wind Load for the cross-frame is:

𝑃 = (0.029 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(112.5 𝑓𝑡2) = 3.3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)
𝑃 = (3.3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠)(1.25) = 4.1 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)

PROBLEM 4

You are designing a bridge carrying SR 856 over the Intracoastal in Miami-Dade
County. The bridge consists of three simple spans with lengths of 98 feet. The
superstructure consists of (5) FIB 45 beams at 12’ spacing with a 2% cross-slope.
Bracing will be provided only at the ends of each beam. The bottom of the girders is
30 feet above the ground and normal water elevation. Assume a month between the
beams are set and the deck is poured. Calculate the Construction Active wind
pressure per SDG.

Solution:
The girder height is:

The height to the centroid of exposed area (z) is:

The velocity pressure coefficient (KZ) is:

𝐾𝑍 = 2.01(𝑧⁄900)0.2105 = 2.01(32⁄900)0.2105 = 1.0 ≥ 0.85
Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, V = 20 MPH. Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85. The
spacing to depth ratio is:
𝑆⁄𝐷 = 12 𝑓𝑡⁄3.75 𝑓𝑡 = 3.2 > 3

So, CP = 2.0 applied to the area of the first girder, 0 for the second girder and
CP = 1.0 for girders 3-5. The wind is applied to each girder height.

Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85.

The Construction Active Wind Pressure per SDG Eq. 2-1 is:
𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(202)(0.85)(2.0) = 0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 1)
𝑃𝑍 ∶= 0 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 2)
𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(202)(0.85)(1.0) = 0.001 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

The Construction Active Wind Load is:

𝑤 = (0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.008 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 1)

𝑤 = 0 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 2)
𝑤 = (0.001 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.004 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

PROBLEM 5

Based on problem #4, Calculate the construction inactive wind load.

Solution:
The KZ, G and CP variables remain the same as calculated for the construction active
wind load.
Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, the basic wind speed for Miami-Dade County is 150 MPH.
Per SDG section 2.4.3.C, since the exposure period is less than 1 year,

RE = 0.6.

The Construction Inactive Wind Speed is:

𝑉 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)𝑅𝐸 = (150 𝑀𝑃𝐻)(0.6) = 90 𝑀𝑃𝐻

The Construction Inactive Wind Pressure is:

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(902)(0.85)(2.0) = 0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 1)
𝑃𝑍 ∶= 0 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 2)

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(902)(0.85)(1.0) = 0.02 𝑘𝑠𝑓

(for girders 3-5)

The Construction Inactive Wind Load is:

𝑤 = (0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.15 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 1)

𝑤 = 0 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 2)

𝑤 = (0.02 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.08 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

When using the wind load for the Strength III limit state, include the 1.25 load factor.

PROBLEM 6

Based on problem #4, calculate the wind load applied to cross-frames.

Solution:

From SDG Table 2.4.3-3, CP = 2.6. The wind pressure was calculated based on a
pressure coefficient of 2.0, therefore we must adjust the pressure using the ratio of
2.6/2.0.
𝑤 = (0.15 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(2.6⁄2.0) = 0.20 𝑘𝑙𝑓

Since bracing is only provided at the ends of the bridge, the loaded length of the
bridge is half of the span length. So, the tributary length is:

(98 𝑓𝑡)⁄ = 49 𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2

The Construction Inactive Cross-Frame Wind Load is:

𝑃 = (0.20 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(49 𝑓𝑡) = 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)
𝑃 = (10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠)(1.25) = 13 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)
Since bracing is only provided at the ends of the beams, most of the load will be
transferred directly to the substructure. Beam bracing analysis is required to
determine the portion of the load that the bracing must be designed for.
THERMAL STRESS

In bridge engineering, thermal stress refers to the stress induced in bridge

materials due to temperature changes. When a bridge experiences temperature
variations, its materials expand or contract. This expansion and contraction can create
internal forces within the structure, leading to thermal stress. These stresses can be
significant, especially in regions with extreme temperature fluctuations.
Thermal stress is the critical factor that influences the structural integrity and
longevity of bridges. These stresses arise due to temperature variations, which cause
expansion and contraction in bridge materials. The distribution of temperature over a
bridge cross-section is generally nonlinear, leading to stress in both longitudinal and
transverse directions. When tensile stresses due to temperature exceeding the
material’s tensile strength, cracking can occur, which significantly impacts the bridge’s
durability and safety.
In modern bridge structures, especially those with lighter weights and longer
spans, temperature-induced thermal stress can greatly affect stability, particularly
under extreme climatic conditions. Uneven temperature distribution can lead to
substantial temperature gradients, stress concentrations, and fatigue damage.
The coupling of multiple physical fields, such as thermal and mechanical fields,
further complicates the assessment of thermal stresses. This multi-field coupling can
lead to stiffness degradation and reduced load-bearing capacity over time,
necessitating comprehensive fatigue life assessments to predict and maintain long-
term bridge performance.
Temperature changes cause thermal stress. When the temperature is very high
or very low, they induce stress in the bridge elements, especially at bearings and deck
joints. These stresses are tensile in nature so, concrete cannot withstand against this
and cracks are formed. To resist this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to
main reinforcement should be provided. Expansion joints are also provided.
According to experiments, the dependence of thermal expansion on
temperature, substance, and original length is summarized in the equation

dL/dT=αL

where: L is the original length

dL/dT is the change in length with respect to temperature,

 α is the coefficient of linear expansion, a material property that varies
slightly with temperature.

As α is nearly constant and also very small, for practical purposes, we use the linear
approximation:

ΔL≈αLΔT

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

When a particle of mass m moves along a constrained curve path with a

constant speed, there is a normal force exerted in the particle by the constraint. It is
caused by the centripetal (meaning “toward the center of rotation”) acceleration and
acts perpendicular to the tangent to the path. For equilibrium, an equal and opposite
force called the centrifugal force, is transferred to the path. The magnitude of this force
is given the following expression:

F=mv2/r

Where: m = mass of the particle

g = acceleration due to gravity

v = particle velocity

r = instantaneous radius of curvature of the path

TRACTION LOAD

Vehicle traction is the generated friction between a drive wheel and the road
surface and is caused by the vehicle's acceleration and the subsequent movement
over the bridge carriageway. These loads assume the nature of horizontal loads
applied to the superstructure.

Simplified diagram of the variables related to a wheel developing a net tractive force.

Where: ω = angular velocity of the wheel

Ff = friction force

H = net tractive force

 R = vertical reaction force of the wheel

T = torque transferred to the wheel axle

va = actual velocity of the wheel

W = dynamic wheel load

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM 1

The main Span of Francisco’s Golden Bridge is 1275 m long at its coldest temperature.
The bridge is exposed to temperatures ranging from – 15°C to 40°C. What is its
change in length between these temperatures? Assume that the bridge is entirely
made of steel.
Solution:

Using equation of thermal expansion:

Note:

Coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 12×10^-6

ΔL≈αLΔT = (12×10^-6)(1275m)(40-(-15)) = 0.8415 m

PROBLEM 2
The vertical section of a road over a bridge in the direction of its length is in the form
of an arc of a circle with radius 19.5 m. Find the greatest velocity at which a car can
cross the bridge without losing contact with the road at the highest point if the c.g. of
the car is 0.5 m from the ground. Given: Radius of circle = r = 19.5 + 0.5 = 20 m, To
find: velocity of car v =?

Solution:

At the highest point, the centrifugal force and weight of the car are equal in magnitude.

𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝐅= = 𝐦𝐠
𝐫

∴ 𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐫𝐠
 ∴ 𝐯 = √𝐫𝐠 = √𝟐𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖 = √𝟏𝟗𝟔 = 𝟏𝟒 𝐦/𝐬

The velocity of car = 14 m/s

PROBLEM 3

Consider a wheel that works with a dynamic load of 10 kN, a motion resistance ratio
of 0.08, and a gross traction ratio of 0.72. Find the tractive force that the wheel can
develop. If this wheel rotates at 40 rpm and the rolling radius of the wheel is 0.71 m,
how much power is necessary to move this wheel?
Solution:

Calculate the gross tractive force developed by the wheel F using Equation:

𝐅 = 𝛍𝐠(𝐖) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟕. 𝟐 𝐤𝐍

Calculate the motion resistance Fr of this wheel using Equation:

𝐅𝐫 = 𝛒𝐖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝐊𝐧

The tractive force H developed by the wheel, according to Equation, is the difference
between the gross tractive force and the motion resistance:

𝐇 = 𝐅 − 𝐅𝐫 = 𝟕. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟔. 𝟒

Calculate the torque necessary to move this wheel using Equation:

𝐓 = 𝐅𝐫 = 𝟕. 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟏 𝐤𝐍 𝐦

Calculate the power Pw necessary to turn the wheel using Equation:

𝐏𝐖 = 𝐓𝛚 = 𝐓(𝟐𝛑𝐍/𝟔𝟎) = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟏(𝟐𝛑 × 𝟒𝟎)/𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒 𝐤𝐖

PROBLEM 4

A steel bridge is 40 m long at 20°c. Coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 𝟏𝟐 ×

𝟏𝟎−𝟔 (𝑪)−𝟏 . What is the increase in length and the final length of the bridge when it is
at 70°c?

Given:

Change in Temperature(∆𝑻) = 70°c - 20°c = 50°c

Original Length of the bridge = 40m

Coefficient of linear expansion for steel(⍺) = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔

Solution:

a. Change in Length ∆𝐿
∆𝐿 = ⍺𝐿∆𝑇 = (12 × 10−6 )(40)(50°𝑐)
∆𝐿 = 0.024𝑚
b. Final length 𝐿2
𝐿2 = 𝐿1 + ∆𝐿
𝐿2 = 40 + 0.024
𝑳𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝒎

PROBLEM 5
A flyover bridge is in the form of a circular arc of
radius 30 m. Find the limiting speed at which a car
can cross the bridge without losing contact with
the road at the
highest point. Assume the center of gravity of the
car to be 0.5 m above the road.
Given:

Radius of circle=r=30+0.5=30.5m
Required:

velocity of car=v= ?
Solution:
At the highest point, the centrifugal force and weight of the car are equal in
magnitude.
𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝐅= = 𝐦𝐠
𝐫
∴ 𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐫𝐠
∴ 𝐯 = √𝐫𝐠 = √𝟑𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟗. 𝟖 = √𝟏𝟗𝟔 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟗 𝐦/𝐬

The velocity of the car = 17.3 m/s

PROBLEM 6
There is a parabolic shaped bridge across the river of width 10 m. The highest point of the
bridge is 4 m above the level of the bank. A car of mass 952 kg is crossing the bridge at a
constant speed of 4 m/s. The force exerted on the bridge by the car when it is at the highest
point of the bridge is 464576x N. Find the value of x.

Solution:
 Given:
Mass of car, M = 952 kg
We know the equation of parabola
y = kx2
-
4 = k x 52
k = - 4/25 = - 0.16
So, y = -0.16x2
Now, radius of curvature,
3
𝑑𝑦 2 2 3
[1+( ) ] [1+(−0.32𝑥) 2]2
𝑑𝑥
R=| 𝑑2 𝑦
|=| |
−0.32
𝑑𝑥2

1
R (x=0) = 0.32 m
So, in the equilibrium,
mv 2
g−N=
R
mv 2
N = mg − = m(g − v 2 × 0.32)
R
465.76
N = 952 (10 − 42 × 0.32) = 4645.76 𝑁 =
100
x = 100

PROBLEM 7

A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed
points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what
temperature will the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and E = 29 ×
106 psi.
Solution:
For the stress at 𝟎°∁:
𝛅 = 𝛅𝐓 + 𝛅𝐬𝐭
𝛔𝐋 𝑷𝑳
= 𝛂𝐋(∆𝑻) +
𝐄 𝑨𝑬
𝑷
𝛔 = 𝛂𝐄(∆𝑻) +
𝑨
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝛔 = (𝟔. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )(𝟕𝟎) +
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝛔 = 𝟏𝟕 𝟗𝟗𝟓 𝐩𝐬𝐢 = 𝟏𝟖 𝐤𝐬𝐢

For the temperature that causes zero stress:

𝛅𝑻 = 𝛅𝐬𝐭
𝐏𝐋
𝛂𝐋(∆𝐓) =
𝐀𝐄
−𝟔
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
(𝟔. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 )(𝐓 − 𝟕𝟎) =
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )
𝐓 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟔°∁

PROBLEM 8
A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load of 5000 N at
20°C. If the allowable stress is not to exceed 130 MPa at -20°C, what is the minimum
diameter of the rod? Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa.
SOLUTION:
𝛅 = 𝛅𝐓 + 𝛅𝐬𝐭
𝛔𝐋 𝐏𝐋
= 𝛂𝐋(∆𝐓) +
𝐄 𝐀𝐄
𝐏
𝛔 = 𝛂𝐄(∆𝐓) +
𝐀
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟑𝟎 = (𝟏𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )(𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎)(𝟕𝟎) +
𝐀
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐀= = 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟑𝟔 𝐦𝐦𝟐
𝟑𝟔. 𝟒
𝟏 𝟐
𝛑𝐝 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟑𝟔; 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟐 𝐦𝐦
𝟒

PROBLEM 9

Calculate the increase in stress for each segment of the

compound bar shown in Fig. P266 if the temperature
increases by 100°F. Assume that the supports are unyielding
and that the bar is suitably braced against buckling.

SOLUTION:
𝛅𝐓 = 𝛂𝐋∆𝐓
𝛅𝐓(𝒔𝒕) = (𝟔. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟏𝟎)(𝟏𝟎𝟎)
𝛅𝐓(𝒔𝒕) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟓

𝛅𝐓(𝐬𝐭) = (𝟏𝟐. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟏𝟎)(𝟏𝟎𝟎)

𝛅𝐓(𝐬𝐭) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝐢𝐧

𝛅𝐬𝐭 + 𝛅𝐚𝐥 = 𝛅𝐓(𝐬𝐭) + 𝛅𝐓(𝐚𝐥)

𝐏𝐋 𝐏𝐋
(𝐀𝐄) + (𝐀𝐄) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟖
𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒍
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷𝒂𝒍
𝐏 𝟏𝟓)
( 𝐏(𝟏𝟎)
+ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓
𝟏. 𝟓(𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 ) 𝟐(𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )
𝐏 = 𝟐𝟔 𝟔𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝐩𝐬𝐢

𝐏
𝛔=
𝐀
𝟐𝟔 𝟔𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟒
𝛔𝒔𝒕 = = 𝟏𝟕 𝟕𝟗𝟒. 𝟓𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝟏. 𝟓
𝟐𝟔 𝟔𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟒
𝛔𝒂𝒍 = = 𝟏𝟑 𝟑𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝟐. 𝟎
SEISMIC LOAD

Seismic loading is a fundamental aspect of earthquake engineering which means

application of seismic oscillation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a
structure either with the ground or with adjacent structures. Seismic loading depends,
primarily on seismic hazard, geotechnical parameters of the site, and structure's
natural frequency etc. There are horizontal and vertical components of earthquake
ground motions, but the horizontal component of earthquake ground motion is the
main cause of bridge damages. Therefore, only horizontal earthquake ground motion
is considered in the bridge design and analysis.

Earthquake loading is a result of seismic forces, which are influenced by the

bridge's location. Bridges must be designed to ensure life safety under the Maximum
Considered Earthquake (MCE). Higher performance may be necessary for post-
earthquake access to emergency facilities or to reduce economic impact. Seismic
forces influence bridge design in seismically active regions, with acceleration
coefficients determining seismic activity. Bridges with a greater than 0.19 acceleration
coefficient are considered high seismic activity. Single-mode spectral analysis is the
most commonly used method to calculate earthquake loading on bridges.
The single-mode spectral analysis method assumes loading in basic transverse
and longitudinal directions as illustrated in the following figure:

Figure 4. Assumed Loading for Single-Mode Spectral Analysis

The single-mode spectral analysis method is used to calculate equivalent static

earthquake loading for regular, multi-span bridges. It uses the principle of virtual
displacements to develop a mode shape model of the bridge, applying uniform static
loading (po) to the structure's length to produce an initial displacement (vs). This
displacement, combined with the dead load weight of the superstructure and
substructure, can be used to determine the earthquake loading. The initial
displacement (vs) is calculated at the piers and at the end of the last span, assuming
an arbitrary unit load (Po= 1). The dead weight value (w(x)) represents the dead load
of the superstructure and contributing substructure elements.

In the Philippines, DPWH and the Association of Structural Engineers of the

Philippines (ASEP) are the organizations formulating the design guidelines and
specifications for bridges in the Philippines. The DPWH, being mandated to control
the design and construction of roads and bridges, prepares the design guidelines and
specifications to ensure a standard and uniform approach in bridge design and
construction. On the other hand, ASEP, being a professional engineering association,
has the mission to uphold the structural engineering profession through standardizing
the national structural code for bridge design. Both DPWH Guidelines and ASEP’s
NSCP1 incorporate some provisions on seismic design. However, the NSCP codes
prepared by ASEP will need DPWH’s endorsement for use in public infrastructures.
Since the seismic loading provisions of the DPWH Design Guidelines (1982) have
been outdated by recent earthquake events, the current seismic design of bridges
practiced by DPWH under D.O.75 requires, as a minimum, that bridge design shall
conform to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design (1989 or latest
edition).

AASHTO Seismic Design Category

Seismic Design Category is a classification assigned to a structure based on its

occupancy category, and the severity of the design earthquake ground motion. The
category assignment can range from A-F, and can be defined as the following:

 Seismic Design Category A – Corresponds to buildings in areas where

expected ground shaking will be minor. Good Soils
 Seismic Design Category B - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups I,
II and III where expected ground shaking will be moderate. Stratified soils with
Good and poor Soils
 Seismic Design Category C - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups
IV (Hospitals, Police Stations Emergency control centers etc) I where expected
ground shaking will be MODERATE AND buildings of occupancy categories I,
II, and III where MORE SEVERE ground shaking will occur
 Seismic Design Category D -Corresponds to buildings and structures in areas
expected to experience severe and destructive ground shaking But NOT
located close to a major fault. Sites with poor soils are a good example.
 Seismic Design Category E - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups
I,II and III in areas NEAR MAJOR ACTIVE FAULTS. Soil or rock is of no
consequence.
 Seismic Design Category F - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups
IV (Hospitals, Police Stations Emergency control centers etc) areas NEAR
MAJOR ACTIVE FAULTS. Soil or rock is of no consequence.
The spectral acceleration values associated with each Seismic Design
Category (SDC) may vary depending on the specific building code and seismic
design maps. For the International Building Code (IBC) and ASCE 7 standards,
 spectral acceleration values (at a period of 1 second) are used to classify
seismic design categories.
General range for each category based on typical provisions:
 Seismic Design Category A: Typically, 𝑺𝒂 (𝟏. 𝟎𝒔) < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒈, where 𝒈 is
the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²).
 Seismic Design Category B: Generally, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒈 ≤ 𝑺𝒂 (𝟏. 𝟎𝒔) < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒈
 Seismic Design Category C: Typically, 𝟎. 𝟏𝒈 ≤ 𝑺𝒂 (𝟏. 𝟎𝒔) < 𝟎. 𝟐𝒈
 Seismic Design Category D: Generally, 𝟎. 𝟐𝒈 ≤ 𝑺𝒂 (𝟏. 𝟎𝒔) < 𝟎. 𝟒𝒈
 Seismic Design Category E: Typically, 𝟎. 𝟒𝒈 ≤ 𝑺𝒂 (𝟏. 𝟎𝒔) < 𝟎. 𝟔𝒈
 Seismic Design Category F: This category is often used for sites with
very high seismic hazard, where 𝑺𝒂 (𝟏. 𝟎𝒔) ≥ 𝟎. 𝟔𝒈, or for sites with
special conditions that require detailed analysis.
The exact values and ranges may differ depending on local codes and
the most recent seismic hazard maps. For precise values, you should consult
the latest version of the building codes applicable in your region.

A Good Soils report from a Geotechnical engineer will and should provide the
parameters necessary to determine the Seismic Design Category OR provide the
Seismic Design category outright to structural engineer and architect. However, it
MUST be specified in their sub-contract.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

PROBLEM 1
Design a simple bridge with a single span in a region prone to earthquakes. The
bridge has the following characteristics:
 Length of the bridge (span): 30 meters
 Width of the bridge: 4 meters
 Type of soil at the bridge site:
 Seismic design category: D (High seismicity)
 Response spectrum parameters:
 Spectral acceleration (S_a): 0.6 𝑔 (where “𝑔” is the
acceleration due to gravity)
Solution:
Max. Seismic Lateral Force
Total weight of the bridge:
Assume the density off concrete = 2400 kg/𝒎𝟑

Formula: W=L x W x 𝝆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 x 𝒈

W = 30m x 4m x 2400 kg/𝒎𝟑 x 9.81 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
W = 2,825,280 𝑵

Calculate the seismic mass:

𝐖
Formula: M = 𝒈
 𝟐,𝟖𝟐𝟓,𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝐍
M= 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 𝒎∕𝒔𝟐
M = 288,000 kg

Seismic lateral force:

Formula: 𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 𝑴𝒂
𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = (288,000kg) (0.6 x 9.81)
𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 1,695,168 𝑵

PROBLEM 2

Design a highway overpass bridge in a region with moderate seismic activity. The
bridge is a simple supported span with the following characteristics:
 Length of the bridge (span): 40 meters
 Width of the bridge: 6 meters
 Type of soil at the bridge site:
 Seismic design category: B (Moderate seismicity)
 Response spectrum parameters:
 Spectral acceleration (S_a): 0.4 𝑔 (where “𝑔” is the acceleration
due to gravity)

Solution:
Max. Seismic Lateral Force
Total weight of the bridge:
Assume the density off concrete = 2400 kg/𝒎𝟑
Formula: W=L x W x 𝝆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 x 𝒈
W = 40m x 6m x 2400 kg/𝒎𝟑 x 9.81 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
W = 5,650,560 𝑵

Calculate the seismic mass:

𝐖
Formula: M = 𝒈
𝟓,𝟔𝟓𝟎,𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝑵
M= 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 𝒎∕𝒔𝟐
M = 576,000 kg

Seismic lateral force:

Formula: 𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 𝑴𝒂
𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = (576,000kg) (0.4 x 9.81)
𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 2,260,224 𝑵
PROBLEM 3

Compute the Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient of the existing bent pier.

Given:
 A 3 span (29'-63'-29') essential bridge crossing a highway.
 35 pairs of piles at 3'-3" center-to-center along length of footer.
 5 bays at 21.80 ft center of column to center of column.
 Concrete strength fc´ = 3.0 ksi.
 1950’s vintage reinforcement fy = 40 ksi
 Reactions as provided below.
 Superstructure Weight = 28.29 k/ft
 Geographic area has acceleration coefficient: A = 0.19.

Solution:
1. Determine the Types of Seismic Analysis and Other Criteria
 For an “essential bridge” by AASHTO 3.3 I-A we have:
IC = Importance Classification
 With an importance classification of “I” by AASHTO 3.4 I-A for:
0.09 < A < 0.19 and IC = I SPC = Seismic Performance Category = B
 The bridge has an unchanging cross section, with similar support, and a
uniform mass and stiffness, so it is considered:
Regular (By AASHTO 4.2 I-A)
 For a Regular Bridge, SPC = B, and 2 to 6 spans, we choose to use:
Method 2 = Single-Mode Spectral Analysis (AASHTO 4.2 I-A)
 The bridge has an unchanging cross section, with similar supports, and a
uniform mass and stiffness, so it is considered to be:
Regular (By AASHTO 4.2 I-A)
 Response Modification Factor (AASHTO 3.7 I-A) Multiple Column Bent:
R=5
  Pier Footing: R = One-Half R for Multiple Column Bent
= R/2 = 5/2 = 2.25 (AASHTO 6.2.2 I-A)
 Combination of Seismic Forces (AASHTO 3.9 I-A):
 Case I: (100% Longitudinal Motion) + (30% Transverse Motion)
 Case II: (30% Longitudinal Motion) + (100% Transverse Motion)
 Load Grouping (AASHTO 6.2.1 I-A): 1.0(DL + Buoyancy (N/A) + Stream
Flow (N/A) + Earth Pressure + Earthquake)

2. Compute Stiffness of the Pier

3. Compute Deflection Due to Longitudinal Motion with P=1:

(𝟏)(𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟑)𝟑
𝜹=
(𝟏𝟖)(𝟒𝟕𝟖 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒔𝒇)(𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟕 𝒇𝒕𝟒 )

𝜹 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒇𝒕/𝒌

𝟏
𝒌 = 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝜹
𝟏
=
𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒇𝒕/𝒌
𝒌 = 𝟑𝟔 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

4. Compute Deflection Due to Transverse Motion, with P=1:

 (𝟏)(𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟑)𝟑
𝜹=
(𝟕𝟐)(𝟒𝟕𝟖 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒔𝒇)(𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟕 𝒇𝒕𝟒 )

𝜹 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟎𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒇𝒕/𝒌

𝟏
𝒌 = 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝜹
𝟏
=
𝟔. 𝟖𝟎𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒇𝒕/𝒌
𝒌 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

5. Compute Load Due to Longitudinal Motion

Compute Static Displacement

𝑷𝒐 (𝑳)
𝒗𝒔 =
𝒌
(𝟏)(𝟔𝟑. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕)
=
𝒌
𝟑𝟔 𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝒇𝒕
= 𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒇𝒕

Compute Single-Mode Factors 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 (𝑨𝑨𝑺𝑯𝑻𝑶 𝑰 − 𝑨 𝟒. 𝟒):

𝑳
𝜶 = ∫ 𝑽𝒔 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝟎
= 𝑽𝒔 𝑳
= (𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒇𝒕)(𝟔𝟑. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑳
𝜷 = ∫ 𝑾(𝒙)𝑽𝒔 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝟎
= 𝜶𝑾
= (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟐 )(𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟗 𝒌/𝒇𝒕)
= 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌
 𝑳
𝜸 = ∫ 𝑾(𝒙)𝑽𝒔 (𝒙)𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟎
= 𝜷𝑽𝒔
= (𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌)(𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒇𝒕)
𝜸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟐 . 𝒌

Compute period of Oscillation

𝜸
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝑷𝒐 𝒈𝜶

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟐 . 𝒌
= 𝟐𝝅√
𝟑𝟐. 𝟐𝒇𝒕
( 𝟏) ( ) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟐 )
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄

Compute Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient:

𝑨 = 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗
𝑺 = 𝑺𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟐
𝟏. 𝟐 𝑨𝑺
𝑪𝒔 = 𝟐
𝑻𝟑
𝟏. 𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟗)(𝟏. 𝟐)
= 𝟐
(𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟒𝐬𝐞𝐜)𝟑
𝑪𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟏

AASHTO Division I-A 3.6.1 states that 𝑪𝒔 need not exceed 2.5A

𝑪𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝑨 = (𝟐. 𝟓)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟗) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 < 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟏

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑼𝒔𝒆: 𝑪𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓

Compute Equivalent Static Earthquake Loading:

𝜷𝑪𝒔
𝒑𝒆 (𝒙) = 𝒘(𝒙)𝒗𝒔 (𝒙)
𝜸
(𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌)(𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓) 𝟐𝟗𝒌
𝒑𝒆 (𝒙) = (𝟐𝟖. ) (𝟏. 𝟕𝟏𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒇𝒕)
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟐 . 𝒌) 𝒇𝒕

𝒑𝒆 (𝒙) = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

Compute Dorce Due to Longitudinal Motion Acting on Pier:

 𝒑𝒆 (𝒙)𝑳
𝑽𝜸 =
𝑹𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒓
(𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝒌/𝒇𝒕)(𝟔𝟑 𝒇𝒕)
𝒑𝒆 (𝒙) =
(𝟓. 𝟎)
𝒑𝒆 (𝒙) = 𝟏𝟔𝟗. 𝟑𝟒 𝒌

6. Compute Load due to Transverse Motion

This step is skipped for the sake of brevity. The force due to transverse
motion is:

𝑽 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝟓 𝒌 (𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑹 = 𝟓)

7. Summarize Loads Actin on Pier Column

Case I: (100% Longitudinal Motion) + (30% Transverse Motion)

(𝟏𝟔𝟗. 𝟑𝟒 𝒌)(𝟏. 𝟎𝟎)

𝑽𝒀 = = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌/𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏
𝟔 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏𝒔
𝑴 𝒀 = (𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟐 𝒌)(𝟏𝟕′ − 𝟐′′ 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑨𝒓𝒎) = 𝟒𝟖𝟒. 𝟓 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌
(𝟏𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝟓 𝒌)(𝟎. 𝟑𝟎)
𝑽𝒙 = = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟖 𝒌/𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏
𝟔 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏𝒔
𝑴 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌 (𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔)
𝑴 = √𝑴𝟐𝒙 + 𝑴𝟐𝒚

𝑴 = √(𝟒𝟑 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌)𝟐 + (𝟒𝟖𝟒. 𝟓 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌)𝟐

𝑴 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌
𝑷 𝒖 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝒌
𝑷 𝒖 = 𝑫𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟒 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌

Case II: (30% Longitudinal Motion) + (100% Transverse Motion)

A Check load for Case II produces a total moment of 204 ft.k so Load
Case I Controls.

8. Check for Effects of Slenderness

Unsupported Column Length (AASHTO [Link].1):

Lu = 16.33 ft − 4 ft = 12.33 ft (See Figure, Calculation Sheet 1)

Radius of Gyration (AASHTO [Link].2):

r = q𝒍𝒔 = (0.25 for Circular Member) (4 ft) = 1.0 ft

Effective Length Factor:

 The effective length factor used will vary depending on the earthquake
motion and the corresponding orientation of the pier. Keep in mind the following:

 Transverse Earthquake Motion Longitudinal

Pier Direction
 Longitudinal Earthquake Motion Transverse
Pier Direction

Pier directions are perpendicular to bridge centerline.

Check the Slenderness Ratio Limit (AASHTO [Link].5):

𝒌. 𝒍𝒖 (𝟏. 𝟎)(𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒇𝒕)

= = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 < 𝟐𝟐
𝒓 𝟏. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝑺𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒌. 𝒍𝒖 (𝟐. 𝟎)(𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒇𝒕)

= = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟔𝟕 > 𝟐𝟐
𝒓 𝟏. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝑺𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

9. Compute Moment Magnification Factor

Approximate Effects of Creep (AASHTO [Link].7):

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝜷𝒅 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟒 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌
𝜷𝒅 =
𝟒𝟖𝟔. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕. 𝒌
𝜷𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟐

Moment of Inertia of Gross Concrete Section:

𝟒
𝒊𝒏
𝝅 ((𝟒. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕) (𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝒇𝒕))
𝝅𝑫𝟒
𝑰𝒈 = 𝑰 =
𝟔𝟒 𝒈 𝟔𝟒
𝑰𝒈 = 𝟐𝟔𝟎 𝟓𝟕𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝟒

Compute Flexural Rigidity (Equation 4.28):

𝑬𝒄 𝑰𝒈
𝟐.𝟓
𝑬𝑰 =
𝟏+𝜷𝒅
 (𝟑 𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊)(𝟐𝟔𝟎 𝟓𝟕𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝟒 )
= 𝟐. 𝟓
𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟐
= 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒃. 𝒊𝒏𝟐

𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐮𝐜𝐤𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐚𝐨𝐝 (𝐄𝐪𝐚𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟒. 𝟐𝟔):

𝝅𝟐 (𝑬𝑰)
𝑷𝒄 =
(𝒌𝑳𝒖 )𝟐
𝝅𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒃. 𝒊𝒏𝟐
= 𝟐
𝒊𝒏
((𝟐. 𝟎)(𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒇𝒕) (𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕))
= 𝟐𝟕 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌

Compute Moment Magnification Factor:

𝟏
𝜹=
𝑷𝒖
𝟏−
∅𝑷𝒄
𝟏
𝜹=
𝟐𝟖𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝒌
𝟏−(
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓)(𝟐𝟕 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌)
𝜹 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟒

FLOOD LOADS

Flood load on bridges are the forces and pressures caused by flooding, typically
caused by rising water levels and increased water flow velocity during storms or heavy
rain. As water levels rise, bridges crossing rivers, streams, or other water bodies face
unique structural challenges, and must be designed to withstand these forces to
ensure stability and safety.

Main Components of Flood Load:

1. Hydrodynamic Forces: The flows of floodwater around the bridge piers and
abutments generates horizontal forces due to its velocity. Faster, deeper water
exerts greater pressure, and these forces can potentially push the bridge off
balance if not properly managed.
2. Hydrostatic Forces: Rising water levels create static pressure on submerged or
partially submerged bridge components. This pressure increases directly to the
water depth and affects both the vertical and horizontal structural components.
3. Debris Load: Floodwater carry debris such as trees, vehicles, and other
materials, which may impact bridge components, increasing the overall load on
the structure. These impacts can cause localized damage to piers and
foundations.
 4. Buoyancy: If the water level reaches critical heights, buoyant forces may act on
submerged parts of the bridge. This upward force can affect lighter structural
elements or undermine the stability of the bridge deck or foundations.
5. Scour: One of the most significant effects of flooding is the erosion of the soil
or sediment around the bridge piers and foundations. Known as scour, this
process weakens the support system of the bridge, leading to potential collapse
if not addressed properly.

Importance in Bridge Design:

Flood load is a crucial consideration in bridge design, especially for structures located
in flood-prone areas. Engineers must consider historical flood data, potential flood
magnitudes, water velocities, and debris patterns. Failure to adequately account for
flood load can lead to bridge failures, which can have devastating economic and
human impacts.

Incorporating flood load analysis into bridge design helps ensure:

 Structural Integrity: The bridge can withstand extreme water pressures and flow
velocities.
 Durability: Bridges are designed to resist both immediate and long-term flood-
related forces.
 Safety: Properly designed bridges prevent catastrophic failures during floods,
protecting both people and property.

Drag Force Equation:

The drag force equation is used to calculate the force exerted by a fluid (such
as air or water) on an object moving through it or, in the case of a bridge, a stationary
object being impacted by moving fluid. It is expressed as:

𝟏
𝑭= 𝑪 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝒅
Where:
 F = drag force (N),
 Cd = drag coefficient (dimensionless),
 ρ = fluid density (kg/m³),
 A = projected area of the object (m²),
 v = fluid velocity relative to the object (m/s).

Components:
 Drag Coefficient (𝐶𝑑): A dimensionless number that represents how
streamlined an object is. Higher values indicate more resistance.

For example, a cylindrical pier might have a drag coefficient of

around 1.2, while a more streamlined shape would have a lower Cd.
  Fluid Density (𝜌): The density of the fluid (air, water, etc.) plays a significant
role in determining the force. Denser fluids like water exert more drag force
than air at the same velocity.
 Projected Area (𝐴): The area of the object that faces the flow of the fluid. The
larger the area, the more force the fluid can exert on it.
 Velocity Squared (𝑣2): The drag force is proportional to the square of the fluid
velocity, meaning that a small increase in velocity results in a much larger
increase in drag force.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1

Suppose a small six-girder bridge is planned with dimensions below:

Dimension Value
Deck thickness (s) 2.5 m
Length (L) 280 m
Width (W) 11.2 m
Low chord elevation height of the free surface in 1000 year flood 10 m
from the original stream elevation.
Low chord elevation 106 m

The bridge is planned over a small stream with an enormous range of flow.
Suppose that the stream has a channel bottom elevation of 102 m at the crossing. The
1,000-year flood rises to elevation 110 m with an average velocity of 3.2 m/s.
Determine the total drag force.

Solution:
hb = 106 – 102 = 4 m
h* = hu-hb/ s = 10-4/ 2.5= 2.4
Fr = V/ √ghu = 3.2/ √9.81(10)= 0.323
V = Fr √g•(h*crit•s+hb)= 0.323√9.81•(3•2.5+4)= 3.43m/s

Since h* is greater than 1, we will use this equation of drag coefficient CD= FD/
½v²(s).

FD= ½(2.15)(3.43)²(2.5)= 31.6kN/m

PROBLEM 2

A bridge has an expected life of 50 years and is designed for a flood magnitude of
return period of 100 years. Determine the risk associated with this hydrologic design
and the return period in years in design which would have reduced the risk to 25%.
Solution:

𝟏
𝑷=
𝟐
𝟏 𝟓𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟏 − (𝟏 − )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟓 %
𝟏
𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏 − (𝟏 − )
𝑻
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝟐𝟓 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 − 𝟓𝟎𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − )
𝑻
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝟐𝟓 − 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 = −𝟓𝟎𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − )
𝑻
𝟏
𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 = −𝟓𝟎𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − )
𝑻
𝟏
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟒 = 𝐥𝐧 (𝟏 − )
𝑻

𝟏
(𝟏 − ) = 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔𝟒𝟒
𝑻
𝟏
= 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔𝟒𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟑
𝑻
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟑 ≈ 𝟏𝟔 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

PROBLEM 3

A bridge has an expected life of 25 years and is designed for a flood magnitude of
return period 100 years. What is the risk of this hydrologic design?

Concept:

Risk = the probability that a flood will occur at least once in successive years
𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒌 = 𝟏 − 𝒒𝒏 = 𝟏 − (𝟏 − 𝒑)𝒏

Where: P is the probability of occurrence of an event and its given by p=1/T

T is the return period; q is the probability of not occurrence of an event

Given:

n= 25 years, Risk=?

Solution:

Return Period (T) = 100

𝟏 𝟏 𝟗𝟗
𝑷= ,𝒒 = 𝟏 − =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
 𝑛
99 25
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 (𝑅) = 1 − 𝑞 = 1 − ( )
100

SUMMARY

SUMMARY TABLE:

Load Type Description Components/Factors Design Impact

Dead Permanent load Bridge deck, girders, Must be accurately
Load due to the weight piers, abutments, calculated as the
of the bridge's railings, etc. base load the
structural bridge supports
components. continuously.
Live Load Variable load from Traffic, pedestrians, Design to
vehicles, trains, temporary loads accommodate the
pedestrians, (snow, etc.) maximum
trains, or expected live load
temporary based on the
elements like bridge type.
snow or
maintenance
vehicles.
Wind Load Horizontal force Wind speed, bridge Consider in
exerted by wind height, location, and regions with high
pressure on the span length winds, requiring
bridge. wind-resistant
design features.
Seismic Dynamic forces Earthquake magnitude, Require special
Load from earthquake ground motion, and seismic design
activity, causing proximity to fault lines (flexible joints,
ground shaking base isolation,
and displacement. etc.).
Flood Forces from water Rising water levels, Design must
Load flow, hydrostatic water velocity, debris account for
pressure, and impact, scour effects scouring, water
impact of debris forces, and debris
during floods. hitting the bridge.
Centrifugal Forces due to Vehicle mass, speed, Consider for
Load vehicles moving radius of curvature curved sections of
along curved bridges to resist
sections of the outward forces
(centrifugal).
 bridge, creating
outward forces.
Thermal Expansion and Temperature Design using
Load contraction of fluctuations, material expansion joints
bridge materials properties (expansion and flexible
due to coefficient) materials to handle
temperature thermal
changes. movements.
Traction Horizontal forces Vehicle weight, Considered for
Load due to vehicle coefficient of friction, road surface
braking or deceleration/acceleration strength, especially
acceleration on in areas where
the bridge surface. braking occurs.

Bridge structures must be built with great capacity and strength to resist the gravity
and lateral loads. Generally, the major components of loads acting on highway bridges
are dead and live loads, flood load, seismic load, wind load, Thermal Stresses,
Centrifugal Forces, and Traction load.

Loads are one of the factors that need to be considered when designing/
constructing a bridge. That's why the components of loadings are very significant to
learn about the types of possible loads, how to calculate ultimate load combinations,
and investigate the different sizes for the beams and columns of simple bridges, to
understand the problem, and learn how to determine the potential bridge loads,
calculate the highest possible load, and calculate the amount of material needed to
resist the loads is the utmost goal in this topic.

Engineers who design structures must completely understand the problem to

be solved, including the complexities of the site and the customer needs. To design
for safety and longevity, engineers consider the different types of loads, how and
where they are applied. This is because engineers often aim for a design that is the
strongest and lightest possible—one with the highest strength-to-weight ratio

Bridges are subject to a variety of loads that must be carefully considered in

their design to ensure structural integrity and longevity. Dead loads refer to the
permanent, static weight of the bridge's own structure, including the deck, girders,
piers, and abutments. These loads are constant and form the baseline for all other
loads the bridge must support. Live loads, on the other hand, are variables and include
the weight of vehicles, pedestrians, trains, and temporary factors such as snow. These
transient forces fluctuate based on traffic conditions and other environmental factors.

Wind loads exert horizontal forces on a bridge due to wind pressure, which can
cause lateral displacement and vibrations, particularly on long-span or tall bridges. In
areas prone to high winds, special wind-resistant design features are incorporated.
Seismic loads are dynamic forces resulting from ground shaking during earthquakes.
 In seismic-prone regions, bridges are designed with flexible joints and energy-
absorbing mechanisms to withstand these sudden, violent forces. Similarly, flood
loads are critical for bridges near rivers or coastal areas, where fast-moving water and
debris during floods can exert significant hydrodynamic and impact forces. Flood loads
also include scouring effects, where the water erodes the soil around bridge piers.

Temperature fluctuations cause thermal loads to material expansion leading

and contract. In expansion joints and flexible materials are incorporated into the design
to accommodate these movements and prevent structural damage. Centrifugal loads
come into play when vehicles move along curved sections of the bridge, creating
outward forces that the structure must resist, particularly at higher speeds. Lastly,
traction loads arise from vehicle braking or acceleration on the bridge surface, creating
horizontal forces that can affect the road deck's stability.

In bridge design, engineers must account for all these loads, both individually
and in combination, to ensure that the structure can withstand various operational and
environmental stresses over time. Proper consideration of these loads ensures the
safety, durability, and functionality of the bridge throughout its lifespan.

ASSIGNED READING AND/OR ENRICHMENT SUGGESTED READING

Designing Bridges. Designing Bridges - Lesson - Teach Engineering

SELF- ASSESSMENT:
INSTRUCTION: Write your answer on the space provided.
PROBLEM SOLVING. Solve the following:
I. Design a continuous span reinforced concrete deck girder (RCDG) highway bridge
with three spans of 60 meters each. The bridge must support a live load of 60
kN/m and a dead load of 35 kN/m. The design should include the following
aspects:
1. Load Distribution and Force Analysis:
2. Calculate the required cross-sectional dimensions for the deck girders to
ensure they can withstand the calculated forces.
3. Deflection Check:
o Calculate the maximum deflection of the deck girders under the applied
loads.
4. Shear Reinforcement Design:
o Determine the spacing and size of the stirrups.
5. Connection Design:
o Detail the reinforcement at the connections to ensure adequate load transfer.

SELF- ASSESSMENT ANSWER:

II. Essay Question. Discuss the following:
[Link] Mechanics
 [Link] loads of Bridges

PERFORMANCE TASK
Instruction: Write your answer on the space provided.

Develop a comprehensive design and analysis of bridge components under

various loading conditions, preparing the real-world engineering challenges.

Instruction: Write your answer on the space provided.

From the Performance Task of Module I (List of Bridges in Northern Samar),

select one type of bridge and calculate its components.
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