Chapter 1 – Respiration
Respiration is the release of energy from food (usually glucose) inside cells.
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen):
Word equation:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
Anaerobic respiration (without enough oxygen):
In muscles: glucose → lactic acid + energy (less energy than aerobic).
Why you breathe faster when exercising:
Muscles respire faster → need more oxygen → produce more carbon dioxide
→ breathing rate and heart rate increase to supply oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide.
Chapter 2 – Properties of materials
Common properties: hardness, strength, density, melting point, boiling point,
solubility, electrical/thermal conductivity.
Solids: particles very close, fixed arrangement, vibrate only → fixed shape
and volume.
Liquids: particles close but can move past each other → fixed volume, no
fixed shape.
Gases: particles far apart, move quickly → no fixed shape or volume, can be
compressed.
Metals: usually shiny, conduct heat and electricity, malleable (can be
hammered), ductile (can be drawn into wires).
Non-metals: usually dull, poor conductors, often brittle when solid.
Chapter 3 – Forces and energy
Force: a push or pull (unit: newton, N).
Types of forces: weight (gravity), friction, air resistance, tension, normal
reaction, magnetic, electrostatic.
Weight vs mass:
Mass is amount of matter (kg), same everywhere.
Weight is force of gravity on mass (N).
Energy forms: kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, chemical,
thermal, light, sound.
Energy can be transferred but not created or destroyed (conservation of
energy).
Work
done: work=force×distance moved along the forcework=force×distance moved
along the force (J).
Chapter 4 – Ecosystems
Ecosystem: all the living organisms (community) and the non-living
environment in an area.
Habitat: place where an organism lives.
Population: all organisms of the same species in an area.
Food chain: shows transfer of energy (e.g. grass → grasshopper → frog →
snake).
Producers: plants (make food by photosynthesis).
Consumers: animals (eat plants/other animals).
Decomposers: bacteria and fungi (break down dead material, return
nutrients to soil).
Human impacts: deforestation, pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction
reduce biodiversity.
Chapter 5 – Materials and cycles on Earth
Water cycle: evaporation → condensation → clouds → precipitation →
collection (rivers, lakes, oceans).
Carbon cycle (simple):
Carbon in atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Plants take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Animals eat plants, carbon moves into their bodies.
Respiration releases carbon dioxide back to air.
Burning fuels and decay also release carbon dioxide.
Earth materials: rocks, minerals, metals, fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are non-renewable; burning them releases
carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
Chapter 6 – Light
Light travels in straight lines and much faster than sound.
Luminous objects: give out their own light (Sun, lamps).
Non-luminous: seen because they reflect light.
Reflection:
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
Regular reflection (from smooth surface) gives clear image; diffuse reflection
(rough surface) scatters light.
Refraction: bending of light when it passes between substances with
different densities (e.g. air to glass).
White light can be split into a spectrum of colours (red to violet) by a prism.
Chapter 7 – Diet and growth
Balanced diet: correct amounts of all main nutrients:
Carbohydrates – energy.
Proteins – growth and repair.
Fats – energy store, insulation.
Vitamins – keep processes working (e.g. vitamin C for healthy gums).
Minerals – e.g. iron for red blood cells, calcium for bones.
Fibre – helps movement of food in intestines.
Water – needed in cells and for transport.
Energy needs depend on age, activity, and pregnancy.
Deficiency examples:
Lack of vitamin C → scurvy.
Lack of iron → anaemia.
Chapter 8 – Chemical reactions
In a chemical reaction, new substances are formed and it is hard to get the
original substances back.
Signs of a reaction: gas produced (bubbles), colour change, temperature
change, precipitate (solid) formed.
Word equation example:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
acid + base → salt + water (neutralisation).
Reactants are substances you start with; products are substances formed.
Conservation of mass: no atoms are lost or gained; total mass of reactants =
total mass of products.
Chapter 9 – Magnetism
Magnetic materials: iron, steel, nickel, cobalt.
Permanent magnets have a north (N) and south (S) pole.
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Magnetic field: region where magnetic force acts; shown by field lines from
north to south.
Earth behaves like a big magnet; compass needles line up with Earth’s
magnetic field.
Electromagnet: a coil of wire with current flowing; becomes magnetic only
when current flows (useful in relays, cranes, bells).