Reproduction
Reproduction:- is a biological process by which living organisms produces new
individuals similar to themselves. It ensures continuity of life on earth and helps in
evolution of species.
DNA:- (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) is thread-like structure that carries all
information about our traits and is passed from one generation to the next.
• DNA copies are never the exact same as the original but they’ll be similar
• Sometimes however the variation can be so drastic that the DNA simply
can’t work with the cellular apparatus it has, causing the cell to die
• DNA copying is very important as it allows for the transmission of traits
from parents to offspring
• It also helps the offspring to have similar body structure
• Variation helps with evolution
Importance of Variation:-
• Allows the organism to adapt to the changing environment. It helps in
evolution, the continuity of the species and can even provide resistance to
certain diseases.
Asexual Sexual
One parent Two parents
No gametes Gametes produced
No fertilization Fertilization takes place
Less variation More variation
Appear identical Show characteristics of both parents
Fast process Slow process
Similarities:- Offspring produced, DNA copying occurs, Variation occurs in both
Types of Asexual Reproduction:-
Fission:-
• Asexual reproduction by which a unicellular organism divides and forms
two or more new individuals.
I. Binary Fission:- Divides to form two daughter cells. First nucleus divides to
form 2 nuclei, then cytoplasm divides to form the daughter cells. Happens
during favourable conditions. Example:- Ameoba, Paramecium,
Leishmania [causes kala-azar]
II. Multiple Fission:- Divides into multiple daughter cells. Happens during
unfavourable conditions. The daughter cells are protected in a cyst and
released when conditions are favourable. Example:- Malarial Parasite,
Plasmodium
Binary Fission can occur in any plane in Ameoba. It can only occur
transversally in Paramecium so both daughter cells have an oral groove and
can only be done longitudinally for Leishmania.
Regeneration:-
• When a differentiated organism is cut up into multiple pieces and those
pieces grow into separate individuals. When a new organism is formed, it
can be called reproduction. Ex: Hydra and Planaria
• Regeneration is NOT a form of reproduction as organisms don’t depend on
being cut up to reproduce, also most organisms utilize regeneration to regain
lost parts.
Fragmentation:-
• When an organism breaks into fragments and each fragments grows into a
new organism. Ex:- Spirogyra
• All multicellular organisms can’t simply divide cell-to-cell because cells are
organized as tissues and organs.
Budding:-
• Asexual mode of reproduction when an organism reproduces by forming a
bud.
• Budding in Hydra:-
➢ Bud grows from outer layer through cell division.
➢ Tentacles grow
➢ Bud matures and detaches
➢ Hydra grows individually.
Spore Formation:-
• Asexual mode of reproduction where structures called sporangia produce
tiny cells known as spores which develop into a new organism when it
comes in contact with a moist surface.
• Rhizoids are root-like structures which absorb nutrients and support the
spore by attaching to the substrate.
• Sporangiosphore is a stalk-like structure which holds the sporangium
• Stolon is another root-like structure which connects the spore to its colony
• Sporangium is a bulb-like structure which hold the spores. The spores are
released on maturity
• Spores are powdery substances that germinates when conditions are
favourable, to form fungi.
• Spores reproduce when theres adequate temperature, moisture, adequate
nutrients and less light
• Spores are lightweight (to be blown in the wind), more in number and have
an outer covering for protection.
• Examples:- Rhizopus, Penicillium
Vegetative Propogation:-
• Growing new plants from vegetative parts like roots (banana, sweet
potato), stems (potato, ginger) and leaves (bryophyllum)
• Plants raised by vegetative propagation bear fruits and flowers earlier
than ones raised by seeds
• They also allow for the propagation of plants such as banana, jasmine
and rose that have lost their ability to bear seeds
• All plants are also genetically similar to parent plants
• Plants with combination of desirable qualities can be produced
Artificial Vegetative Propagation:-
• Cutting:- Stem from a plant with one node is cut and grown
• Grafting:- Stem of a plant with desirable qualities is fitted on a strong stock
• Layering:- Stem of a plant is bent down into the soil and cut to grow roots
and grow into its own plant.
• Budding:- Bud from one plant is attached to the node of another. (Ex:-
Mango)
Tissue Culture [Micro Propagation]:-
• Only a small part of meristematic tissue is used for growing plants.
• In-Vitro Propagation:- Takes piece out of parent body in a test tube in an
artificial medium
1. Tissue from meristematic region is taken and put in an artificial
medium
2. Tissue divides to form a group of cells called callus
3. Callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for
growth and differentiation that forms plantlets.
4. Plantlets produced then transferred to pots or soil.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants:-
• Angiosperms:- Flowering Plabts
• Whorls:- Parts of a flower
• Pedicel:- Stalk that connects the flower to plant
• Receptacle/Thalamus:- Cup-shaped structure that holds the whorls
Whorls:-
1. Sepal/Calyx:- Green color, protects flower in bud stage
2. Petals:- Colorful; attracts pollinators with scent and color
3. Stamen:-
➢ Anther:- Sac-like structure which contains pollen grains which
contain male gametes
➢ Filament:- Supports anther
4. Pistil:- Inner-most whorl
➢ Ovary:- Bulged structure
➢ Ovule:- Contains female gametes
➢ Style:- Tube-like structure that connects stigma and ovary
➢ Stigma:- Tip of pistil; sticky to hold pollen grains
Unisexual Flower Bisexual Flower
Have either stamen or pistil Have both stamen and pistil
Ex:- Papaya, Melon, Pumpkin Ex:- Hibiscus, Mustard, Apple and
Mango
Pollination:- Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
Types of Pollination:-
• Self-Pollination:- Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same
flower or different flower of same plant
• Cross-Pollination:- Transfer of pollen grains from anther of one plant to
stigma of another in same specie
Insect-Pollinated Wind-Pollinated
Features
Flowers Flowers
Flowers Large and bright flowers Small and dull flowers
Petals Present, large, colorful Absent/Small
and scented
Nectar Present Absent
Stamen Usually short filaments; Long filaments and
anther attached firmly loosely attached anther
Pollen Small and sticky Large amount and light-
weight
Stigma Small, sticky stigmas for Large stigmas to catch
insects to rub against pollen in the wind
Double Fertilization:-
• Pollen grains fall on stigma
• Pollen grains contain tube nucleus and generative cell
• Tube nucleus helps in development of pollen tube
• Generative cells divides into 2 nuclei
• One enters throught micropyle and fuses with the egg to form the zygote
which divides to form the embryo
• The other one fuses with polar nuclei to form endosperm nucleus which
forms the cotelydon.
Post-Fertilization Changes:-
• Sepals, Petals and Stamen falls off
• Ovary becomes fruit
• Ovule becomes seed
• Stigma and Style get reduced
Parts of a seed:-
• Outer covering --> Seed Coat
• Food stored for embryo --> Cotelydon
• Part of embryo that grows first --> Radicle (future root)
• Part of embryo that grows next --> Plumule (future shoot)
• Part of shoot below cotelydon --> Hypocotyl
• Part of shoot above cotelydon --> Epicotyl
Human Reproductive System:-
Male Reproductive System:-
Testes:-
• Located outside the body for proper sperm production, as the suitable
temperature for it is 2 degrees less than body temperature
• Protected by a thick skin called scrotum
• Produces male gamete and testosterone hormone which controls secondary
sexual characteristics in males
Epididymus:-
• Structure above testes where sperm is stored
Vas Deferens/Sperm Duct:-
• Tube which carries sperm from testes to urethra
Cowpers Gland:-
• Gland which secretes fluid which neutralizes the acidic nature of urethra
Seminal Vesicle:-
• Secretes a fluid which provides nutrients and a medium for sperm
Prostate Gland:-
• Gland which surrounds urethra
• Secretes a fluid which also neutralises the acidic nature of urethra
Urethra:-
• Common path for excretory and reproductive system
Semen:-
• Fluid which contains sperms and the secretions from the glands
Female Reproductive System:-
Pair of Ovaries:-
• Produces the egg/ova
• Secretes oestrogen which controls the second sexual characteristics in
females
• Secretes progestrone which prepares uterus for fertilized egg
Fallopian Tube (Oviduct):-
• Tube which connects ovaries to uterus
• Fertilization takes place here
• Zygote divides by mitosis and travels through the fallopian tube with the
help of ciliated epithelial tissues present in the inner lining of the fallopian
tube
Uterus:-
• Bag-like structure where development of foetus takes place
• Inner-lining of uterus --> Endometrium
• Site of plantation of the embryo
Placenta:
• Disc shaped structure which is a tissue that supplies the mothers body
nutrients to the fetus, and removes the fetus waste. It has villi
Cervix:-
• Opening of uterus
Vagina:-
• Passage leading to cervix
Ovulation:-
• When egg is released from the ovary
• At the age of puberty
• Ovum moves to surface of ovary and bursts out
• Falls into fallopian tube and waits for fertilization
• Happens every 28 days
• Happens at about the 14th day of the cycle
• Menarc:- Starting of menstrual cycle (11-13 yrs)
• Menopause:- Ending of menstrual cycle (45-55 yrs),
• Menstruation:- Every month, the uterus prepares itself to receive the
fertilized egg, and the lining becomes thick and spongy. When the lining is
not needed anymore, it is broken down and comes out through the vagina as
blood and mucous. This cycle happens every month and is known as
menstruation.
Reproductive Health:-
• For preventing STDs and unwanted pregnancies
• Bacterial STDs:- Gonorrhea, Syphillus
• Viral STDs:- Warts, AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Sydrome) [caused
by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus]
i. Barrier Method:- Prevents fertilization.
Examples:- Condom (male), Diaphragm and Cervical Caps (female)
Copper-T [IUCD (Intrauterine Contraceptive Device)] prevents only
unwanted pregnancies
ii. Chemical Method:- Oral pills which prevent release of mature eggs. Cab
cause side effects
Vaginal pills kills sperms in vagina
Prevents only unwanted pregnancies
iii. Surgical Method:- Permanent method.
• Vasectomy:- Cut or loop is put on the vas deferens
• Tubectomy:- Cut or loop is put on the fallopian tube