Subject- DCN

Unit- I:
Fundamentals of Data Communication and Computer Network
Course Outcome- Analyze the functioning of Data Communication and Computer
Network.

1.1 Process of data communication and its components:

Process of data communication
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable or wireless.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
The four fundamental characteristics of a data communications system:
1) Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2) Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without
introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy
of the delivered data.
3) Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such
a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4) Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness
of data being transmitted.
Components
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
 connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

1.2 Definitions
Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
“It is set of rules and conventions. Sender and receiver in data communication must agree on
common set of rules before they can communicate with each other.”
The key elements of a protocol are:
a) Syntax (what is to be communicated)
The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
b) Semantics (how is it to be communicated)
The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How are a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does an address
identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
c) Timing (When it should be communicated)
The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps,
the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
Manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunication technology and processes.
They provide guidelines to manufacturers, Vendors, govt. agencies and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today’s market place and in international
communication.
Types of Protocol Standards
1. De facto Standards
• The meaning of De-Facto is ‘by fact’ or ‘by convention’.
• These standards are rules or protocols that are not officially approved, but they become
standards because many people use them.
2. De jure Standards
• The meaning of De-jure is ‘by law’ or ‘by regulation’.
• These standards are rules or protocols that are officially approved.

Standard organizations
1. International standard organization (ISO)
2. American National Standard institute (ANSI)
3. Institute of electrical & electronics engineers (IEEE)
4. The Electronics Industries Association. (EIA)
5. The International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications Standard Sector (ITU-T)
Functions:
ISO: - Standard Creation Organization. ISO is a non-profitable organization. OSI model as a
networking protocol is contribution of ISO.
ITU-T: - Created to resolve issues related to incompatibility of individual nations standard for data
communication. V-series for modems, ISDN, are contribution of ITU-T
ANSI: - A private non-profit organization undertaking projects for social benefits of the US citizens.
 Professional groups, Industry representatives, government regulatory bodies and consumer groups
represent ANSI.
IEEE: - Focuses on development in Electric & Electronic Engineering & radio services. Also
supervises the development and adoption of International computer and communication standards.
EIA: - Non- profitable organization focuses on public awareness & lobbying for standards. Main
contribution is development of Interfaces for physical connections and electronic signal
specifications for data communications.

Bandwidth
It is difference between highest & lowest frequencies contained in signal. bandwidth of channel is
difference between highest & lowest frequency supported by that channel.
Data Transmission Rate
The speed with which data can be transmitted from one device to another.
Data rates are often measured in megabits (million bits) or megabytes (million bytes) per second. These
are usually abbreviated as Mbps and Mbps respectively.
Another term for data transfer rate is throughput.
Baud Rate
It is the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after the encoding and modulation in a
data communication system.
OR
Baud Rate is the number of Signal Units / Sec
Bits per second
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second in the data communication system and it is
expressed in bits per second.

1.3 Modes of Communication

Simplex
In these systems, the information is communicated only in one direction, called as simplex system
eg. TV broadcasting or radio.

Half Duplex
In these systems, the information is communicated only by one party in one direction, & another party
cannot transmit until current sender releases transmission link called as Half Duplex system eg. Walky-
Talky, FAX.
Transmission one at a time but both way

Full Duplex
In these systems, both parties involved in communication can send and receive data
 simultaneously eg. Mobile communication, telephone, Computer Communication. Transmission both
ways.

Synchronous communication Asynchronous communication

In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent In Asynchronous Transmission, data is
in form of blocks or frames. sent in form of byte or character.
Sender and Receiver use the same clock Does not need clock signal between the
signal sender and the receiver
It is more efficient and more reliable than
In this transmission start bits and stop
asynchronous transmission to transfer the
bits are added with data.
large amount of data.

Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

In Synchronous transmission, time interval In asynchronous transmission, time
of transmission is constant. interval of transmission is not constant, it
is random.

1.4 Analog Signal, Digital Signal

Analog Signal
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves
from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path.

Digital Signal
A digital signal can have only a limited number of defined values. Although each value can be any
number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
Analog and Digital Transmission:
Analog to Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated as analog data.
To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog-to-digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete. To
convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). PCM is one of the most
commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form. It involves three steps namely,
Sampling, Quantization and Encoding.
1. Sampling:
The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at which
analog signal is sampled.
According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest
frequency of the
signal.

Fig: Sampling
2. Quantization:
Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the
amplitude of the analog signal at that instance.
The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value.
Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.

Fig: Quantization
3. Encoding:
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.
 Fig: Encoding

Digital to Analog Conversion

• The process of changing one or more the attributes of analog signal based on information in
digital data is referred to as digital-to-analog conversion. It is also called as the modulation of the
digital signal.
• Depending on whether the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier signal is modified.
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.
• Fig. 1 shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-analog modulating
process, and the resultant analog signal.
• The digital-to-analog conversion is done by modem. Modem stands for modulator and
demodulator.
• A modulator uses some coding scheme and converts a digital signal into an analog signal and
demodulator converts the analog signal back into the digital signal.

Fig 1: Digital to Analog Conversion in Data Communication

Amplitude: It is the value of the signal at different instants of time. It is measured in volts.
Frequency: It is inverse of the time period, i.e. f = 1/T. The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) or cycles
per second.
Phase: It gives a measure of the relative position in time of two signals within a single period. It is
represented by φ in degrees or radian.
There are three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions possible as given below:

1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

• In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data, (See Fig.2).
• When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held otherwise it is set to 0. Both frequency
and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.
 Fig 2: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Advantages of ASK:
(i) Very simple to generate and detect.
(ii) ASK is a relatively low-cost modulation technique.
Disadvantages of ASK:
(i) ASK is very sensitive to noise.
(ii) ASK has low quality of digital modulation.

2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

• In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data, (See Fig. 3).
• FSK technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen to a
represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0. Both amplitude and
phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.

Fig 3: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Advantages of FSK:
(i) FSK has better noise immunity than ASK.
(ii) ASK is simple and easy to implement/generate.
Disadvantages of FSK:
(i) FSK require high bandwidth.
(ii) FSK is preferred only for the low speed modems.

3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

• In this conversion technique, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the
binary data, (See Fig. 4).
• When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude
and frequency remain same as in the original carrier signal.
 Fig4: Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Advantages of PSK:
(i) High data rate of transmission can be achieved using high level of PSK modulations such as
QPSK.
(ii) Efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.
Disadvantages of PSK:
(i) PSK has lower bandwidth efficiency.
(ii) Multilevel scheme in PSK are more sensitive to phase variations.

[Link] ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL

An analog signal has infinitely many A digital signal has only a limited
1 levels of intensity over a period of number of values along its value.
time.
As the wave moves from value A to
2 value B. it passes through and Although each value can be any
includes an infinite number of values number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
along its path.
3 Analog signals are higher density. Digital signals are lower density.
4 Loss and Distortion is high. Loss and Distortion is low.
5 Analog signals are less secure as
Digital signals are more secure
compare with Digital signal.
6 Less bandwidth is require for High bandwidth is requiring for
transmission transmission.
7 synchronization not present synchronization present.

1.5 Fundamentals of Computer Network-

Definition
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are
linked together through communication channels to make easy communication and resource-sharing
among a wide range of users.
Need of Computer Network
a. File sharing: Networking of computers helps the users to share data files.
b. Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives,
hard drives etc.
c. Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to implement
client/server applications
d. User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups, and video conferencing etc.
e. Network gaming: A lot of network games are available, which allow multi-users to play from
different locations.
f. Communication and collaboration: A network allow employees to share files, view other
people's work, and exchange ideas more efficiently. In a larger office, you can use e-mail and
instant messaging tools to communicate quickly and to store messages for future reference.
g. Organization: A variety of scheduling software is available that makes it possible to arrange
meetings without constantly checking everyone's schedules. This software usually includes other
helpful features, such as shared address books and to-do lists.

Applications
1. W.W.W.
2. Real Time Applications
3. Video Conference
4. E-Business
5. E-Mail
6. File Sharing
7. Searchable Data (Web Sites)
8. E-Commerce
9. News Groups
10. Internet Telephony (VoIP)
11. Chat Groups
12. Instant Messengers
13. Internet Radio
Network Benefits
1. File Sharing
File sharing is the primary feature of network. Due to use of networks, the sharing of files becomes
easier. File sharing requires a shared directory or disk drive to which many users can access over the
network. When many users are accessing the same file on the network, more than one person can
make changes to a file at the same time. They might both making conflicting changes simultaneously.
2. E-mail
E-mail is extremely valuable & important feature for communication within organization or outside
the people in world. E-mail service can be used by user in two different ways:
1. File based 2. Client
 1 File based e-mail system requires gateway server for connecting or handling the e-mail interface
between the two systems using gateway software that is part of the file-based e- mail system.
2 A client-server e-mail system is one where an e-mail server containing the messages & handles all
incoming & outgoing mail. It is more secure & powerful than file based e-mail system.
3. Printer Sharing:
Printer sharing is useful to many users as they can share costly & higher quality printers. Printer
sharing can be done in several different ways on network. The most common way is to use printer
queues on server. The printer queue holds print job until any currently running print jobs are finished
& then automatically send the waiting jobs to the printer
i.e. printer connected to server. Another way to share printer on a network is that each workstation
accesses the printer directly.
4. Application Services:
You can also share application on a network. For example, you can have a shared copy of Microsoft
office or some other application & keep it on the network server.
Another application services you can have on the network is shared installation i.e. contents of CD-
ROM copy to the server, then run the installation the installing application much faster & more
convenient.
5. Remote access
Using this feature user can access their file & e-mail, when they are travelling or working on remote
location. It enables users to access to centralized application, stored private or shared files on LAN.
6. Internet & Intranet
Internet: It is public network. This consists of thousands of individual networks & millions of
computers located around the world. Internets have many different types of services available such as
e-mail, the web & Usenet newsgroups.
Intranet: It is private network or it is company’s own network. Company use this feature for internal
use. For example: company establish its own web server, for placing documents such as employee
handbooks, purchases form or other information that company publishes for internal use. It also has
internet services such as FTP servers or Usenet servers
7. Network security: Internal & External

1.6 Classification of Network:

LAN
LAN is local area network. LAN is privately-owned networks covering a small geographic area (less
than 1 km), like a home, office, building or group of buildings. LAN transmits data with a speed of
several megabits per second. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology, and
(3) Their topology
Advantages:
1. The reliability of network is high because the failure of the computer in the network does not
affect the functioning for other computers.
2. Addition of new computer to network is easy.
3. High rate of data transmission is possible.
4. Loss expensive to install.
Disadvantage
1. Power - a good LAN is required to be on all the times.
2. Security - each computer and device become another point of entry for undesirables.
3. Investment in Higher Costs due to server systems.
4. Frustration if having a problem setting up.
5. A lot of times a network shares one Internet connection - if all computers running at once, can
reduce speed for each.
6. Area covered is limited.

MAN
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that distances a metropolitan area
or campus. A MAN typically covers an area up to 10 km (city). The best example of MAN is the
cable Television network, available in many cities. For an organization, the common use of a MAN
is to extend their LAN connectivity between buildings/offices that are within the same city or urban
area (hence the name Metropolitan Area Network). The organization can pass their Ethernet frames
to the service provider MAN; the service provider will carry their frames across the MAN; and then
deliver the frames to the destination site. From the customer's point of view, the MAN looks like one
big (long) Ethernet link between their offices. The different sites could belong to the same IP subnet,
and from the customer's viewpoint, no routing is required between their sites.

Advantages:
1. MAN distances large geographical area than LAN.
2. MAN falls in between the LAN and WAN hence, increases the efficiency at handling data.

WAN
WAN is wide area network. WAN is a long-distance communication network that
covers a wide geographic area, such as state or country. The most common example is
internet. A WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and video
information over larger geographical areas that may comprise a country or even whole
world.

Advantages:
1. WAN can connect the computer to a wider area geographically.
2. WAN shares software & resources with connecting workstations.