Renewable Energy Sources (25BEELY103)

MODULE-3

WIND ENERGY & BIOMASS ENERGY

Syllabus:

WIND ENERGY- Properties of wind, availability of wind energy in India, wind velocity and power
from wind; major problems associated with wind power, Basic components of wind energy conversion
system (WECS); Classification of WECS- Horizontal axis- single, double and multi blade system.
Vertical axis systems BIOMASS ENERGY-Introduction; Photosynthesis Process; Biofuels; Biomass
Resources; Biomass conversion technologies -fixed dome; Urban waste to energy conversion; Biomass
gasification (Downdraft) .
PROPERTIES OF WIND

The definition of wind is the movement of gas molecules in the atmosphere commonly known as air.
The differences in air pressure in a specific location causes air to move from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure. The Earth is spherical, which means that the widest part of the Earth, near the
equator, is slightly closer to the sun and the sunlight hits the equator more directly. Therefore, there is
hotter air over regions near the equator, and cooler air at the poles. Just like with the sea breeze, hot air
at the equator rises, causing an area of low pressure in which cold polar air moves from the north and
south poles to the equator to fill that space. This motion, however, is complicated by something called
the Coriolis Effect.
Winds are caused because of two factors:

(1) The absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
(2) The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the sun.
Because of these factors, alternate heating and cooling cycles occur, differences in pressure are obtained,
and the air is caused to move.
Wind energy or wind power describes the process by which wind is used to generate electricity. Wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power.

Wind has two important characteristics—direction and speed. The direction of wind can be gauged using
an instrument called the wind vane. The speed of wind is usually measured with an instrument called the
anemometer

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AVAILABILITY OF WIND ENERGY IN INDIA

Wind energy is a crucial pillar of India's renewable energy strategy. As one of the most mature and
established clean energy technologies, it plays a vital role in achieving the country's energy security
and climate goals.

Wind Energy Potential in India

India has a significant wind energy potential, but estimates have evolved with advanced technology and
assessment methods.

Official Estimate (NIWE): The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has assessed the total wind
power potential at 100 meters above ground level to be 302 GW.

State-wise Potential: This potential is not uniformly distributed and is concentrated in specific
states.

Wind Power Potential (at

State Key Regions
100m)

Gujarat 84.43 GW Kutch, Rajkot, Jamnagar

Rajasthan 18.77 GW Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Barmer

Karnataka 55.85 GW Gadag, Koppal, Bijapur, Chitradurga

Tamil Nadu 33.79 GW Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari, Coimbatore

Maharashtra 45.39 GW Dhule, Satara, Sangli, Solapur

Andhra
44.22 GW Anantapur, Kurnool, Kadapa
Pradesh

Madhya
10.48 GW Dewas, Ratlam, Ujjain
Pradesh

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Current Installed Capacity & Growth

India is the 4th largest market for wind power in the world in terms of installed capacity.

Cumulative Installed Capacity (as of March 2024): Approximately 45.15 GW (Source: Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy, MNRE).This means India has tapped only about 15% of its total assessed
potential, indicating massive room for growth. The growth has been driven by government policies,
both at the central and state levels.

4. Key Factors Driving Wind Availability & Exploitation

● Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in recent years.
● As of 31 December 2022, the total installed wind power capacity was 41.93 gigawatts (GW),
the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.
● Wind power accounts for nearly 10% of India's total installed power generation capacity and
generated 62.03 TWh in the fiscal year 2018–19, which is nearly 4% of total electricity generation.
● Tamil Nadu's wind production capacity was around 24% of India's total in 2021.
● Gujarat has around 22% of the total capacity of the country.

● The largest capacity wind turbine of 4.2 MW is installed in Tamil Nadu state as of October
2022. Muppandal wind farm, the total capacity is 1500 MW with nearly 3000 wind turbines, the largest
wind power plant in India.

Karnataka Gadag by Shah Gajendragarph power plant produces 10.8MW

● NOTE: Megawatts are used to measure the output of a power plant or the amount of electricity
required by an entire city.
One megawatt (MW) = 1,000 kilowatts = 1,000,000 watts. For example, a typical coal plant is about
600 MW in size.

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BASIC COMPONENTS OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM (WECS)

The basic principle of every windmill is to convert kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy
which is used to rotate the turbine of an electrical generator to produce electricity.
The wind energy formula is given by,

𝑃 = 1/2 𝛒𝐴𝑉3
Where- P= Power, 𝛒= Density of air, A= πr2 (Swept area of blades), V= velocity of the wind

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

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WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

COMPONENTS OF WIND TURBINE

Blades-Most turbines have either 2 or 3 blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to “lift”
and rotate. Blades are made of Fibers with a polymer matrix, such as epoxy resin since it is known for
its good mechanical properties, such as high tensile strength, low weight, and resistance to corrosion.
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) can also be used as blade material. CFRP) is a composite
material made by combining carbon fibers with a polymer matrix, such as epoxy resin.
Nacelle-Nacelle sits at top of the tower and contains the gear box, low and high speed shafts, generator,
controller and brakes. A cover protects the components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large
enough for a technician to stand inside while working.
Rotor-Blades and hub together are called rotor
Tower- Towers are made from tubular steel or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height,
taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity
Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in winds that are
too high or too low to produce electricity.
Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the
wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don’t require a yaw drive, the wind blows the
rotor downwind.
Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

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Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly
with respect to the wind.
Anemometer-Measures the wind speed and transmit wind speed data to the controller
Controller-Controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) &
shuts off machine at about 55 mph to avoid damage at high winds Gearbox- Gears connect the low-
speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per
minute (rpm) to about 1200 to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce
electricity.
Low-speed shaft- The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
High-speed shaft- Drives the generator.

Generator- Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. It should
have a cooling system to make sure there is no overheating.
WORKING OF WIND MILL

● Wind blows toward the turbine's rotor blades.

● The rotors spin around, capturing some of the kinetic energy from the wind, and turning the central
drive shaft that supports them.
● Inside the nacelle, the gearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the drive shaft into high-speed
rotation fast enough to drive the generator efficiently.
● The entire top part of the turbine (the rotors and nacelle) can be rotated by a yaw motor, mounted
between the nacelle and the tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind and captures the
maximum amount of energy.
● If it's too windy or turbulent, brakes are applied to stop the rotors from turning (for safety reasons).
● The electric current produced by the generator flows through a cable running down through the
inside of the turbine tower.
● A step-up transformer converts the electricity to about 50 times higher voltage so it can be transmitted
efficiently to the power grid (or to nearby buildings or communities).
● Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 30 meters or more above
ground, they can take advantage of faster wind.

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WIND VELOCITY AND POWER FROM WIND

Wind speed largely determines the amount of electricity generated by a turbine. Higher wind speeds
generate more power because stronger winds allow the blades to rotate faster. Faster rotation translates
to more mechanical power and more electrical power from the generator.
The amount of energy generated by a wind turbine depends on:
 Wind speed (main factor).
 The area swept by the blades
 Air density

● The cut-in speed (typically between 6 and 9 mph) is when the blades start rotating and generating
power.
● As wind speeds increase, more electricity is generated until it reaches a limit, known as the
rated speed.
● This is the point that the turbine produces its maximum, or rated power.

● As the wind speed continues to increase, the power generated by the turbine remains constant
until it eventually hits a cut-out speed (varies by turbine) and shuts down to prevent unnecessary strain
on the rotor.
0-10 mph: Wind speed is too low for generating power. Turbine is not operational. Rotor is locked.
10-25 mph: 10 mph is the minimum operational speed. It is called "Cut- in speed". In 10-25 mph wind,
generated power increases with the wind speed.
25-50 mph: Typical wind turbines reach the rated power (maximum operating power) at wind
speed of 25mph (called Rated wind speed). Further increase in wind speed will not result in
substantially higher generated power by design. This is accomplished by, for example, pitching the
blade angle to reduce the turbine efficiency.

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> 50 mph: Turbine is shut down when wind speed is higher than 50mph (called "Cut-out" speed) to
prevent structure failure.
CLASSIFICATION OF WECS (WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM)
1. According to axis of rotation
(i) Horizontal Axis Machines.
(ii) Vertical Axis Machines.
2. According to size as determined by the useful electrical power output.
i) Small Scale (upto 2 kW).

(ii) Medium Size Machines (2-100 kW).

(iii) Large Scale or Large Size Machines (100 kW and up).
3. As per the type of output power, wind aero-generators are
(i) DC output
(ii) AC output
4. As per the rotational speed of the aero turbines
(i) Constant Speed with variable pitch blades.
(ii) Nearly Constant Speed with fixed pitch blades.
(iii) Variable Speed with fixed pitch blades.
5. Wind turbines are also classified as per how the utilization of output is made
(i) Battery storage,
(ii) Direct connection to an electromagnetic energy
(iii) Other forms (thermal potential etc.) of storage, converter.
(iv) Interconnection with conventional electric utility grids.
6. Based on wind orientation
(i) Upwind turbine
(ii) Downwind turbine

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HORIZONTAL AXIS TYPE WIND TURBINE

● The axis of rotation (Horizontal axis) of blades is parallel to the wind flow direction.
● Generally these require massive tower construction to support heavy nacelle.

● An additional yaw control is required to turn the rotor towards the wind direction.
● Electric generator & gearbox are installed at the top of the tower.

● When it comes to the performance of the system, these are having high efficiency & most
used turbines.
● It is widely used for generation of electricity for commercial purposes.

Constructional details
● The rotor consists of the hub and blades of the wind turbine. Most turbines today have upwind
rotors with three blades.

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● The drive train consists of the other rotating parts of the wind turbine downstream of the rotor.
These typically include a low-speed shaft (on the rotor side), a gearbox, and a high- speed shaft (on the
generator side). Other drive train components include the support bearings, oneor more couplings, a
brake
● The purpose of the gearbox is to speed up the rate of rotation of the rotor from a low value (tens
of rpm) to a rate suitable for driving a standard generator (hundreds or thousands of rpm).
● The main frame provides for the mounting and proper alignment of the drive train components.
The nacelle cover protects the contents from the weather.
● A wind turbine control system includes the following components: Sensors – speed, position,
flow, temperature, current, voltage, etc. Controllers – mechanical mechanisms, electrical circuits
Working principle
● The horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) is a wind turbine in which the main rotor shaft is
pointed in the direction of the wind to extract power
● The rotor receives energy from the wind and produces a torque on a low-speed shaft.
● The low-speed shaft transfers the energy to a gearbox, high-speed shaft, and generator, which
are enclosed in the nacelle for protection.
● The low-speed shaft connects to the gearbox, which has a set of gears that increase the output
speed of the shaft to approximately 1,800 rpm for an output frequency of 60 Hz (or a speed of 1,500
rpm if the frequency is 50 Hz).
● The high-speed shaft is then connected to the generator, which converts the rotational motion
to AC voltage.

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Advantages

● The efficiency of HAWT are higher than that of vertical axis machines.
● They are easier to mount high enough to avoid much of the ground effect.
● They are less expensive.
● The technology is better developed.
● They Are Available Commercially.
Disadvantages

● Many of the important parts that require maintenance are high off the ground.
● A yaw mechanism must be in place to turn the turbine towards the wind direction.
● HAWTs can pose a danger to wildlife, especially birds and bats.
● HAWTs can produce noise, which can be a nuisance for nearby residents.

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TYPES OF HORIZONTALAXIS

● Single Blade
● double Blade
● Multi-blade system
Single blade wind turbines

● A single blade wind turbine has only one blade that rotates around a central hub.
● This design is simple and easy to maintain, but it is also less efficient compared to other
designs.
● It is subject to more vibration and noise.

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Two blade wind turbine

● It has two blades that rotate around a central hub.

● It has less vibration and noise compared to single blade turbines.
● The blades are usually mounted on the same central hub, which provides a balanced torque and
increases efficiency.

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Multi blade wind turbine

● It has three or more blades that rotate around a central hub.

● This design provides even more stability and efficiency compared to single or double blade wind
turbines, as the multiple blades spread the wind energy across the entire rotor, reducing stress on any
one blade.
● Additionally, this design is more aerodynamic and less affected by wind turbulence, resulting in
higher energy production.
● Cost of manufacturing, transporting the blade is huge as the number of blades increases.

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VERTICALAXIS WIND TURBINE

Types of vertical axis wind turbines

1. Savonius -two half-cylindrical blades arranged in an 'S' shape.

2. Darrieus types- curved aerofoil blades mounted on a rotating shaft or framework.
● Here the axis of rotation (Vertical axis) of blades is perpendicular to the wind flow direction.

● Additional equipment mechanism is required to start it from a stationary position.

● The vertical axis wind turbine does not require a yaw mechanism because it receives wind from all
directions.
● Gearbox is installed at the bottom of the turbine.
● There is no need for nacelle in case of vertical axis wind turbines.
Vertical axis Darrieus wind turbine

Constructional details
 Darrieus design, the aero foils are arranged so that they are symmetrical and have zero
rigging angles, that is, the angle that the aero foils are set relative to the structure on which they
are mounted.
 Blades: It has two or three thin, curved blades shaped like an eggbeater in profile, with
blades curved in a form that minimizes the bending stress caused by centrifugal forces-the so-
called Troposkien profile. The blades have airfoil cross section with constant chord length. The
pitch of the blades cannot be changed.

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 A gearbox in a wind turbine is mainly used to enhance the rotating speed from a low sped
shaft to a high-speed shaft connecting through an electrical generator.
 Support Structure: Support structure is provided at the ground to support the weight of the
rotor. Gearbox, generator, brakes, electrical switchgear and controls are housed within this
structure.
 The generator in the wind turbine converts the energy from mechanical to electrical.
Working principle

 In terms of operation, Darrieus utilizes the “lift” aerodynamic force to rotate.

 By flowing around the structure, the wind creates suction on the front side of the
turbine, driving the wings to rotate.

 Because of the shape of the wings, they do not experience as much drag as
Savonius turbines do. Once the rotation starts, Darrieus wind turbines are able to
accelerate to rotate faster than the wind speed.

 As the turbine tends to rotate, the electrical generator generates the electrical energy
from the mechanical energy supplied by the rotation of rotor shaft.
Vertical axis Savonius wind turbine

Constructional details

 The Savonius wind turbine is a simple vertical axis device having a shape of half-
cylindrical parts attached to the opposite sides of a vertical shaft (for two-bladed
arrangement) and operate on the drag force, so it can’t rotate faster than the wind speed.
 Aerodynamically, it is a drag-type device consisting of two or three scoops.

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 Because of the curvature, the scoops experience less drag when moving against the
wind than with the wind.
Working principle
 The differential drag causes the Savonius turbine to spin.
 Because they are drag-type devices, Savonius turbines extract much less of the wind’s
power than other similarly sized lift-type turbines.
 As the wind blows into the structure and comes into contact with the opposite faced
surfaces (one convex and other concave), two different forces (drag and lift) are exerted on
those two surfaces.
 The basic principle is based on the difference of the drag force between the convex
and the concave parts of the rotor blades when they rotate around a vertical shaft. Thus,
drag force is the main driving force of the Savonius rotor.
Advantages

● The generator and gearbox can be placed on the ground

● The structure is usually simpler.
● You do not need a yaw (pointing) mechanism to turn the rotor against the wind.
● VAWTs typically generate less noise than horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT).
Disadvantage

● Some VAWT designs can be more complex than HAWTs, making them more difficult to
manufacture and maintain

● These structures are low to the ground, where wind speeds are lowest.
● The overall efficiency is much lower than horizontal axis machines.
● Maintenance is usually more difficult. For example, replacement of the generator typically requires
disassembly of the entire machine.

● Some VAWT designs have a higher start-up wind speed, meaning they may not generate electricity
in light wind conditions.

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MAJOR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND ENERGY IN INDIA.

● Land availability: Wind turbines require a large area of land to be installed, and acquiring land is a
major challenge in India due to land-use regulations, competing land uses, and complex land ownership
patterns.

● Transmission and grid integration: Wind farms are often located far from the load centers, and the
power generated needs to be transmitted over long distances. The transmission and grid infrastructure
in India is inadequate, and the integration of wind power into the grid is a major challenge.

● High capital costs: The installation and maintenance costs of wind turbines are high, making wind
energy less competitive than other sources of electricity.

● Environmental impacts: Wind turbines can have environmental impacts such as bird and bat
collisions, noise pollution, and visual impacts.

● Maintenance and reliability: Wind turbines require regular maintenance to ensure reliable and
efficient operation, and the availability of skilled technicians and spare parts can be a challenge in
remote locations.

● Despite these challenges, wind energy has great potential in India and is a key component of the
country's renewable energy mix. The Indian government has set a target of 175 GW of renewable
energy capacity by 2022, of which 60 GW is expected to come from wind power. To achieve this target,
the government has introduced several policies and incentives to promote wind energy development,
such as accelerated depreciation, generation-based incentives, and viability gap funding.

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BIOMASS ENERGY
 The energy obtained from organic matter, derived from biological organisms (Plants
and animals) is known as biomass energy.
 Photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation of biomass energy.
A small portion of the solar radiation is captured and stored in the plants during
photosynthesis process. Therefore, it is an indirect form of solar energy.
Photosynthesis process
 Photosynthesis, which is the process of combining CO2 from the atmosphere with water
plus light energy to produce oxygen and carbohydrates (sugars, starches, celluloses and
hemicelluloses).
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy →6O2 + C6H12O6
The process of photosynthesis has two main steps
 First phase, Splitting of H2O molecules into H2 and O2 under the influence of
chlorophyll and sunlight. This phase of reaction is called the light reaction. Light
absorbed by chlorophyll causes photolysis of water. O2 escapes and H2 is transformed into
unknown compounds.
 In the second phase, hydrogen is transferred from this unknown compound to CO 2 to
form starch or sugar. Formation of starch of sugar is dark reaction not requiring
sunlight.
 The conditions necessary for photo- Synthesis are – Light, CO2 concentration, and
Temperature.
Biomass conversion technologies
Energy from the biomass is generated in three different forms namely
i) Direct combustion,
ii) Thermochemical conversion: takes two forms Gasification and Liquefaction,
iii) Biochemical Conversion.

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Direct combustion:
Combustion is the burning of biomass in the presence of oxygen. The waste heat is used to for
hot water, heat, or with a waste heat boiler to operate a steam turbine to produce electricity.
When biomass is directly burnt, energy is generated as given by the following expression,

Thermochemical conversion
Liquefaction: Biomass is liquefied either by thermo-chemical method or biochemical method
to generate alcohols like methyl and ethyl alcohol. These are mixed with petrol and used in
IC Engines as fuels.
Gasification technology uses high temperatures in a controlled partial combustion to form a
producer gas and charcoal followed by chemical reduction. A major use for biomass is for
agriculture residues with gas turbines. Advanced uses include production of diesel, jet fuel
and chemicals.
Biochemical Conversion
Involves the use of enzymes, bacteria or other microbes to break down biomass into liquids
and gaseous feed stocks and includes anaerobic digestion and fermentation. These feed stocks
can be converted to energy, transportation fuels and renewable chemicals.

Anaerobic digestion is the process of breaking down plant or animal matter by microbial
action in the absence of air, to produce a gas with high methane content. This methane can be
captured and burned to produce heat, electricity or a combination of the two. The main types
of organic material feedstock used in anaerobic digestion are: sewage sludge, farm slurry,
municipal solid waste (MSW). The process takes place at low temperature upto 65°C, and
requires moisture content of at least 80%. It generates a gas consisting of CO 2 and methane
(CH4).
Fermentation is an anaerobic process that breaks down the glucose within organic materials.
It is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria
are added to the biomass material, which feed on the sugars to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide.

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Raw materials containing sugars or be transformed into sugars can be used as fermentation
substrates. The fermentable raw materials can be grouped as directly fermentable sugary
materials, starchy, lignocellulosic materials and industrial wastes.

Fixed dome: Janata type biogas plant (Chinese):

 The design of this plant is of Chinese origin but it has been introduced under the name
“Janata biogas plant” by Gobar Gas Research Station.
 A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which
sits on top of the digester.
 The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester made of bricks and cement
having a dome shaped roof which remains below the ground level is shown in figure.
 Middle of the digester, there are two rectangular openings facing each other and coming
up to a little above the ground level, act as an inlet and outlet of the plant.
 Dome shaped roof is fitted with a pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of the plant.

 The inlet of the biogas plant is the mixing tank. In this mixing tank, the biomass is
mixed with the water to form slurry. Slurry is a composition of the water and the cow dung
(biomass). The mixing tank is also called the slurry region. Then, this slurry enters the
digester.

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 The digester (air-tight chamber) is an area with the absence of the oxygen (basically an
anaerobic region) and the presence of microorganisms (the anaerobic bacteria). These
bacteria are capable of decomposing the substances in absence of oxygen.
 Thus, these microorganisms in the digester decompose the biomass, that is, breaks
down the complex substance into basic substances like methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide. These gasses produced are stored in the gas tank and wherever required,
these gases are taken out through the gas outlet.

Biomass Gasification (Downdraft Gasification)

 Gasification implies converting solid fuel into a gaseous fuel is by thermo-chemical

method without leaving any solid carbonaceous residue.
 In downdraft gasifier, fuel is fed near the top and feed progress down through the
gasifier.
 The four different zones of drying, pyrolysis, combustion and reduction occur
sequentially from the top to the bottom of the gasifier, respectively.
 Drying zone: in this zone, the moisture content of biomass is removed to obtain dry
biomass. Wood is being dried in the drying zone.

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 Pyrolysis zone: Wood pyrolysis is an intricate process. Products depend on temperature,

pressure and heat losses. Up to 200 °C, only water is driven off. In 200-280 °C range, CO2,
acetic acid and water are given off. In 280-500 °C range, real pyrolysis occurs and produces
large quantities of tar and gases containing CO2.
 Combustion zone: In complete combustion of solid fuel composed of Carbon,
Hydrogen and Oxygen, CO2 is obtained from Carbon is fuel and water is obtained from
Hydrogen usually as steam. This takes place in the combustion zone. Also, exothermic
reaction takes place here.
The main reactions are:
C + O2 = CO2, 2H2 + O2 = 2H2 O
 Reduction zone : The products of partial combustion (water, CO2 and
combusted partially cracked pyrolysis products) now pass through a red-hot
charcoal bed where the reduction reaction occurs as follows:
C + CO2 = 2CO, C + H2O = CO + H2
 These reactions being endothermic have the capability of reducing the gas
temperature. The temperatures are normally 800-1000 °C.

Urban waste to energy conversion

 Waste-to-energy is the use of combustion and biological technologies to recover

energy from urban wastes. There are three major waste to energy conversion routes –
thermochemical, biochemical and physic-chemical. Thermochemical conversion,

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characterized by higher temperature and conversion rates, is best suited for lower
moisture feedstock and is generally less selective for products. On the other hand,
biochemical technologies are more suitable for wet wastes which are rich in organic
matter.
 The three principal methods of thermochemical conversion of waste are combustion in
excess air, gasification in reduced air, and pyrolysis in the absence of air. The most
common technique for producing both heat and electrical energy from household wastes is
direct combustion.
 Biochemical processes, like anaerobic digestion, can also produce clean energy in
the form of biogas which can be converted to power and heat using a gas engine.
 In addition, a variety of fuels can be produced from waste resources including liquid
fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, bio diesel.

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