Digital Control Systems

Presenter :Engineer Motion Marufu

E-mail: motionmarufu60@[Link]
WhatsApp: +263773587388

26-Sep-24 ZNDU Aerospace Eng. - Microwave Engineering –

Introduction to Waveguides
 Objectives
By the end of the lecture participants should be able to do the following:
• Explain the reasons for the popularity of digital control systems.
• Draw a block diagram for digital control of a given analog control system.
• Explain the structure and components of a typical digital control system.
• State advantages of Z-transform
• Define Z-transform mathematically
• State two types of Z-transform
• Calculate Z-transform of finite duration sequences and standard sequences
• Indicate on a complex plane ROC of Z-transform of above signals
 Introduction
• In most modern engineering systems, it is necessary to control the evolution with time of
one or more of the system variables. Controllers are required to ensure satisfactory
transient and steady-state behavior for these engineering systems.
• To guarantee satisfactory performance in the presence of disturbances and model
uncertainty, most controllers in use today employ some form of negative feedback. A
sensor is needed to measure the controlled variable and compare its behavior to a
reference signal. Control action is based on an error signal defined as the difference
between the reference and the actual values.
• The controller that manipulates the error signal to determine the desired control action
has classically been an analog system, which includes electrical, fluid, pneumatic, or
mechanical components. These systems all have analog inputs and outputs (i.e., their
input and output signals are defined over a continuous time interval and have values that
are defined over a continuous range of amplitudes). In the past few decades, analog
controllers have often been replaced by digital controllers whose inputs and outputs are
defined at discrete time instances. The digital controllers are in the form of digital
circuits, digital computers, or microprocessors.
 Introduction
• Intuitively, one would think that controllers that continuously monitor the output
of a system would be superior to those that base their control on sampled values of
the output. It would seem that control variables (controller outputs) that change
continuously would achieve better control than those that change periodically.
• This is in fact true! Had all other factors been identical for digital and analog
control, analog control would be superior to digital control. What, then, is the
reason behind the change from analog to digital that has occurred over the past
few decades?
 Introduction
• In a digital control system, a digital device is used as the controller. The digital
controller may be a hardware device that uses permanent logic circuitry to
generate control signals. Such a device is termed a hardware controller. It does not
have programmable memory.
• This type of controller is not flexible in the sense that the control algorithm cannot
be modified without replacing hardware and furthermore, implementation of
complex control algorithms by this hardware-based method can become difficult
and expensive. But the method is typically very fast from the point of view of
speed of generating the control signals, and is suitable for simple dedicated
controllers. In mass production, hardware controllers are inexpensive.
 Advantages of Digital Control
• The advantages digital control offers distinct advantages over analog control that explain
its popularity.
• Here are some of its many advantages:
• Accuracy. Digital signals are represented in terms of zeros and ones with typically 12
bits or more to represent a single number. This involves a very small error as compared
to analog signals, where noise and power supply drift are always present.
• Implementation errors. Digital processing of control signals involves addition and
multiplication by stored numerical values. The errors that result from digital
representation and arithmetic are negligible. By contrast, the processing of analog
signals is performed using components such as resistors and capacitors with actual
values that vary significantly from the nominal design values.
• Flexibility. An analog controller is difficult to modify or redesign once implemented in
hardware. A digital controller is implemented in firmware or software and its
modification is possible without a complete replacement of the original controller.
Furthermore, the structure of the digital controller need not follow one of the simple
forms that are typically used in analog control. More complex controller structures
involve a few extra arithmetic operations and are easily realizable.
 Advantages of Digital Control
• Speed. The speed of computer hardware has increased exponentially since the
1980s. This increase in processing speed has made it possible to sample and
process control signals at very high speeds. Because the interval between samples,
the sampling period, can be made very small, digital controllers achieve
performance that is essentially the same as that based on continuous monitoring of
the controlled variable.
• Cost. Although the prices of most goods and services have steadily increased, the
cost of digital circuitry continues to decrease. Advances in very large-scale
integration (VLSI) technology have made it possible to manufacture better, faster,
and more reliable integrated circuits and to offer them to the consumer at a lower
price. This has made the use of digital controllers more economical even for small,
low-cost applications.
 Advantages of Digital Control
• Digital control is less susceptible to noise or parameter variation in
instrumentation because data can be represented, generated, transmitted, and
processed as binary words, with bits possessing two identifiable states.
• Hardware implementation is usually faster than software implementation.
• Digital control can handle repetitive tasks extremely well, through programming.
• Complex control laws and signal-conditioning methods that might be impractical
to implement using analog devices can be programmed.
• High reliability in operation can be achieved by minimizing analog hardware
components and through decentralization using dedicated microprocessors for
various control tasks.
 Advantages of Digital Control
• Large amounts of data can be stored using compact, high-density data storage
methods.
• Data can be stored or maintained for very long periods of time without drift and
without being affected by adverse environmental conditions.
• Fast data transmission is possible over long distances without introducing
excessive dynamic delays, as in analog systems.
• Digital control has easy and fast data retrieval capabilities.
• Digital processing uses low operational
 The structure of a digital control system
• To control a physical system or process using a digital controller, the controller
must receive measurements from the system, process them, and then send control
signals to the actuator that effects the control action. In almost all applications,
both the plant and the actuator are analog systems. This is a situation where the
controller and the controlled do not “speak the same language,” and some form of
translation is required. The translation from controller language (digital) to
physical process language (analog) is performed by a digital-to-analog converter,
or DAC. The translation from process language to digital controller language is
performed by an analog-to-digital converter, or ADC. A sensor is needed to
monitor the controlled variable for feedback control.
 The structure of a digital control system
• The combination of the elements discussed here in a control loop is shown in
Figure below.

• Variations on this control configuration are possible. For example, the system
could have several reference inputs and controlled variables, each with a loop
similar to that of Figure above. The system could also include an inner loop with
digital or analog control.
 Examples of digital control systems
• In this section, we briefly discuss examples of control systems where digital
implementation is now the norm. There are many other examples of industrial
processes that are digitally controlled, and the reader is encouraged to seek other
examples from the literature.
• Closed-loop drug delivery system
• Several chronic diseases require the regulation of the patient’s blood levels of a
specific drug or hormone. For example, some diseases involve the failure of the
body’s natural closed-loop control of blood levels of nutrients. Most prominent
among these is the disease diabetes, where the production of the hormone insulin
that controls blood glucose levels is impaired.
• To design a closed-loop drug delivery system, a sensor is utilized to measure the
levels of the regulated drug or nutrient in the blood. This measurement is
converted to digital form and fed to the control computer, which drives a pump
that injects the drug into the patient’s blood.
 Closed-loop drug delivery system
• A block diagram of the drug delivery system is shown in Figure 1.2. See Carson
and Deutsch (1992) for a more detailed example of a drug delivery system.
 Computer Control Systems
• In a software-based digital controller a digital computer serves as the controller. A
controller of this type has programmable memory devices in addition to a central
processor. The control algorithm is stored in the computer memory in machine
code (in binary code) and is used by the processor in real-time to generate the
control signals, perhaps on the basis of measured outputs from the plant (which is
the case in feedback control) and other types of data. This along with associated
input/output hardware and driver software forms the digital controller. The control
algorithm in such a controller can be modified simply by reprogramming, without
the need for hardware changes.
 Computer Control Systems
• In a computer-based control system, a digital computer serves as the controller. A
digital feedback control system is shown in Figure. The information enters into the
control computer in the digital form. Signals generated by the computer are in the
digital form. Typically, they have to be converted into the analog form for use in
the external purposes such as driving a plant or its actuators. Virtually any control
law may be programmed into the control computer. such as driving a plant or its
actuators. Virtually any control law may be programmed into the control
computer.

A digital feedback control system.

 Computer Control Systems
• Control computers have to be fast and dedicated machines for real-time operation
where processing has to be synchronized with plant operation and actuation
requirements. This requires a real-time operating system. Apart from these
requirements, control computers are basically no different from general-purpose
digital computers. They consist of a processor to perform computations and to
oversee data transfer, memory for program and data storage during processing,
mass storage devices to store information that is not immediately needed, and
input/output devices to read in and send out information.
 Components of a Digital Control System
• Analog measurements and reference signals have to be sampled and encoded prior
to digital processing within the controller. Digital processing can be effectively
used for signal conditioning as well. Alternatively, digital signal processing (DSP)
chips can function as digital controllers. However, analog signals have to be
preconditioned using analog circuitry prior to digitizing in order to eliminate or
minimize problems due to aliasing distortion (high-frequency components above
half the sampling frequency appearing as low-frequency components) and leakage
(error due to signal truncation) as well as to improve the signal level and filter out
extraneous noise. The drive system of a plant typically takes in analog signals.
Often, the digital output from controller has to be converted into analog form for
this reason. Both analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and digital-to-analog
conversion (DAC) can be interpreted as signal-conditioning (modification)
procedures.
 Components of a Digital Control System
• If more than one output signal is measured, each signal will have to be
conditioned and processed separately. Ideally, this will require separate
conditioning and processing hardware for each signal channel. A less expensive
(but slower) alternative would be to time-share this expensive equipment by using
a multiplexer. This device will pick one channel of data from a bank of data
channels in a sequential manner and connect it to a common input device.
• The current practice of using dedicated, microprocessor-based, and often
decentralized (distributed) digital control systems in industrial applications can be
rationalized in terms of the major advantages of digital control.
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System

(a)Feed-forward/open loop system

(b)Unity feedback system
(c)Non-unity feedback system
(d)General digital control system
 Digital Control System Modelling
A digital control system can be viewed from many different levels including control
law (algorithm), the computer program, conversion between analog and digital
domain signal domains and system performance. One of the most important aspects
leading to understanding of digital control systems is sampling. It was one process
that occurs first an analog signal is converted to a digital signal.
 Introduction to Computer Control
• The first approach for introducing a digital computer or a microprocessor into a
control loop is indicated in Figure below. The measured error between the
reference and the output of the plant is converted into digital form by an analog-
to-digital converter (ADC), at sampling instants k defined by the synchronization
clock. The computer interprets the converted signal y(k) as a sequence of numbers,
which it processes using a control algorithm and generates a new sequence of
numbers {u(k)} representing the control.

Digital realization of an
analog type controller
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
• By means of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), this sequence is converted into
an analog signal, which is maintained constant between the sampling instants by a
zero-order hold (ZOH). The cascade: ADC-computer-DAC should behave in the
same way as an analog controller, which implies the use of a high sampling
frequency but the algorithm implemented on the computer is very simple (we just
do not make use of the potentialities of the digital computer!).
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
• A second and much more interesting approach for the introduction of a digital
computer or microprocessor in a control loop is illustrated in Figure below which
can be obtained from the previous Figure by moving the reference-output
comparator after the analog-to-digital converter. The reference is now specified in
a digital way as a sequence provided by a computer.

Digital control system

 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
• In Figure the set DAC - plant - ADC is interpreted as a discretized system, whose
control input is the sequence {u(k)} generated by the computer, the output being
the sequence {y(k)} resulting from the A/D conversion of the system output y(t).
This discretized system is characterized by a “discrete-time model”, which
describes the relation between the sequence of numbers {u(k)} and the sequence
of numbers {y(k)}. This model is related to the continuous-time model of the
plant.
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
• The operating details of the ADC (analog-to-digital converter), the DAC (digital-
to-analog converter) and the ZOH (zero-order hold) are illustrated in Figure
below.

Operation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), the digital-to-

analog converter (DAC) and the zero-order hold (ZOH)
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
• The analog-to-digital converter implements two functions:
1. Analog signal sampling: this operation consists in the replacement of the
continuous signal with a sequence of values equally spaced in the time domain (the
temporal distance between two values is the sampling period), as these values
correspond to the continuous signal amplitude at sampling instants.
2. Quantization: this is the operation by means of which the amplitude of a signal is
represented with a discrete set of different values (quantized values of the signal),
generally coded with a binary sequence.
• The digital-analog converter (DAC) converts at the sampling instants a discrete
signal, digitally coded, in a continuous signal.
• The zero-order hold (ZOH) keeps constant this continuous signal between two
sampling instants (sampling period), in order to provide a continuous-time signal.
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
Sample and Hold(S/H) – This is a circuit that receives an analog input signal,
holds this at a constant value for a specified period of time. Usually the signal is
electrical but it can be optical or mechanical.
ADC – also known as encoder. It converts an analog signal into a digital signal,
usually a numerically coded signal in binary form. Such a converter is needed as an
interface between an analog component and a digital component. Basically ADC
involves sampling, quantisation and coding.
Digital computer – It processes the sequence of numbers by means of an algorithm
and produces a new sequence of numbers.
DAC – Also known as a decoder. It converts a digital signal (numerically coded
data) to an analog signal. It acts as an interface between a digital component and an
analog component.
Plant/Process – A plant is a physical object to be controlled.
 General Architecture of a Digital Control System
Transducer/Sensor – Converts an input signal into an output signal of some other
form that can for example convert temperature to voltage, optical signal to voltage.
Sampling
 Introduction
• Fourier transform provides a valuable technique for frequency domain analysis
and design of continuous time systems and LTI systems.
• Z-Transform provides a valuable technique for analysis and design of discrete
time signals and discrete time LTI systems.
• The Z-transform has real and imaginary parts like Fourier transform. A plot of
imaginary part versus real plane is called Z-plane or complex Z-plane.
• The poles and zeros of discrete time system are plotted in the complex Z-plane.
• In digital or discrete control systems the signals are discrete in nature. Z
transform has a vital role in digital control systems. The aim of this chapter is to
introduce Z transform and the digital control systems.
 Advantages of Z-transform
The advantages of Z-transform are as follows;
• Discrete time signals and LTI systems can be completely characterized using Z-
transform
• The stability of LTI system can be determined using Z-transform
• Mathematical calculations are reduced using Z-transform. For example
convolution operation is transformed to simple multiplication operation
• By calculating Z-transform of a given signal, DFT and Ft can be determined
• Solution of differential equation can be simplified using Z-transform
 Z-Transform
There are two types of Z-transforms:
• Single sided Z-transform
• Double sided Z-transform
Single sided Z-transform
• A single sided Z-transform of a discrete time signal x(n) is given by
+∞
• 𝑋(𝑍) = σ𝑛=0 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛
• Here ‘Z’ is a complex variable. The limits of summation are from 0 to +∞. When
we expand the summation sign we positive values of n only ( from 𝑛 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 =
∞). Because of this, this is a single sided or one sided Z-transform.
 Z-Transform
Double sided Z-transform
A double sided Z-transform of a discrete time signal x(n) is given by
+∞

𝑋 𝑍 = ෍ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
• While expanding the summation sign we include both positive and negative values
of ‘n’.
Z-Transform of some sequences
Z-Domain
In Z-transform, we are plotting real part of Z on the X-axis and imaginary part on
the Y-axis.
How to denote Z-transform

𝑍𝒙 𝒏 ⟷ 𝑿(𝒁)
Note that 𝑋(𝑍) is Z-transform of x(n).
The bidirectional arrow means we can
obtain x(n) from X(Z) by inverse Z-
transform. The Z-transform of x(n) is
also denoted as 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑍 𝑥 𝑛 . Here
x(n) and X(Z) are referred to Z-transform
pairs
Z-Transform
 Regions of Convergence (ROC)
• In Z-transform the limits of summation are from n = −∞ to n = +∞. If we
expand this summation we get an infinite power series. This infinite power series
means the Z-transform will exist only for those values of Z for which the series
attains a finite value. That means where the series converges.
Definition of ROC
The region of convergence of X(Z) is a set of all values of Z for which X(Z) attains
a finite value. Every time we find Z-transform we must indicate its ROC.
Significance of ROC
• ROC determines whether a system is stable or unstable
• It determines type of sequence
 Z-Transform of sequences
Obtain the Z-transform of the following finite duration sequences
1. 𝑥 𝑛 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 0, 7}
2. 𝑥 𝑛 = 1, 2, 4, 5, 0, 7
3. 𝑥 𝑛 = 3, 2, 5, 7
Solution
There is no arrow so it is assumed to be at first position by default.
𝑥 𝑛 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 0, 7}

According to Z-transform, we have 𝑋 𝑍 = σ𝑛=−∞ +∞ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛 . But x(n) is from

𝑛 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 5. The different values are as follows;
𝑥 0 = 1, 𝑥 1 = 2, 𝑥 2 = 4, 𝑥 3 = 5, 𝑥 4 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 5 = 7
 Z-Transform of sequences
Limits of summation must change to;
5

𝑋 𝑍 = ෍ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛
𝑛=0
Expanding the summation we get
𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑥 0 ∗ 𝑍 0 + 𝑥 1 ∗ 𝑍 −1 + 𝑥 2 𝑍 −2 + 𝑥 3 𝑍 3 + 𝑥 4 𝑍 −4 + 𝑥(5)𝑍 −5
𝑋 𝑍 = 1𝑍 0 + 2𝑍 −1 + 4𝑍 −2 + 5𝑍 −3 + 0𝑍 −4 + 7𝑍 −5 . But 𝑍 0 = 0 𝑠𝑜
2 4 5 7
𝑋 𝑍 =1+ + 2+ 3+ 5
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
The simple method to determine ROC is to put Z = 0 and 𝑍 = ∞ in the equation of
𝑋 𝑍
 Z-Transform of sequences
2 4 5 7
• Putting 𝑋 𝑍 = 0 gives 𝑋 𝑍 = 1 + + + + = ∞. Z=0 is not valid since it
0 0 0 0
2 4 5 7
results in ∞. Putting 𝑋 𝑍 = ∞ gives 𝑋 𝑍 = 1 + + + + =1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

• ROC of a given sequence is given as

• ROC: Entire Z plane except 𝑍 = 0
 Z-Transform of sequences
• Do second and third problem on your own.
 Z-Transform of standard sequences
• Z-transform of unit impulse 𝛿(𝑛)
• Definition of unit impulse is 𝛿 𝑛 = 0 only at n = 0
• = 0 otherwise
• According Z=transform we have
+∞
• 𝑋 𝑍 = σ𝑛=−∞ 𝑥(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛 . Here 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛
+∞
• 𝑋 𝑍 = σ𝑛=−∞ 𝛿(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛 . Since 𝛿(𝑛) is only present at n = 0 we can safely write
• 𝑋 𝑍 = 𝛿 0 𝑍0 = 1
ROC: There is no Z term in the above equation so ROC is the entire Z-plane. This
means Z can have any value.
𝑍
Thus the Z-transform pair is δ(𝑛) ⟷1
 Z-Transform of standard sequences
Find Z-Transform of the following standard sequences
• Unit step signal