OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE

DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING AND GEOINFORMATICS

SVG 401: GEODETIC SURVEYING (3 Units)
Compiled by
Fadahunsi, J. T. (PhD, fnis)

Course Outline
1. Concept of Geodetic Surveying.
2. Geodetic Reference Surfaces and Datums.
3. Geodetic Control Positions Determination Techniques.
4. Calibration and Maintenance of the Geotactic Surveying Instruments.
5. Design of Horizontal and Vertical Controls.

1. CONCEPT OF GEODETIC SURVEYING

Geodetic Surveying is the specialized branch of surveying that deals with the measurement of large
areas where the curvature of the Earth must be taken into account to maintain high accuracy. It is
essential for precise mapping, navigation, and large infrastructure projects. It applies the principles and
reference systems defined by the science of Geodesy.

1.1 Principles and Characteristics

1. Curvature of the Earth is Considered (Primary Property)

Geodetic surveys do not assume the Earth is flat. They treat the Earth's surface as a curved surface
(specifically, a mathematical figure called an ellipsoid or spheroid). This consideration is essential
because over long distances (typically greater than 250km2, ignoring curvature leads to significant
errors in distance, angle, and elevation.

2. High Degree of Precision and Accuracy

Geodetic surveys maintain the highest possible standard of accuracy because they are used to establish
the foundational control points for entire regions or nations. They employ sophisticated, precise
instruments (like high-end GNSS/GPS receivers and advanced total stations) and rigorous
observation methods.
Corrections are applied to measurements to account for curvature, atmospheric refraction, and gravity
variations.

3. Use of Spherical/Ellipsoidal Geometry

Since the surface is curved, calculations must use advanced geometry: It uses the principles of
Spherical Trigonometry and complex mathematical models, such as the Ellipsoid, for computations.
Lines of measurement (geodesics) are treated as arcs (curved lines), not straight lines. The triangles
formed by any three survey points are treated as spherical triangles, where the sum of interior angles
exceeds 1800 (this excess is known as spherical excess). Calculations rely on spherical trigonometry,
not plane trigonometry.

1
4. Reference to Global Datums and Surfaces
Geodetic surveys tie all measurements to globally defined reference systems:
Ellipsoidal Reference: Positions (Latitude and Longitude) are referenced to a defined mathematical
surface (like the WGS 84 Ellipsoid).
Geoid Reference: Elevations (heights) are referenced to the Geoid, the irregular surface of equal
gravitational potential (Mean Sea Level extended globally).
The final coordinates are expressed in a global coordinate system that is earth-centered and consistent
worldwide.

5. Area of Focus: It is necessary for large-scale projects, typically those covering an area greater than
250km2.

6. Objective: The primary goal is to establish a precise control network (a set of fixed points) across
large regions or nations, which serves as a rigid framework for all subsequent, less rigorous surveys.

1.2 Differences between Geodesy and Geodetic Surveying

Geodesy is the scientific discipline concerned with accurately measuring and understanding the
Earth's geometric shape, size, orientation, and gravity field. It provides the complex theoretical
foundation, mathematical models, and reference systems (datums) required for high-precision
positioning. In simpler terms, geodesy answers questions like: What is the exact shape and size of the
Earth? Where are points on the Earth’s surface located? How do those positions change due to
tectonic motion, tides, or other forces?

Geodesy is the fundamental science (the "Why" and "What"), while Geodetic Surveying is the
practical application (the "How") (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Differences between Geodesy and Geodetic Surveying

Feature Geodesy: The Science Geodetic Surveying: The Application
The science of accurately measuring The process of measuring and
and understanding the Earth's determining the precise locations of
Core Definition geometric shape, orientation in space, points and features on the Earth's
and gravity field as a whole. surface using the framework
established by Geodesy.
To determine the figure of the Earth To create high-accuracy control
(its true size and shape) and to networks over large areas to control
Primary Goal
establish a Global Reference System other, less accurate surveys
(Datum).
Global, Planetary, and Theoretical.
Regional, National, and Practical. Uses
Determines fundamental concepts
Scope global models (Ellipsoid/Geoid) to
like the Geoid and Reference
create a geodetic control network.
Ellipsoid.

2
 Earth models (Geoid/Ellipsoid),
Accurate coordinates of physical
Key Output Coordinate Systems (Datums), and
control points and large-scale maps.
Gravity field constants.
Works with complex mathematical
models like the Geoid (reference for Uses the established Geoid/Ellipsoid
Earth Models vertical measurements) and the models in measurements and
Ellipsoid (reference for horizontal calculations.
coordinates).

1.3 Differences between Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying

The key distinction lies in the scale of the project and the subsequent mathematical treatment of the
Earth's shape (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Differences between Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying

Feature Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
Earth Model Assumes the Earth's surface is a flat, Considers the actual curved shape of
horizontal plane. the Earth (spheroid/ellipsoid)
Area Limit Suitable for small areas, typically Essential for large areas, typically
2
less than 250km . greater than 250km2
Curvature Ignored (effect is considered Accounted for and corrections are
negligible). applied to all observations.
Lines Connecting Treated as an arc (a curve on the
Treated as a straight line (a chord)
Points spheroid).
Treated as Plane Triangles (sum of Treated as Spherical Triangles (sum
Triangles 0
angles = 180 of angles > 1800.
Uses simple Plane Geometry and Uses complex Spherical
Mathematics
Plane Trigonometry Trigonometry and Geodesy principles
Accuracy Moderate to low precision Highest degree of precision

1.4 Applications of Geodetic Surveying

Geodetic surveys provide the foundational framework for:
National/Continental Mapping: Creating accurate maps of countries and continents
Establishing Datums: Defining the fundamental reference systems (horizontal and vertical) used for
all spatial data.
Large Infrastructure Projects: Planning and construction of long-span bridges, interstate highways,
high-speed railways, and pipelines.
Global Navigation: Serving as the foundation for Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and other
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS).
Earth Science: Monitoring crustal movements, continental drift, and sea-level change.

3
2. GEODETIC REFERENCE SURFACES AND DATUMS
Geodetic reference surfaces are fundamental models used in surveying and geodesy to represent the
Earth for positioning, navigation, and mapping. Since the physical Earth surface is too complex for
rigorous mathematical calculations, three primary surfaces are employed: the Topographic Surface,
the Geoid, and the Reference Ellipsoid.

2.1 The reference Surfaces

The three primary surfaces include the physical surface of measurement and the two
mathematical/physical models (Geoid and Ellipsoid) used for computation (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Differences between Topographical surface, Ellipsoid, and Geoid

Definition/ Height
Surface Nature/Type Primary Use Remark
Purpose Reference
The actual,
irregular, and
constantly
changing surface
of the land and
Topographic Physical, Not Not used as
oceans. It is the Too uneven
Surface Actual applicable reference
surface where all
field
measurements
are physically
taken.
An equipotential
surface of the Gravity is
gravity field that perpendicular
Reference for
best fits the Orthometric to the surface. It
Vertical
Physical, Mean Sea Level Height (H) is irregular but
Geoid Coordinates
Equipotential (MSL). It (above sea smooth and
(Elevation/
represents the level) serves as the
Heights)
mean sea level zero elevation
extended under reference.
the continents.
A smooth, oblate
Smooth and
spheroid that
simple for
approximates the Reference for Ellipsoidal
computations.
Reference Mathematical, Earth's overall Horizontal Height (h)
Defined by the
Ellipsoid Geometric shape. It is used Coordinates (measured by
Semi-major
for (ϕ, λ) GNSS/GPS)
axis (a) and
computational
Flattening (f).
simplicity.

4
 Fig. 2.1: Interrelationship between Topographical surface, Ellipsoid, and Geoid.

Heights Relation
The relationship between the surfaces is illustrated by how heights are defined (Fig. 2.1):
Ellipsoidal height (h): Height above the ellipsoid (used in GPS).
Orthometric height (H): Height above the geoid (used for elevations).
Geoid undulation (N): The separation or difference between the geoid and the ellipsoid.
The mathematical relationship is given by h=H+N

Differences between Geoid and Ellipsoid

The Ellipsoid and the Geoid are the two mathematical/physical models used for computation in
geodesy. The difference between them lies in what they are designed to model: one is a smooth,
mathematical figure for horizontal positioning, while the other is a bumpy, physical surface for vertical
positioning (elevation).

Geoid (N)
The Geoid is the true physical reference surface for elevations (heights).
Definition: It represents the mean sea level extended under the continents. It is an equipotential
surface of the Earth’s gravity field, meaning gravity has the same potential everywhere on this surface.
Nature: Physical and Equipotential. It is determined by gravity measurements and models..
Shape: It is irregular but smooth. It cannot be described by a simple mathematical formula.
Primary Use: Reference for Vertical Coordinates (Elevation/Heights).
Height Reference: Orthometric Height (H) (height above the Geoid, or "above sea level").
Property: Gravity is perpendicular to the surface at every point (along the plumb line).

Reference Ellipsoid (h)

The Ellipsoid is used for computational simplicity to approximate the Geoid.
Definition: A smooth, oblate spheroid (ellipsoid of revolution) that approximates the Earth's overall
shape.

5
Nature: Mathematical and Geometric.
Shape: It is mathematically simple and smooth.
Primary Use: Reference for Horizontal Coordinates (Latitude (ϕ) and Longitude (λ)).
Height Reference: Ellipsoidal Height (h) (height above the Ellipsoid, used in GPS/GNSS).
Definition Parameters: It is defined by two parameters: the Semi-Major Axis (a) (equatorial radius)
and Flattening (f) (how much it's squashed at the poles).

2.2 Common Reference Ellipsoids

While many ellipsoids have been developed over time for specific regions (like Clarke 1866 for North
America or Bessel 1841 for Europe), the following two are the dominant global standards:

1. World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)

Primary Use: This is the standard reference ellipsoid used by the Global Positioning System (GPS)
and other Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS).
Significance: It serves as the basis for the World Geodetic System 1984 datum, which is the geodetic
reference system for all US Department of Defense (DoD) military applications and is used widely for
global navigation.
Parameters: Its equatorial radius (a) is 6,378,137m, and its inverse flattening (1/f) is 298.257223563.

2. Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80)

Primary Use: This is the reference ellipsoid for the International Terrestrial Reference System
(ITRS) and the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83).
Significance: GRS80 is a global model and is the most frequently used reference ellipsoid for global
positioning, mapping, and geodetic surveying.
Comparison to WGS 84: The WGS 84 and GRS80 ellipsoids are virtually identical for all practical
purposes, having the same semi-major axis, but differing only slightly in their inverse flattening values.
Historically, different countries used different ellipsoids based on their region and survey system.
Modern global systems like GPS, however, require a single, consistent reference surface for worldwide
computations, making WGS 84 and GRS80 essential.

2. 3. Geodetic Datums
A Geodetic Datum is a complete reference framework (a set of parameters and points) that defines
the coordinate system based on a reference surface, establishing its origin and orientation.

The types of Datums are Horizontal Datum and Vertical Datum

Horizontal Datum (2-D: ϕ, λ): Based on the Reference Ellipsoid.
Local/Non-Geocentric (e.g., NAD 27, Minna Datum): Origin is a fixed point (monument) on the
surface.
Global/Geocentric (e.g., WGS 84, ITRF): Origin is the Earth's center of mass.
Vertical Datum (1-D: H): Based on the Geoid (Mean Sea Level). Examples include NAVD 88.

A datum is defined by three categories of parameters:

1. Reference Ellipsoid (Size and Shape): Defined by the Semi-Major Axis (a) and Flattening (f or
1/f).

6
2. Origin and Orientation (Positioning)
Geocentric: Origin is the Earth's center of mass.
Local: Defined by the coordinates of an initial surface point (ϕ0, λ0) and initial elevation (H0 or h0).
Orientation is defined by the alignment of the polar axis and the zero meridian.
3. Realization: A Control Network (monumented points) that physically anchors the system.

Datum Shift and Transformation

Coordinates for the same point will differ between datums (a datum shift), requiring a transformation
to merge data. Transformation models, such as the seven-parameter Helmert transformation, are
used to convert coordinates accurately.

2. 4. The Minna Datum (Nigeria's Local Reference)

The Minna Datum (L40) is the traditional, non-geocentric horizontal datum for Nigeria's original
primary triangulation network (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Minna Datum

Feature Detail
Reference Ellipsoid Clarke 1880
Origin Point Minna Base Station L40 (Near Minna, Niger State)
Non-geocentric, Network Distortion from classical methods, and a lack of
Deficiencies
rigorously determined ellipsoidal heights (h).

It should be noted that modernization efforts are transitioning Nigeria to a geocentric datum (NGD
2012/2014) based on a Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) network (NIGNET).

2.5. Reduction of Earth-Surface Measurements

Geodetic reduction is necessary to transform field measurements taken on the irregular physical Earth
surface into geometric equivalents on the smooth, mathematical Reference Ellipsoid, where all
rigorous computations are performed.

Reduction of Measured Distances (Spatial Distance)

This typically involves a three-step process to reduce the slant distance (S) to the ellipsoid:
1. Reduction to Horizontal Distance (D): Corrects the slant distance on the terrain to a horizontal
distance at the observation elevation. D=S⋅sin(z).
2. Reduction to the Ellipsoid (Length Reduction s): Reduces the horizontal distance (D) from the
average ellipsoidal height (h) down to the ellipsoid surface.
3. Reduction for Geoid-Ellipsoid Separation: The ellipsoidal height (h) must be used, which
includes the geoid undulation (N), i.e., h=H+N.

Reduction of Measured Angles

Angles are corrected for the difference between the local vertical (plumb line) and the ellipsoid normal:

7
Deflection of the Vertical (DoV) Correction: A physical correction that accounts for the angle (ξ, η)
between the plumb line and the ellipsoid normal. This is used to obtain geodetic azimuths from
astronomical azimuths.
Skew Normal Correction: A geometric correction accounting for the fact that projected points may
not lie on the same normal section, making the corrected line of sight the geodesic.

3. GEODETIC CONTROL POSITIONS DETERMINATION TECHNIQUES

Geodetic surveying establishes a precise, robust framework (a control network) necessary for accurate
positioning over large areas. Control points are categorized by the dimension they define: Horizontal
Control (ϕ, λ) and Vertical Control (H).

Geodetic control consists of precisely determined reference points (stations) on the Earth’s surface that
serve as a framework for mapping, surveying, and engineering projects.
These points have: Horizontal positions (latitude, longitude, and sometimes azimuth) and Vertical
positions (elevations above a reference datum)

Purpose
Provides accurate positional reference for surveying and mapping.
Ensures consistency and uniformity of coordinates across large areas.
Supports geospatial data integration and engineering design.

3.1 Techniques for Establishing Geodetic Control

1. Triangulation
Definition: Triangulation is a surveying method in which the positions of points are determined by
measuring angles in a network of triangles and using at least one known baseline.
Principle: If one side (the baseline) and the two included angles of a triangle are known, the other
sides and angles can be computed using trigonometry.

Procedure
1. Baseline measurement: A carefully measured baseline forms the foundation.
2. Angle observation: The angles at each end of the baseline are measured to locate new points.
3. Computation: Using the law of sines to compute other sides and point coordinates.
4. Network extension: The process is repeated to form a chain or network of triangles.

Instruments Used
Theodolite or total station for measuring angles.
Distance-measuring equipment for the baseline (e.g., EDM).

Advantages
Suitable for long-distance surveys.
High precision if angles are measured accurately.
Provides a rigid and well-connected control network.

8
Disadvantages
Requires intervisibility between stations.
Accuracy depends heavily on baseline measurement and angular precision.
Difficult in obstructed or mountainous terrain.

2. Trilateration
Definition: Trilateration determines point positions by measuring the lengths of the sides of triangles
(distances) rather than the angles.
Principle: If the lengths of all three sides of a triangle are known, the positions of its vertices can be
determined mathematically.

Procedure
1. Measure the distances between three or more control points using Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM) or GNSS.
2. Compute coordinates using geometric relationships.
3. Adjust network for least-squares precision.

Instruments Used
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) devices.
Total stations.
GNSS receivers.

Advantages
No need for precise angular measurements.
Useful in areas where visibility between all stations is limited.
Compatible with modern GNSS surveying.

Disadvantages
Requires precise distance measurements.
More computation-intensive than triangulation.
Error propagation can be significant in large networks.

3. Traversing
Definition: Traversing is a method of establishing control by a series of connected survey lines whose
lengths and directions are measured between successive points.

Types of Traverse
Open Traverse: Starts and ends at points of unknown position (e.g., road survey).
Closed Traverse: Forms a loop or connects two known points (preferred for geodetic control).
Procedure
1. Measure horizontal angles and distances between consecutive stations.
2. Compute bearings and coordinates of each point.
3. Adjust closure error in closed traverses using adjustment methods (e.g., Bowditch rule).

9
Instruments Used
Theodolite or total station for angles.
EDM or tape for distances.
Compass for rough traverses.

Advantages
Flexible and simple to execute.
Suitable in areas with obstructions.
Can connect control points efficiently.

Disadvantages
Errors accumulate along the traverse.
Requires frequent checks or closures to maintain accuracy.

3.2. GPS/GNSS (Global Positioning System/Global Navigation Satellite System)

GNSS is a satellite-based system that provides three-dimensional positioning, navigation, and timing
information anywhere on Earth.
Examples: GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU) and BeiDou (China)
Principle: Position is determined by measuring the time it takes for signals from at least four satellites
to reach the receiver. These distances (pseudo-ranges) are used to compute coordinates through
trilateration in 3-D space.

The techniques of GNSS Surveying are:

1. Static GNSS Survey: Long observation sessions for high-precision control networks.
2. Rapid Static: Shorter sessions for medium-precision work.
3. Real-Time Kinematic (RTK): Real-time position correction via base and rover receivers.
4. Differential GNSS (DGNSS): Correction signals from known base stations improve accuracy.

Advantages
o High accuracy (centimeter level with RTK or post-processing).
o No need for intervisibility between stations.
o Fast and efficient for large-scale control networks.
o Works globally, day or night, under most weather conditions.

Disadvantages
o Requires satellite visibility (limited under trees, tunnels, urban canyons).
o Susceptible to signal errors (multipath, atmospheric delays).
o Dependent on expensive equipment and processing software.

10
Comparison of the Methods
Table 3.1: Comparison of Methods
Primary Intervisibility Suitable
Technique Accuracy Modern Use
Measurement Required Terrain
Open Historical /
Triangulation Angles Yes High
terrain theoretical
EDM / GNSS
Trilateration Distances Partial High Any
based
Angles and Engineering and
Traversing Partial Moderate Any
Distances Cadastral
Satellite Geodetic /
GPS/GNSS No Very High All
distances modern mapping

In conclusion, establishing geodetic control is fundamental for accurate spatial referencing.

While traditional methods (triangulation, trilateration, traversing) laid the groundwork for surveying
networks, GNSS has revolutionized control establishment through speed, precision, and global
applicability.

3.3 CORS Concept and Relevance to Geodetic Control

A CORS is a ground‐based GNSS receiver and antenna monument, permanently (or semi‐
permanently) installed on a stable foundation, tracking GNSS satellites continuously (24/7), and
recording or streaming data (code and carrier phase) at fixed epochs. The station has exactly‐known
coordinates (and often velocities) tied to a reference frame. Users utilize CORS data directly (e.g.,
post-process their rover data alongside CORS data) or via real-time services.

Why CORS matter for geodetic control

Stable reference framework: Because CORS have known coordinates and often velocity information
(to account for tectonic or crustal motion), they provide a stable basis for positioning and control.
Integration with global geodetic frames: CORS tie national/local networks to ITRF or other global
frames, facilitating consistent positioning and datum transformations.
Densification and maintenance: CORS networks support densification of control networks (i.e.,
adding more benchmarks) by providing reliable reference points. They also allow monitoring of
monument stability, deformations, and long-term coordinate changes.
Real-time and post-processing support: By providing correction data (either real‐time via networks
or raw data for post‐processing), CORS enable high-precision positioning for field control work, thus
reducing the need for independent base stations for each survey.

CORS in the establishment of geodetic control networks

In practice, when establishing or upgrading a geodetic control network:
Some stations in the network are directly connected to CORS or co-located with CORS monuments,
thereby inheriting their high accuracy and stable reference.
Surveyors can process rover observations relative to one or more CORS, reducing error propagation
and improving tie to datum.

11
CORS Network Design and Implementation for Geodetic Control
Network design considerations
When designing a CORS network (or choosing CORS stations to link into), guidelines typically
address:
Monument stability and site selection: The monument must be founded on stable ground, free of
disturbance, with good sky view and minimal multipath. For geodetic purposes the monument is often
deeply anchored.
Spacing and density: The inter‐station distance depends on application tier (global, national, and
regional). For example, the Australian guideline notes Tier 1 (global reference) CORS may be spaced
500–1500km, Tier 2 (national geodetic) 80–500km, Tier 3 (densification) 20–80km.
Equipment specification: Dual-frequency GNSS receiver (L1/L2 or multi-GNSS), calibrated antenna
(phase centre corrections), stable power and internet connectivity, data logging at appropriate intervals
(1s, 5s, 15s) and metadata records.
Reference frame tie-in: The station’s coordinates (and velocities) must be defined and published in a
recognized reference frame and regularly updated to account for motions (such as tectonic plate drift,
earthquakes).

Implementation steps for CORS supporting geodetic control

1. Site reconnaissance and monumentation: Choose a site with uninterrupted sky view, minimal
reflective surfaces, and stable ground. Construct a robust monument (e.g., deep foundation, pillar, and
anchor).
2. Installation of instrumentation: Set up GNSS receiver, calibrated antenna, power supply
(including UPS or solar backup), communication link for data streaming or retrieval..
3. Initial coordinate determination: Collect long GNSS sessions (24h or more) and process to
establish station coordinates (and velocity) relative to global frame.
4. Operational monitoring and maintenance: Continuous data collection, periodic review/validation
of station performance, metadata updates, station logs. Guidelines (e.g., from NGS) outline
responsibilities.
5. Integration into control network workflows: Publish station metadata and coordinate solutions;
enable users to leverage the CORS data for their control surveys (e.g., by providing raw data
downloads, streaming correction services) so that new control points are tied to the established stable
CORS network.

Application of CORS for establishing Geodetic control points

When using CORS to establish new control points, the following should be noted:
Use the nearest CORS station(s) as reference(s) for differential GNSS observations by rovers or static
sessions.
For high-accuracy control, rovers may record data for hours and be processed with CORS data to
determine new control point coordinates with cm or better precision.
Co-locate new control monuments with CORS (or nearby) to ensure stability and direct access to
continuous data.
Use CORS-derived time series data to assess whether control points are stable or subject to movement
(which is vital for geodetic control).

12
In densification, ensure spacing of new control points is consistent with survey tolerances and CORS
network spacing guidelines. For example, a study in southwestern Nigeria recommended additional
CORS locations to achieve ~35 km spacing for efficient network operations.

Error sources specific to CORS networks

Monument instability: Although permanent, monuments can still shift due to settlement, thermal
effects, or ground movement; continuous monitoring is necessary.
Equipment change or calibration drift: Antenna replacements, receiver firmware updates, phase
centre changes can introduce offsets. Policy documents from NGS require coordinate updates when
such changes occur.
Atmospheric and multipath effects: Although CORS quality is high, local multipath or reflections
may degrade data; careful site selection and periodic monitoring of data quality matter.
Network spacing and interpolation errors: If user is too far from CORS or station density is low,
the positional correction quality for control surveys may degrade. The network design guideline (20–
80km for Tier 3) reflects this.
Datum and reference frame updates: Because CORS networks are tied to dynamic frames (e.g.,
ITRF), coordinate updates (for plate motion or seismic events) must be applied; control networks tied
to CORS must account for these.

Quality assurance for geodetic control via CORS

Metadata and station logs: Regular station logs, equipment change records, environmental data
(temperature, tilt) help assess station performance.
Time-series analyses: Monitoring coordinate stability and velocities over time helps detect anomalies.
Redundancy and closure checks: When establishing control points tied via CORS, redundant
baselines or loops help verify accuracy.
Specification compliance: Use guidelines such as ICSM “Guideline for Continuously Operating
Reference Stations” (v2.2) which details tiering, site requirements and network design.
Periodic review and adjustment: When reference coordinates or velocities are updated (for example
due to tectonic event), control points must be re-adjusted or re-observed to maintain consistency.

Maintenance of control networks supported by CORS

Station maintenance: Ensuring power backup, communication link uptime, antenna cleanliness, and
data integrity.
Data archiving and accessibility: CORS data must be archived in raw format (e.g., RINEX) and
accessible to users for post-processing. For example, U.S. NGS provides data via NOAA’s CLASS
archive.
User education on datum epochs: Control surveys must reference the correct epoch, coordinate frame
and velocity models when using CORS data.
Updating control points when needed: If CORS network coordinates change or station moves,
control points need to be tied or re-measured accordingly.

Advantages of using CORS for geodetic control

Higher accuracy and consistency: Tying new control points to continuously monitored reference
stations ensures high quality and datum accuracy.

13
Efficient workflow: Surveyors can use CORS as reference rather than establishing local base stations,
reducing field setup and cost.
Long-term stability and monitoring: Because CORS operate continuously, they serve as monitoring
stations for crustal motion, monument shifts, and thus help maintain control network integrity.
Interoperability and integration: Control networks established via CORS are more easily integrated
with national/international reference frames.

Practical considerations and limitations

Site selection critical: Poor monumentation or inadequate sky view can degrade a CORS station and
thus propagate errors into the control network.
Distance to CORS matters: For densification and high accuracy work, users should ensure their
survey locations are within optimal distances of the nearest CORS (e.g., < 20–30km for high
precision). If too far, atmospheric errors increase.
Need for dual-frequency multi-GNSS equipment: To fully benefit from CORS data (especially for
geodetic control), surveyors should use high-grade receivers and calibrated antennas.
Data processing expertise required: Proper processing of CORS data (and rover data tied to them),
network adjustment, velocity modelling etc., require expertise.
Network and datum updates: Control networks tied to CORS must accommodate updates in station
coordinates/velocities, datum realizations, tectonic offsets. Failure to do so can cause inconsistencies.

It should be noted that GPS receivers are delicate electronic instruments, hence, they should be handled
with care.
Handling: Avoid dropping the receiver, as this can change the phase center of the antenna.
Temperature: Avoid storing the receiver or batteries at excessive temperatures. Do not leave receivers
or accessories in a vehicle in the summer.
Lithium-Ion Battery Safety: Do not damage the battery, expose it to fire, high temperatures, direct
sunlight, or immerse it in water. Use only the supplied or a direct replacement charger. If a battery
leaks, avoid contact; if contact occurs, rinse with clean water and seek medical attention if fluid gets
in the eyes.

In conclusion, CORS networks are integral to modern geodetic control frameworks. By providing
continuously operating, well-monumented GNSS reference stations tied to global and national datums,
CORS enable the establishment, densification and maintenance of high-accuracy geodetic control
networks. Surveyors and geodesists using CORS must pay attention to network design, station quality,
processing protocols, and datum/velocity updates to fully exploit their advantages. In many countries
(including Nigeria) integrating CORS with control surveys is becoming best practice for sustainable
geospatial infrastructure.

3.4 Vertical Position Technique: Levelling

The vertical position technique, primarily accomplished through Levelling (Spirit Levelling), is
crucial for establishing the Orthometric Height (H), or elevation above the Geoid. This method
measures the difference in height between successive points using a precise level instrument. It is
essential for establishing highly accurate vertical control networks (benchmarks) used in civil
engineering and construction.

14
Levelling is a surveying method used to determine the difference in heights (elevations) between
points. It acts as a height transfer method from one point to another. The technique is based on
aligning the horizontal line of the instrument (level) with the line of a point on the earth. It is widely
used in surveying and construction to measure, transfer, and set the heights of known objects or marks.

Levelling Instruments and Staves

A level is an optical instrument used with a levelling staff to establish or verify points in the same
horizontal plane, primarily used in geodetic and plane surveys.

Precise Levels have greater magnification, a more sensitive bubble or compensator and a parallel plate
micrometer. The Parallel Plate Micrometer is a piece of plane glass mounted in front of the objective
lens. Rotating this glass refracts the line of sight, displacing it up or down. This feature allows the
surveyor to precisely align a staff division with the crosshair, with the control knob indicating the
vertical displacement. This micrometer reading is added to the staff reading, often allowing readings
to the nearest 0.001 of a unit. The instrument's precision is determined by factors like the sensitivity
of the level vial, telescopic power, focusing distance, and the size of the objective lens. Only
instruments rated as precise geodetic quality are suitable for Second Order work (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1: Precise Level

Precise Levelling Staffs
A precise staff features divisions scribed on an invar strip. The use of invar minimizes errors caused
by thermal expansion or contraction. The invar strip is mounted to slide within the main wood or metal
part of the staff
Reading Aids: A second set of readings, without a zero at the bottom, is sometimes provided to help
prevent reading errors. Both sets should be observed, and levelling computed twice for identical
results. A levelling bubble is always provided, and some manufacturers include supporting stays.

Corrections for Curvature and Refraction

Since levelling measures height relative to a horizontal line of sight on a curved Earth, two main
corrections must be applied to measurements over long distances (Table 3.2).

15
Table 3.2: Comparison of Curvature and Refraction corrections (see Fig. 5.4 and Fig.5.5)
Result on Sighted Correction
Effect Description Formula
Object Type
Appears lower than
The horizontal line is it really is.
Curvature c = 0.0785D2 (D in
not a level line due to Increases the Subtractive.
(C) km)
the Earth's curvature. observed staff
reading.
Appears slightly
Atmospheric higher than it
Refraction refraction causes light actually is. r ≈ 0.0112D2 (≈ 1/7th
Additive.
(r) rays to bend Decreases the of curvature)
downward. observed staff
reading.

Combined Correction C
The net effect is to make the sighted objects appear low. Since the curvature correction is larger and
subtractive, the combined correction is also subtractive.
C = 0.0785D2 - 0.0112D2 = 0.0673D2, (D in km)

The True Staff Reading is calculated as True Staff Reading = Observed staff reading - 0.0673D2
This error can be eliminated in the field by equalizing Foresight (FS) and Backsight (BS) distances.

Care of Levelling Instruments

Transport: Always use a padded box. In the field, support the tripod assembly over the shoulder with
the telescope unclamped (free to rotate). Lift the instrument by the center, not the eyepiece or objective
end. Automatic levels should not be carried in a vertical position to prevent compensator damage.
Setup: Screw the instrument firmly onto the tripod, but do not overtighten the leveling screws to
prevent warping the plate. Spread the tripod legs and push them into the ground.
Protection/Cleaning: Protect from rain with a waterproof cover. If wet, wipe off moisture
immediately and allow it to dry thoroughly before storing. Persistent moisture may require specialist
servicing. Remove dust with a camel hair brush, and clean the eyepiece with alcohol and a soft cloth.

Care of Precise Staves

Transport staves in their protective cases to shield the face from damage
Wet wooden staves must be dismantled and dried out before being stored.

4. CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE OF GEODETIC SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Calibration is the essential process of determining and correcting systematic errors in geodetic
surveying instruments to ensure their measurements conform to known standards. Maintenance
involves the routine care, servicing, and adjustment of instruments to preserve their accuracy and
extend their lifespan. This is crucial for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of measurements,

16
preventing instrumental drift, and extending the service life of expensive equipment. Proper execution
of these procedures is vital for high-precision applications like GNSS networks and deformation
monitoring.
1. Definitions; and Importance of Calibration and Maintenance
Calibration is the process of determining and correcting systematic errors in surveying instruments to
ensure their measurements conform to known standards.
Maintenance refers to the routine care, servicing, and adjustment of instruments to preserve their
accuracy and extend their lifespan.

Importance of Calibration and Maintenance

Ensures accuracy and reliability of measurements.
Prevents systematic errors and instrumental drift.
Extends service life of expensive geodetic instruments.
Essential for high-precision applications such as GNSS networks, deformation monitoring, and
engineering surveys.

2. Types of Geodetic Surveying Instruments

Table 4.1: Types of Geodetic Surveying Instruments
Category Instruments Purpose
Angle Measurement Theodolite, Total Station Measure horizontal and vertical angles
Distance Measure distances electronically or
EDM, Total Station, Tape
Measurement mechanically
Leveling
Automatic Level, Digital Level Determine height differences
Instruments
GNSS/GPS
Receivers, Antennas Determine precise positions
Instruments
Gravimetric
Gravimeter Measure gravity variations
Instruments
Photogrammetric UAV-mounted, Terrestrial
Capture 3D spatial data
and LiDAR Sensors Scanners

3. Calibration Principles
Purpose of Calibration
Detect and quantify systematic errors.
Adjust the instrument to align with true or reference values.
Establish a correction model for use in computations.
Calibration Standards
Calibration must be performed against:
Known baselines or test ranges (for Tteel tapes and EDMs).
Calibration pillars (for total stations).
Precise reference levels (for levels).
GNSS reference networks (for GPS instruments).

17
Calibration Frequency
Depends on:
Manufacturer’s recommendation
Usage intensity
Environmental conditions
After transportation or repair
Before high-precision surveys

4. Calibration Procedures for Common Instruments

Theodolite/Total Station
1. Collimation Error Test (Line of Sight Error)
Observe readings on both faces.
Adjust the reticle so the mean of face-left and face-right readings equals the true direction.
2. Horizontal Axis Error Test
Rotate telescope vertically and ensure the line of sight remains horizontal.
3. Index Error Test
Set instrument so that vertical circle reads zero when telescope is horizontal.

EDM Calibration
Compare measured distance with a known baseline.
Apply scale factor correction.

Automatic/Digital Level
Two-peg Test
Set up instrument midway between two points (A and B).
Measure readings in both positions (midway and near one point).
Compute error and adjust compensator or bubble as necessary.
Bubble Sensitivity Check
Move bubble by known divisions and observe corresponding staff reading differences.

GNSS Receivers
Verify against reference station coordinates.
Check antenna height measurement accuracy.
Use known benchmarks for comparison.
Update firmware and antenna calibration models (ANTEX) regularly.

5. Maintenance of Geodetic Instruments

Preventive Maintenance
Clean lenses and optical components with soft, lint-free cloths.
Keep instruments in dry, dust-free cases.
Avoid exposure to extreme temperatures and humidity.
Regularly check tripod screws, tribrachs, and optical plummets.
Ensure firmware/software updates for electronic instruments.
Corrective Maintenance
18
Carried out when defects are detected.
Includes realignment, part replacement, lubrication, and electronic repairs.
Should only be done by authorized service centers or metrology labs.

6. Instrument Storage and Transportation

Store in padded cases and stable environments.
Lock moving parts during transport.
Avoid shock, vibration, and moisture exposure.
Label instruments with calibration dates.

7. Documentation and Record-Keeping

Maintain calibration certificates with:
Date of calibration
Reference standards used
Environmental conditions
Correction values
Name of technician and lab
Keep maintenance logs for future reference and audit purposes.

8. Quality Assurance and Accreditation

Calibration laboratories should comply with ISO/IEC 17025 standards.
National standards bodies (e.g., NIST, NPL, KEBS, SABS) maintain traceability.
Survey organizations should have internal Quality Management Systems (QMS) in place.

9. Modern Calibration Facilities

EDM calibration baselines (e.g., 1 km test ranges).
Total station test pillars with fixed coordinates.
GNSS calibration fields with known benchmarks.
Automated calibration benches for digital levels and gyros.

10. Conclusion
Proper calibration and maintenance are crucial for chieving reliable and repeatable survey results,
reducing errors in geospatial data, and ensuring compliance with professional and legal standards.

Surveyors must routinely check, document, and certify their instruments to maintain the integrity of
geodetic data and engineering outcomes.

5. DESIGN AND REQUIREMENTS FOR GEODETIC CONTROL NETWORKS

5.1 Geodetic Control Network
A Geodetic Control Network serves as the fundamental positional framework (the "wire-frame"
or "skeleton") upon which all subsequent surveys, mapping, and Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) activities are based. It consists of a series of stable, permanently monumented points whose

19
coordinates (latitude, longitude, and height) or gravity values are precisely determined and published,
accounting for the curvature of the Earth.

1. Objectives and Relevance

The primary goal of a geodetic control network design is to meet predefined quality requirements—
specifically Precision, Reliability, and Cost—through an optimized observation plan.
Reference System: Provides a common basis (datum) for all spatial data, ensuring coherence and
consistency across large areas. Examples include the North American Datum (NAD 83) and the
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).
Engineering Projects: Essential for large-scale infrastructure (roads, bridges, and pipelines),
construction control, and cadastral surveys.
Scientific Applications: Used to monitor crustal motion, sea level change, and deformation of large
structures (dams, bridges).

2. Components and Types of Networks

Geodetic control networks are traditionally classified into three components, often established
separately or as a combined 3D network (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1: The Components and Types of Networks

Determined
Component Reference Surface Techniques
Parameter
Triangulation,
Horizontal Latitude (ϕ) and
Reference Ellipsoid Trilateration, GNSS
Control Longitude (λ)
(GPS)
Orthometric Height Differential Leveling,
Vertical Control Geoid (Mean Sea Level)
(H) (Elevation) Trigonometric Leveling
Cartesian
Three- GNSS (GPS) Baselines,
Coordinates (X,Y,Z) Reference Ellipsoid
Dimensional (3D) 3D Network Adjustment
or (ϕ, λ, h)

Relationship: The relationship between heights is given by the formula: h = H + N, where h is the
ellipsoidal height (from GNSS), H is the orthometric height (elevation), and N is the geoid
undulation (geoid-ellipsoid separation).

3. Design Principles (Network Optimization)

Network design is a rigorous process, often divided into three orders of optimization, typically
involving a Least Squares Adjustment (LSA) for the final coordinate estimation (Table 5.2).

20
Table 5.1: Design Principles
Design Order Focus Description
Choosing the appropriate coordinate system (e.g., local,
Zero-Order Datum and
regional, or global like ITRF) and the geodetic datum
Design Reference System
(e.g., NAD 83, WGS 84).
Determining the optimal geometry of the network: point
First-Order Network locations, inter-station visibility, monumentation stability,
Design Configuration and the type of observations to be performed (angles,
distances, GNSS vectors).
Determining the required precision (standard deviation)
Second-Order Observation of the observations (e.g., mangle, mdist). This ensures the
Design Weights resulting network coordinate precision meets the specified
accuracy standard.
Analyzing the results of the LSA; if the required precision
Third-Order Improvement/De and reliability are not met, this involves adding new
Design nsification observations (redundancy) or improving the
quality/weight of existing ones.

4. Key Requirements and Quality Criteria

Geodetic control surveys are performed to rigorous accuracy and quality assurance standards
defined by national bodies (e.g., US National Geodetic Survey - NGS) or international specifications.

Accuracy Requirements
Accuracy is classified by Order and Class and is often defined by a maximum allowable radius of
uncertainty (95% confidence level) or a distance accuracy standard (relative error ratio) (Table 5.2)

Table 5.2: Accuracy Requirements

Accuracy
Positional Uncertainty (95%) Relative Accuracy – Example (1:X)
Classification
Highest Order 1mm (Millimeter) 1:1,000,000 or 1 ppm
High Order 5mm to 1cm 1:100,000 (Older Standards)
Project Control 1cm to 1dm Varies by project

Network Accuracy: The accuracy of a point's coordinate relative to the defined datum (e.g., NAD
83).
Local Accuracy: The accuracy of a point's coordinate relative to other immediately neighboring
control points.

Reliability Requirements
Reliability ensures the ability to detect and prevent errors in the network. It is crucial for the integrity
of the survey data.
Redundancy: The ratio of the number of redundant observations to the total number of unknowns.
High redundancy is achieved by having more observations than strictly necessary, typically by

21
measuring every quantity multiple times and/or using multiple observation types (e.g., measuring all
three sides of a triangle).
Internal Reliability: The ability of the network to detect large errors (blunders) in the observations.
External Reliability: The effect of undetected blunders on the resulting coordinates of the control
points.

Stability and Monumentation

Permanent Monuments: Control points must be physically marked with stable, identifiable
monuments (e.g., brass or aluminum disks set in concrete or bedrock).
Stable Locations: Stations must be placed on geologically stable ground, away from traffic,
excavation, and soft soil to minimize horizontal and vertical movement over time.
Documentation: Comprehensive documentation, including descriptive recovery notes, sketches, and
photographs, is required to facilitate future use and recovery.

5. Challenges in Geodetic Networks

Modern network design, particularly for high-precision applications like deformation monitoring, must
account for several major challenges:
Atmospheric Effects: Tropospheric and Ionospheric Refraction can significantly affect GNSS and
total station measurements, requiring sophisticated modeling or dual-frequency receivers and
reciprocal observations.
Deflection of the Vertical: The deviation between the direction of the plumb line (gravity vector) and
the normal to the reference ellipsoid. This affects the reduction of terrestrial measurements (e.g.,
converting slope distances to horizontal distances).
Geodynamic Changes: For global or national networks, the movement of the Earth's crust (plate
tectonics) means coordinates are not fixed but require a velocity field to define a position at any given
epoch (e.g., ITRF).

5.2 Horizontal and Vertical Control Networks

The design of a geodetic control network is critical for ensuring high accuracy and consistency in
large-area surveys. This restructured summary organizes the purpose, requirements, and design
principles for both Horizontal and Vertical Control Networks, and details the necessary corrections.

1. Horizontal Control Network

The Horizontal Control Network provides the foundational framework for determining the Latitude
(ϕ) and Longitude (λ) of points, which are fixed to a Reference Ellipsoid (e.g., WGS 84).

Core Purpose and Requirements

Purpose: To establish a set of highly accurate, permanently marked, inter-visible points (control
stations) whose geodetic coordinates have been precisely determined.
Accuracy: Coordinates must meet specified Root Mean Square (RMS) error limits for both relative
and absolute positioning.
Density: Points must be sufficiently dense (typically 1km – 10km spacing) to support local
engineering and cadastral surveys.
Homogeneity: The network must have uniform strength and precision throughout its entire area.

22
Monumentation: Stations must be permanently marked and protected to ensure long-term stability
and recoverability.

Network Design Principles

The design balances geometric strength, redundancy, and feasibility (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3: Network Design Principles

Principle Description
Geometrical Uses braced quadrilaterals or centered polygons over simple single chains of
Configuration triangles to maximize geometric strength and error detection.
Requires more observations than the minimum necessary to compute the
Redundancy coordinates. Redundancy is essential for performing a rigorous Least Squares
Adjustment.
Considers practical issues like accessibility for monumentation and
Feasibility
instrumentation, and inter-visibility for line-of-sight measurements.

Vertical Control Network

The Vertical Control Network defines the Orthometric Height (H), or elevation above the Geoid
(Mean Sea Level). It is established primarily through Spirit Levelling.
A. Core Purpose and Requirements
Purpose: To establish a series of highly accurate benchmarks whose elevations are referenced to a
single Vertical Datum (e.g., NAVD 88).
Technique: Achieved by measuring the precise height difference (Δh) between successive points.
Accuracy: Requires the highest order of precision, often defined by an allowable misclosure (e.g.,
C√K, where C is a constant and K is the distance in kilometers).

Essential Corrections for Levelling

In high-order levelling, several corrections are mandatory to ensure the measured height difference is
a true orthometric difference (Table 5.4)

Table 5.4: Essential Corrections for Levelling

Correction Cause Purpose
Converts the raw measured height
The non-parallelism of equipotential
difference (Δh) into a true orthometric
Orthometric gravity surfaces (level surfaces) due
height difference (ΔH) using the mean
Correction to the variation in gravity with
gravity. This correction is mandatory
latitude and elevation.
for consistency across large areas.
Corrects the staff reading to account for
The Earth's curvature and the the line of sight not being a true level
Curvature and
bending of the line of sight by the line over long distances. (Combined
Refraction (C)
atmosphere. correction formula: C = 0.0673D2,
where D is distance in km).

23
 Corrects the measured length using the
Levelling rods can change length
Rod certified rod calibration factor and
due to temperature or inaccurate
Correction ambient temperature to determine the
calibration.
true length.
Axis Tilt Imperfect instrument adjustment
Minimized by balancing the Backsight
(Collimation) causing the line of sight to be tilted
(BS) and Foresight (FS) distances.
Error relative to horizontal.
Used when combining different Shifts one network's elevations by a
Level Datum
levelling networks based on separate constant offset to match the target
Correction
Mean Sea Level origins. datum.

2. Vertical Control Network (Height, H)

This network establishes the Orthometric Height (H) relative to the Geoid using high-order levelling.
Accuracy is paramount, as errors can lead to failures in civil infrastructure design (e.g., gravity flow
systems).
2.1 Essential Corrections for High-Order Levelling
While curvature and refraction are addressed through the combined correction, high-order levelling
requires two additional, critical corrections: Orthometric and Rod.

Table 5.5: Essential Corrections for High-Order Levelling

Correction Cause Purpose in Geodesy
Mandatory for converting the raw
The non-parallelism of level
measured height difference (Δhmeasured
Orthometric surfaces (equipotential surfaces)
) into a true Orthometric Height
Correction due to the variation in gravity with
Difference (ΔH). This ensures
latitude and elevation.
consistency across large areas.
Levelling rods are susceptible to Corrects the measured staff reading
changes in length due to thermal using the certified rod calibration
Rod Correction
expansion or inaccurate factory factor and the ambient temperature to
calibration. determine the true vertical intercept.
Minimized in the field by ensuring the
Axis Imperfect adjustment causing the
Backsight (BS) and Foresight (FS)
Tilt/Collimation line of sight not to be truly
distances are carefully balanced at every
Error horizontal.
instrument setup.
Used when merging independent Involves a simple addition/subtraction of
Level Datum levelling networks that were a constant offset to unify all elevations to
Correction established from different Mean a single Vertical Datum (e.g., NAVD
Sea Level origins. 88).

24
Bibliography

Bannister, A., Raymond, S., & Baker, R. (1998). Surveying (7th ed.). Pearson Education Ltd.

Duggal, S. K. (2006). Surveying Vol. 1. Tata McGraw-Publishing Ltd, New Delhi.

El'Demak, E. (1993). Map Projections: Practical Computations on the Transverse Mercator

Projection. Enugu.

FGCS. (1984). Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks. Federal Geodetic
Control Committee.

FGCS. (1988). Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Surveys
Using GPS Relative Positioning Techniques.

FIG (International Federation of Surveyors). (2019). Guidelines on Instrument Calibration and

Quality Control in Surveying.

Ghilani, C. D. (2017). Adjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

Heiskanen, W. A., & Moritz, H. (1967). Physical Geodesy. W.H. Freeman & Co.

Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., & Moritz, H. (2006). Physical Geodesy. Springer. (Detailed treatment of
the geoid and gravity field.)

ISO/IEC 17025:2017 — General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration
Laboratories.

Kulkarni, M. N. (n.d.). The Global Positioning System and its Applications. Department of Civil
Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay.

Musket, J. (2005). Site Surveying. Blackwell Science Ltd Victoria.

National Geodetic Survey (NGS). (n.d.). Publications on the definition of datums like NAD 83 and
NAVD 88.

National Geodetic Survey (NGS). (2021). Calibration and Adjustment Manual for Surveying
Instruments.

National Geodetic Survey (NGS). (n.d.). Official publications and datasheets. (Primary source for
U.S. standards).

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) - National Geodetic Survey (NGS).
(n.d.). Online resources provide current standards and explanations for datums (e.g., NAD 83,
NAVD 88) and the Geoid Undulation Model (GEOID).

National Research Council. (1980). Need for a Multipurpose Cadastre. National Academy Press.

25
Nigerian Office of the Surveyor-General of the Federation (OSGoF). (n.d.). Official publications and
technical papers regarding the Minna Datum, its replacement (NGD), and transformation
parameters.

Ogundare, J. O. (2016). Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Punmia, B. C. (1988). Surveying Vol. I. Laxmi Publications, New Delhi.

ResearchGate/DOAJ Articles. (n.d.). Reduction of geodetic observations to the reference ellipsoid.

(Discusses Pizzetti's and Helmert's methods).

Schofield, W., & Breach, M. (2007). Engineering Surveying (6th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.

Torge, W., & Müller, J. (2012). Geodesy (4th ed.). De Gruyter.

Udabor, G. A. (2000). Geometrical Geodesy and Projection Systems. Odumatt Press & Publishers
Oyo.

Uren, J., & Price, W. F. (2010). Surveying for Engineers (5th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.

Vanicek, P., & Krakiwsky, E. (1986). Geodesy: The Concepts (2nd ed.). North-Holland.

Wolf, P. R., & Ghilani, C. D. (1997). Elementary Surveying. Prentice Hall. (Referenced for
optimization criteria).

Wolf, P. R., & Ghilani, C. D. (2012). Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (13th
ed.). Prentice Hall.

26