COMPILED EXPERIMENTS

FOR

A LEVEL AND FOUNDATION PHYSICS

BY

TOMORI T.I

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
 ERRORS

Errors are a measure of the lack of certainty in a value.

Example: The width of a piece of A4 paper is 210.0 ± 0.5 mm. I measured it with a

ruler1 divided in units of 1 mm and, taking care with measurements, I estimate that I

can determine lengths to about half a division, including the alignments at both ends.

Here the error reflects the limited resolution of the measuring device.

Example: An electronic balance is used to measure the weight of drops falling from an

outlet. The balance measures accurately to 0.1 mg, but different drops have weights

varying by much more than this. Most of the drops weigh between 132 and 139 mg. In

this case we could write that the mass of a drop is (136 ± 4) mg. Here the error reflects

the variation in the population or fluctuation in the value being measured.

Error has a technical meaning, which is not the same as the common use. If I say that the width of

a sheet of A4 is 210 cm, that is a mistake or blunder, not an error in the scientific sense. Mistakes,

such as reading the wrong value, pressing the wrong buttons on a calculator, or using the wrong

formula, will give an answer that is wrong.

Rounding values

During calculations, rounding of numbers during calculations should be avoided, as rounding

approximations will accumulate. Carry one or two extra significant figures in all values through

the calculations. Present rounded values for intermediate results, but use only non-rounded data

for further processing. Present a rounded value for your final answer. Your final quoted errors

should not have more than two significant figures.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

2
Some important terms

Observed/calculated value A value, either observed or calculated from observations. e.g. the

value obtained using a ruler to measure length, or the electronic

balance to measure mass, or a calculation of the density based

upon these.

True value The true value is a philosophically obscure term. According to

one view of the world, there exists a true value for any

measurable quantity and any attempt to measure the true value

will give an observed value that includes inherent, and even

unsuspected errors. More practically, an average of many

repeated independent measurements is used to replace true value

in the following definition.

Accuracy A measure of how close the observed value is to the true value.

A numerical value of accuracy is given by:

observed value − true value

Precision A measure of the detail of the value. This is often taken as the

number of meaningful significant figures in the value.

Significant Figures Significant figures are defined in your textbook. Look carefully

at the following numbers: 5.294, 3.750 × 107, 0.0003593, 0.2740,

30.00. All have four significant figures. A simple measurement,

especially with an automatic device, may return a value of many

significant figures that include some non-meaningful figures.

These non-meaningful significant figures are almost random, in

that they will not be reproduced by repeated measurements.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

3
 When you write down a value and do not put in errors explicitly,

it will be assumed that the last digit is meaningful. Thus 5.294

implies 5.294 ± ~0.0005.

For example, I have just used a multimeter to measure the

resistance between two points on my skin, and the meter read 564

kΩ—the first time. Try it yourself. Even for the same points on

the skin, you will get a wide range of values, so the second or

third digits are meaningless. Incidentally, notice that the

resistance depends strongly on how hard you press and how

sweaty you are, but does not vary so much with which two points

you choose. Can you think why this could be?

Systematic and random A systematic error is one that is reproduced on every simple

errors repeat of the measurement. The error may be due to a calibration

error, a zero error, a technique error due to the experimenter, or

due to some other cause. A random error changes on every repeat

of the measurement. Random errors are due to some fluctuation

or instability in the observed phenomenon, the apparatus, the

measuring instrument or the experimenter.

Independent and dependent The diameter of a solid spherical object is 18.0 ± 0.2 mm. The

errors volume, calculated from the usual formula, is 3.1 ± 0.1 cm3

(check this, including the error). These errors are dependent:

each depends on the other. If I overestimate the diameter, I shall

calculate a large value of the volume. If I measured a small

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

4
 volume, I would calculate a small diameter. Any measurements

made with the same piece of equipment are dependent.

Suppose I measure the mass and find 13.0 ± 0.1 g. This is an

independent error, because it comes from a different

measurement, made with a different piece of equipment.

There is a subtle point to make here: if the error is largely due to

resolution error in the measurement technique, the variables

mass measurement and diameter measurement will be

uncorrelated: a plot of mass vs diameter will have no overall

trend. If, on the other hand, the errors are due to population

variation, then we expect them to be correlated: larger spheres

will probably be more massive and a plot will have positive slope

and thus positive correlation. Finally, if I found the mass by

measuring the diameter, calculating the volume and multiplying

by a value for the density, then the mass and size have inter-

dependent errors.

Absolute error The error expressed in the

same dimensions as the

value. e.g. 43 ± 5 cm

Percentage error The error expressed as a

fraction of the value. The

fraction is usually

presented as a percentage.

e.g. 43 cm ± 12%

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

5
Error Estimation

We would like you to think about the measurements and to form some opinion as to how to

estimate the error. There will possibly be several acceptable methods. There may be no “best”

method. Sometimes “best” is a matter of opinion.

When attempting to estimate the error of a measurement, it is often important to determine whether

the sources of error are systematic or random. A single measurement may have multiple error

sources, and these may be mixed systematic and random errors.

To identify a random error, the measurement must be repeated a small number of times. If the

observed value changes apparently randomly with each repeated measurement, then there is

probably a random error. The random error is often quantified by the standard deviation of the

measurements. Note that more measurements produce a more precise measure of the random error.

To detect a systematic error is more difficult. The method and apparatus should be carefully

analysed. Assumptions should be checked. If possible, a measurement of the same quantity, but

by a different method, may reveal the existence of a systematic error. A systematic error may be

specific to the experimenter. Having the measurement repeated by a variety of experimenters

would test this.

Error Processing

The processing of errors requires the use of some rules or formulae. The rules presented here are

based on sound statistical theory, but we are primarily concerned with the applications rather than

the statistical theory. It is more important that you learn to appreciate how, in practice, errors tend

to behave when combined together. One question, for example, that we hope you will discover

through practice, is this: How large does one error have to be compared to other errors for

that error to be considered a dominant error?

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

6
An important decision must be made when errors are to be combined. You must assess whether

different errors are dependent or independent. Dependent and independent errors combine in

different ways. When values with errors that are dependent are combined, the errors accumulate

in a simple linear way. If the errors are independent, then the randomness of the errors tends,

somewhat, to cancel out each other and so they accumulate in quadrature, which means that their

squares add, as shown in the examples below.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

7
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

8
Graphing

Scientists and technologists very often organise their variables so that a particular theory

becomes a straight line on the plot. The reason is that a straight line is very easy to recognize,

and even small departures from it can be easily seen. This is harder with curves. For instance,

suppose that a theory predicts y = ax2. The curve in the upper graph at left looks a bit like y

= ax2, but it also looks a bit like y = a (1 - cos x), and a bit like y = bx1.8. It’s hard to tell.

In the lower curve, y has been plotted against x2. Let’s call the new variable z ≡ x2. This

graph does look rather like y = az, and it doesn’t look like y = a (1 - cos √z), unless z is very

small, and it doesn’t look at all like y = bz0.9.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

9
Graphing with Errors

When graphing, plot error bars. A very sharp pencil is good for getting the size just right. If error

bars are less than about 1 mm, then do not try to show them: instead write the size of the error on

the graph and also show your calculation of the error bar length. If both error bars (vertical and

horizontal) are too small to plot, draw a circle around the experimental point.

Draw a line of best fit and lines of worst fit. In many cases, your error bars will be the maximum

probable error, so you should have a high probability that the true value lies within your error bar.

Sketch (or just imagine) an ellipse whose axes are the error bars—this is called the error ellipse2.

In this case, every line should pass though the error ellipse about every point.

A worst fit line necessarily touches the edge of at least two points.

The error in the gradient is

To find the y-intercept, other lines of worst fit may have to be drawn. The worst fit that produces

the greatest y-intercept, and the worst fit that produces the smallest y-intercept may not necessarily

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

10
be the same as the worst fits used to find the extremes in gradient. The extremes in the y-intercept

may be produced by a combination of rotating the fitted line and moving it without rotation.

In the case shown above, the deviation of the measured values from the fitted line are comparable

in size to the error bars. This is a ‘normal’ case.

In the graph below, the error bars are large compared with the departure of the measured points

from the fitted line.

This suggests that the error estimates are too large: they should be re-examined.

In this graph,

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

11
the error bars are small in comparison with the departure of the measured points from the fitted

line. It is impossible to fit a straight line without rejecting a substantial fraction of the data as

outliers. Such a result suggests either:

(a) the error estimates are too small;

(b) that the measurements were made carelessly;

(c) that numerical blunders have been made in treating the data; or

(d) that the relation is better described as non-linear, which means that the theory which gives a

straight line in this plot is wrong or inappropriate here.

Further, the general shape of the points suggests that it would be a good idea to try a different plot,

such as g vs for ln g vs ln f.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
12
 Q1

1.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

13
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
14
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

15
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

16
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

17
 Q1

2.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

18
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

19
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

20
Q1

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

Type text here

23
3.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

24
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

25
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

26
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

27
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

28
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

29
 Q1

4.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

30
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

31
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

32
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
33
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
34
 Q2
5.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

35
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

36
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

37
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
38
 Q1

6.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

39
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
40
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

41
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
42
 Q1

7.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

43
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

44
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
45
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

46
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

47
 Q1

8.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

48
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
49
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
50
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

51
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
52
 Q1
9.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

53
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

54
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

55
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

56
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

57
 Q1

10

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
58
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
59
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
60
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

61
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
62
 Q1

11.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

63
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

64
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

65
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
66
 Q1

12.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

67
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
68
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
69
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

70
 Q1

13.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
71
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

72
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

73
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
74
 Q1

14.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

75
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

76
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

77
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
78
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

79
 Q1

15.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

80
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

81
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

82
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

84
 Q2
16.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
84
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

85
 Q1

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
86
17.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

87
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
88
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

89
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

90
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

91
 Q1

18.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
92
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
93
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

94
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

95
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

96
 Q1

19.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
97
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
98
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
99
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
100
 Q2

20.

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

101
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
102
 abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473

103
WISH YOU THE BEST

abolajitom@[Link], 08059396473
104