Journal of Agriculture and Environment, November 2025

Understanding Climate Change: A Review of Causes, Impacts, and Responses

Horn Sarun *
Royal University of Agriculture
Published: 18 November, 2025
Corresponding: hornsarun@[Link]
Doi: [Link]

Abstract

Climate change refers to long-term changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the
number/severity of prolonged weather events, caused primarily by greenhouse gas emissions from
human activities. Although Earth's climate has fluctuated over long geological timescales due to
volcanic activity, plate tectonics, and solar variability, modern scientific analysis clearly indicates
that the rapid increase in global temperatures since the mid-20th century has been primarily caused
by human activities — particularly the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial
agriculture. This brief outline and analyses the natural and human-induced causes of the
greenhouse effect, presents the available scientific evidence, and outlines the environmental,
economic, and social impacts of climate change. It also discusses mitigation strategies, adaptation
strategies, international climate governance, and climate models that predict future scenarios.
Drawing on the IPCC AR6 report and recent scientific literature, this article highlights the role of
international cooperation, rapid greenhouse gas reductions, and the development of climate-
resilient development pathways. As vulnerable countries and climate-dependent sectors, the level
of climate risks is increasing in both quantity and severity, so effective responses require a
combination of scientific knowledge, innovative policies, and effective management.

Keyword: Climate change, Global warming, Greenhouse gases, Anthropogenic emissions,

Climate impacts, Mitigation and adaptation, Climate modelling

1. Introduction

Climate change refers to long-term changes in the statistical distribution of climate variables, such
as temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and extreme weather events. These changes occur
over decades or centuries, unlike “one-day weather” or short-term changes. According to the
IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), human activities have warmed the planet by about 1.1 °C
compared to pre-industrial levels, causing significant changes in the global climate system (IPCC,
2021). This warming trend is projected to continue, due to the long-term accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the weakening of the Earth’s climate system. The impacts
of climate change continue to affect many sectors, including food and water security, public health,
biodiversity, infrastructure, and global socio-economic stability. Scientific institutions such as
NASA’s Earth Observatory have reported that the last decade has been the warmest on record,
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with increased extreme summers, ice formation, and changes in precipitation patterns that are
unprecedented (NASA, 2023). In addition, global systems such as agriculture, ocean beds, and
forest systems are highly vulnerable to climate change. Several studies have shown that forest
carbon stocks and biodiversity are highly sensitive to temperature and climate (Kim et al., 2023;
Sarun et al., 2025a; Sarun et al., 2025b; Sarun et al., 2025c; Sarun et al., 2025d). As a result,
countries that rely on these natural systems—particularly in Southeast Asia, Africa, and small
islands—are considered to be at the highest risk (IPCC, 2022). In addition, community-based
forest management, biodiversity conservation, and REDD+ mechanisms are also considered to
play an important role in increasing climate resilience and supporting community livelihoods
(Horn, 2025a; Horn, 2025b).
Therefore, this research paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the main
scientific issues related to the causes, evidence, impacts, and responses to climate change.
2. Causes of Climate Change
2.1 Natural Causes
Historically, Earth’s climate has been shaped by natural drivers operating over various timescales:
a. Solar Variability
The Sun’s energy output is not constant; small fluctuations occur in roughly 11-year solar cycles.
Variations in solar irradiance can influence Earth’s temperature but cannot account for the rapid
warming observed since 1950 (IPCC, 2021).
b. Volcanic Eruptions
Major volcanic eruptions release large amounts of aerosols and sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere,
reflecting sunlight and temporarily cooling the planet. For example, the 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo caused a global temperature drop of about 0.5 °C for roughly two years. However,
volcanic aerosols do not cause long-term warming (IPCC, 2021).
c. Internal Climate Variability (e.g., ENSO)
Phenomena such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation redistribute heat within the ocean–
atmosphere system, influencing rainfall and temperatures globally. ENSO can cause temporary
warming or cooling, but its influence is cyclical, not a long-term trend (IPCC, 2021).
d. Orbital Changes (Milankovitch Cycles)
Over tens of thousands of years, changes in Earth’s orbital eccentricity, tilt, and precession affect
the distribution of solar energy, driving glacial and interglacial cycles. These slow natural cycles
cannot explain the rapid warming of the last 150 years (IPCC, 2021).

Collectively, natural factors have contributed minimally to observed warming since the mid-20th
century. IPCC AR6 demonstrates that the combined effect of natural drivers would have led to
slight cooling rather than warming over recent decades.
2.2 Human Causes (Anthropogenic Drivers)
Anthropogenic influences are now the dominant force shaping global climate. Key drivers include:
a. Greenhouse-Gas Emissions
GHGs trap heat in the atmosphere through the enhanced greenhouse effect. Major contributors are:

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• Carbon dioxide (CO₂): from fossil-fuel combustion, cement production, and deforestation
• Methane (CH₄): from livestock, rice paddies, waste management, and oil–gas operations
• Nitrous oxide (N₂O): from fertilizers and industrial processes
• Fluorinated gases: synthetic, powerful warming agents used in refrigeration and industry
CO₂ accounts for the largest share of global warming due to its abundance and long atmospheric
lifetime.
b. Deforestation and Land-Use Change
Land clearing reduces carbon sinks and releases CO₂ from biomass and soils. Tropical
deforestation is a major contributor to global emissions (IPCC, 2022).
c. Industrialization and Energy Systems
The industrial sector, powered by coal, oil, and natural gas, contributes significantly to global
emissions. The rise of manufacturing, transport, and electricity consumption has escalated GHG
output since the Industrial Revolution.
d. Agriculture and Food Systems
Modern agriculture emits methane (from livestock), nitrous oxide (from fertilizer use), and CO₂
(from machinery and land-use change). The global food system contributes nearly one-third of
total GHG emissions (FAO, 2021).

AR6 WG1 attributes nearly all warming since 1950 to human activities, assigning a confidence
level of “extremely likely”—the highest certainty category used by IPCC scientific assessments
(IPCC, 2021).
3. Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process crucial for maintaining Earth’s habitable
temperatures. Without GHGs, the planet’s average temperature would be −18 °C rather than
+15 °C (NASA, 2023).
However, human activities have intensified this effect through elevated concentrations of
greenhouse gases. CO₂ levels, which fluctuated between 180–300 ppm over the past 800,000 years,
have risen rapidly to more than 420 ppm—higher than any time in at least 3 million years. Methane
concentrations have more than doubled since pre-industrial times (NOAA, 2023).
The enhanced greenhouse effect leads to warming of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surfaces,
altering global climate patterns and intensifying extreme events.
4. Evidence of Climate Change
Scientific evidence for climate change derives from multiple independent datasets and
observational systems:
4.1 Rising Global Temperature
Global temperatures have increased by approximately 1.1 °C since the late 19th century. The past
eight years are the warmest ever recorded (NASA, 2023).
4.2 Ocean Warming
Oceans absorb more than 90% of excess heat. Consequences include:
• thermal expansion (driving sea-level rise)

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• more frequent marine heatwaves

• coral bleaching
• reduced oxygen levels (IPCC, 2021)
4.3 Glacier and Ice-Sheet Melt
Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are losing mass at accelerating rates. Glaciers worldwide are
retreating, reducing freshwater availability in major river systems dependent on glacial melt
(NASA, 2023).
4.4 Sea-Level Rise
Global sea level has risen about 20 cm since 1900. The rate is accelerating due to thermal
expansion and melting ice (NOAA, 2023).
4.5 Increasing Extreme Events
• Heatwaves are more frequent and severe.
• Heavy rainfall events have intensified.
• Drought risk has increased in many regions.
• Tropical cyclones exhibit higher rainfall intensity (IPCC, 2021)
4.6 Ecosystem Shifts
• Coral bleaching triggered by marine heatwaves
• Poleward and upward species migration
• Increased wildfires (IPCC, 2022)

These independent lines of evidence clearly indicate a warming planet, with changes inconsistent
with natural variability alone.
5. Impacts of Climate Change
Climate change impacts are wide-ranging and interlinked, affecting environmental, economic, and
social systems.
5.1 Environmental Impacts
Forest Degradation
Higher temperatures, droughts, pests, and wildfires increase tree mortality. Boreal and tropical
forests are especially vulnerable (IPCC, 2022).
Coastal Erosion and Inundation
Rising sea levels threaten deltas, coastal cities, and small islands. Saltwater intrusion affects
groundwater and agriculture (NOAA, 2023).
Water Cycle Disruption
Altered precipitation patterns contribute to:
• more intense floods
• frequent and severe droughts
• declining snowpack
• changed river flows
Biodiversity Loss
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Many species face habitat loss, altered migration patterns, or extinction. Coral reefs may lose 70–
90% of their cover under 1.5 °C warming (IPCC, 2022).
5.2 Economic Impacts
Agriculture
Crop yields decline due to heat stress, altered rainfall, and increased pests. Staples like rice, wheat,
and maize are projected to decline significantly by mid-century (FAO, 2021; Springer, 2022).
Fisheries
Ocean warming and acidification reduce fish stocks and alter species distribution, undermining
food security and income for millions globally.
Infrastructure
Climate-driven storms, heatwaves, and floods damage roads, buildings, power systems, ports, and
coastal infrastructure.
Economic Inequality
Low-income countries and marginalized communities face disproportionate impacts despite
contributing the least to global emissions.
5.3 Social and Health Impacts
Food and Water Insecurity
Droughts, floods, and crop failures drive hunger and malnutrition (FAO, 2021).
Climate Migration
Rising seas and repeated disasters create climate migrants, intensifying pressures on cities and
neighboring regions (IPCC, 2022).
Human Health Risks
• Heat-related illnesses
• Spread of vector-borne diseases (e.g., malaria, dengue)
• Respiratory issues from wildfire smoke
• Mental health impacts following disasters (WHO, 2021)
6. Mitigation of Climate Change
Mitigation focuses on reducing GHG emissions and enhancing carbon sinks.
6.1 Decarbonizing Energy Systems
Transition from fossil fuels to renewables (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, sustainable bioenergy)
is essential.
6.2 Energy Efficiency
Reducing energy consumption in:
• buildings
• transportation
• industry
• appliances

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Enhances emissions reduction while lowering energy costs.

6.3 Sustainable Transport
Strategies include:
• electric vehicles
• public transport
• cycling and walking infrastructure
• low-carbon fuels
6.4 Land-Based Mitigation
Forests, wetlands, soils, and oceans act as carbon sinks. Approaches include:
• reforestation and afforestation
• restoring degraded lands
• REDD+ implementation
• sustainable agriculture
6.5 Industrial Transition
Low-carbon steel, cement, and chemicals; carbon capture and storage; and circular economy
strategies (IPCC, 2022).
IPCC concludes that limiting warming to 1.5–2 °C requires global CO₂ emissions to fall 45% by
2030 and reach net zero around mid-century.
7. Adaptation to Climate Change (ការចំរងូ ខ្លនួ )

Adaptation enhances resilience and reduces vulnerability to climate impacts.

7.1 Climate-Smart Agriculture
Techniques include:
• drought-resistant crops
• improved irrigation
• agroforestry
• soil conservation
7.2 Water Resource Management
• watershed planning
• groundwater governance
• wetland restoration
• climate-resilient dams
7.3 Disaster Risk Reduction
Includes early warning systems, hazard mapping, resilient shelters, and community preparedness.
7.4 Coastal Protection
• seawalls, dikes, storm barriers
• mangrove reforestation
• coral restoration
• coastal zoning
7.5 Climate-Resilient Infrastructure
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Designing buildings, roads, and energy systems to withstand extreme weather.

Effective adaptation requires equity, governance reforms, and integration of local knowledge
(IPCC, 2022).
8. International Agreements and Governance
UNFCCC (1992)
Established global climate governance, defining responsibilities and frameworks for climate action.
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
First legally binding emission reduction commitments for developed nations.
Paris Agreement (2015)
A universal, legally binding treaty aiming to limit warming to well below 2 °C and ideally 1.5 °C
JMA, 2023). Countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and update them
every five years.
IPCC Assessments
Provide the scientific foundation for negotiations (IPCC, 2021).
9. Climate Modelling and Projections
Climate models simulate atmospheric, oceanic, and land processes to predict future climate
scenarios.
Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)
• SSP1-1.9 / SSP1-2.6: Low emissions, consistent with 1.5–2 °C
• SSP2-4.5: Intermediate pathway
• SSP3-7.0 / SSP5-8.5: High-emission scenarios
Projected Outcomes
• High emissions → warming >3–4 °C by 2100
• Low emissions → warming limited to 1.5–2 °C (IPCC, 2021)
Long-Term Changes
Even after emissions peak:
• sea-level rise continues
• ice sheets may destabilize
• extreme events intensify
(NOAA, 2023)
10. Conclusion

There is broad scientific consensus that human activities—particularly the burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, and industrial agriculture—are the most important drivers of current climate change
(IPCC, 2021; NASA, 2023). Evidence from multiple independent data sources, including global
temperature increases, melting ice sheets, rising sea levels, ocean warming, and an increase in
extreme weather events, clearly indicate that the climate is changing irreversibly. Responding to
climate change requires two main types of strategies: mitigation, which aims to reduce greenhouse
gas and carbon emissions, and adaptation, which aims to increase resilience to unavoidable impacts.
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International cooperation under mechanisms such as the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement
remains a key player in building a global movement against warming. The window of opportunity
for keeping warming below 1.5 °C is shrinking, but rapid and decisive action on a global scale can
still avert the worst. The next ten years will be the most important years for setting the direction
for a sustainable and climate-safe future for future generations.

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