MODULE-4

MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE

WATER MANAGEMENT IN SMART CITY
. Smart city is an upcoming era, there are many houses in which high and middle class people can have
facilities according to their comfort. Based on the people population, season, etc ., the usage of water is
varying. So, water supply management is very much needed and it should be maintained properly. In existing
method, corporation may not know how much water is used and the wastage.

. There are many challenges in the Smart city. One of them is water management. To overcome the water
problem, the proposed model has been developed for the water management.
. The monitoring system has been designed with sensors. Readings from the sensor are processed with
microcontroller and communicate through computers or wireless networks.
· Water supply system is used to deliver water with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure.
· There are three major problems in urban water supply system such as
1. Rapid urbanization
2. Depletion of water resources
3. Deteriorating water distribution

· Sometimes, water resources brings in threats to the public by means of natural disasters and malicious
attacks.
· The fresh drinking water are also affected by the wastage from factories and industries to the great level.

Ensuring the safe and clean, reliable water supply to the cities requires many new technologies and new
investments.

The best with these new technologies are water treatment and desalination plants which are efficient and lower
cost.

Drawback of existing system

1. There are unnecessary usage of water: When people wash their vehicle or water their plants, there are
possibility of using the water more than they need which leads to unnecessary of water.
2. Leakage of water is inevitable due to faulty pipes over time
3. The corporation does not know if there is any water overflow in any of the houses.

4. The amount of water used by the houses are not known to the corporation

· Recognizing the challenges faced by the water sector, stakeholders from academia, corporations and the ICT
sector have developed water intelligence tools that use ICTs to alleviate global water issues.

· The role played by smart water systems in optimizing the efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility of water
and wastewater infrastructure assets and their management constitutes a topic of increasing attention.

· ICTs offer valuable opportunities to improve the productivity and efficiency within the water sector, with
the aim of contributing to the sustainability of the resource.
· In cities, SWM strives to achieve three main goals through the utilization of ICTs, namely:
(a) Coordinated water resource management and distribution,
(b) Enhanced environmental protection, and
(c) Sustainable provision of public services and economic efforts.

SWM tools can be categorized in main areas listed below.

1. Data acquisition and integration (e.g. sensor networks, smart pipes, smart metres).
2. Data dissemination (e.g. radio transmitters, wireless fidelity (WiFi), Internet).
3. Modelling and analytics (e.g. geographic information system (GIS). Mike Urban, Aqua cycle, assessing
and improving sustainability of urban water resources and systems (AISUWRS), and urban groundwater
(UGROW).
4. Data processing and storage (e.g. software as a service (Saas), cloud computing).
5. Management and control (e.g. supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), optimization tools).
6. Visualization and decision support (e.g. web-based communication and information systems tools).

7. Restitution of data and information to cities' technical services and to the end users (e.g. Tools for sharing
information on water and on services).

SWM technologies
1. Smart pipes and sensor networks
2. Smart metering
3. Communication modems
4. Geographic information systems (GIS)
5. Cloud computing
6. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED TO WATER AND WASTE WATERMANAGEMENT

· Economic savings: SWM tools can greatly reduce non-revenue water by identifying leaks and illegal
connection, regaining revenue necessary to maintain the infrastructure. SWM enables sustainable water use,
thereby reducing the amount of water abstracted, treated and distributed which reduces operational costs.

· Improved services: Smart metering can improve the relationship between the water utilities and the
customers by providing more transparent water consumption information. Improved monitoring and
operations prevents supply interruptions and disruptions within the water distribution network, for example,
in the event of sewerage and storm water overflows. Better management relieves pressure on water resources
that may be scarce during periods of drought.

BENEFITS ASSOCIATED TO WATER AND WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

· Improved wastewater management: These benefits are associated to improvements in the performance and
economic efficiency of the wastewater treatment, as well as enhanced monitoring that helps prevent
infrastructure overload.
· More efficient treatment: Improved water quality monitoring throughout the systems utilizing sensors creates
the possibility of source control of resource pollutants and the use of natural systems, thus reducing the
potential treatment required for water supply systems, or the separation of specific pollutants in wastewater.
· Environmental protection and enhancement: Reduced demand and improved environmental monitoring
helps to maintain and restore ecosystems that rely on a healthy aquatic environment.

· Reduced carbon emissions: Improved management results in less energy consumed for the abstraction,
treatment and distribution process of water resources, thus helping to reduce a city's carbon footprint.

· Flood control and storm water management: Improved weather awareness and prediction through weather
intelligence allows cities to plan more effectively their flood prevention strategies, as well as to manage urban
drainage systems and storm waters accordingly.

WATER SMART CITY (WSC)

1. Cities as water supply catchments:
Cities would have diverse water resources delivered through an integrated mixture of centralized and
decentralized infrastructure at different scales. Hence cities can be granted with flexibility to access to
portfolio of sources at least environmental, social and economic costs.

2. Cities providing ecosystem services and increase livability

The integration of urban landscape design and green infrastructure/nature based solutions can help capture the
essence of sustainable water management, to some extent mitigate urban heat island effects, contribute to local
food production, support biodiversity, and cut down on the greenhouse gas emissions.
· With nature based solutions for water management it is possible to:
· Protect and enhance natural water systems in urban developments;

· Integrate storm water treatment into landscape by incorporating multiple use corridors that maximize visual
and recreational amenity of developments;
· Protect water quality draining from urban development;

· Reduce runoff and peak flows from urban developments by emplacing local detention measures and
minimizing impervious areas;
· Integrated solutions for flood reduction, drought and heat mitigation;
· Add value while minimizing drainage infrastructure development costs.

WATER SMART CITY SOLUTIONSAND BENEFITS

Water Smart City Solution
A. Restore the natural drainage capacity of cities by introducing nature based solutions
a) Retention
b) Infiltration
c) Water Storage
d) Water Treatment
e) Adaptive water management
f) Water Drainage

B. Closing the urban water cycle

a) Reduce water use
 b) Improve water efficiency
c) Water storage
d) Water treatment
e) Water reuse

Benefits
1. Creating attractive places where people want to live, work and play through the integration of water and
green spaces:
2. Provide public space for recreation, social interaction and physical activity:
3. Increase of property value of buildings close to green space and open water;
4. Reduce flood risk and protect and improve the quality of ground- and surface water from polluted run-off;
5. Enable a healthy city by reducing urban heat island effect and noise, and improve air quality:
6. Improving soil moisture and replenish depleted groundwater levels;
7. Supporting and improving local natural habitats and biodiversity:

8. Provide society with valuable supply of water;

9. Create awareness and improve people's understanding of how run off their development is being managed
and used.

ROADMAP TOWARDS WATER SMART CITIES

· Municipalities need to have a leading role in this transition. They decide the goals and ambitions for their
city, how these goals can
Step 1: Identify challenges and opportunities of the city
Step 2: A Water Smart City vision for your city
Step 3: Explore co-creation opportunities
Step 4: Co-design solutions
Step 5: Define solid business case
Step 6: Implement & evaluate

RAINWATER HARVESTING
· Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve Rainwater by collecting, storing,
conveying and purifying of Rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later
use.
Rainwater harvesting systems:
1. Storage in receptacles
2. Recharge into the aquifer
Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater
1. Surface runoff harvesting
2. Roof top rainwater harvesting

1. Surface runoff harvesting

In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for recharging aquifers
by adopting appropriate methods.

2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments, and
the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to
artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented properly helps in
augmenting the groundwater level of the area.

Components of Rain water harvesting

1. Catchment Area

 The surface that collects rainwater.

 Usually rooftops, terraces, paved or unpaved areas.

2. Conveyance System

 Channels that carry water from the catchment to storage or recharge structures.
 Includes:
o PVC/GI gutters
o Downpipes
o Screens/leaf filters

3. Frst Flush Device

 A mechanism to remove the initial dirty runoff from the roof.

 Helps prevent contamination of stored water.

4. Filtration Unit

Filters water before storage/recharge.

Common types:

 Sand filter
 Gravel filter
 Charcoal filter
 Mesh screen
 Pressure/sedimentation filter

5. Storage Tank

 Stores rainwater for later use.

 Can be overhead, underground, or surface tanks.
 Must have:
o Inlet with filter
o Overflow pipe
o Access lid
o Ventilation and manhole

6. Recharge Structure (if used for groundwater recharge)

 Options include:

 Recharge pits
 Recharge trenches
 Soak wells
 Percolation tanks
 Recharge shafts
 Injection wells

[Link] System

 Pipe network to deliver stored water for use.

 May include pump, taps, valves, and plumbing fixtures.

8. Monitoring and Maintenance Components

 Water level indicators

 Inspection chambers
 Silt traps
 Debris screen

· Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting

1. Increase Available Water During Dry Season
2. Reduce Flooding and Erosion
3. Prevent Overuse of Aquifers
4. Save Money

· Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

1. The cost of recharge to the subsurface reservoir is also lower than the surface reservoirs.
2. it helps minimize the possibility of rivers drying up.
3. Reduces erosion and flooding around buildings
4. An adequate means for Irrigation purpose
5. Reduces demand on Ground Water

STORAGE OF WATER
· Water storage is a broad term referring to storage of both potable water for consumption, and non potable water
for use in agriculture. In both developing countries and some developed countries found in tropical climates,
there is a need to store potable drinking water during the dry season.

· In agriculture water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water sources, such as groundwater aquifers,
soil water, natural wetlands, and small artificial ponds, tanks and reservoirs behind major dams.
· Types of water storage structures
A. Water towers or Overhead water tank

B. Dams, Reservoirs, Ponds, Lakes

CONVEYANCE OF WATER
. There are two stages in the transportation of water:

1. Conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant.

2. Conveyance of treated water from treatment plant to the distribution system.
· In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping or by the combined action of both, depending
upon the relative elevations of the treatment plant and the source of supply.

In the second stage water transmission may be either by pumping into an overhead tank and then supplying by
gravity or by pumping directly into the water main for distribution.

PIPES
· Pipe is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either under gravity or under pressure. When
pipe do not run fully, they run under gravity such as in sewer lines. However, in supply pipes mostly run under
pressure.
The selection of pipe material depends on the following factors

1. The internal pressure and external loads to which the pipe is subjected.
2. Type of water to be conveyed and its corrosive effect on the pipe material.
3. Capital cost and maintenance cost
4. Availability of funds
5. Carrying capacity of pipe

· Following types of pipes are commonly used

1. Ci pipes
2. WI pipes
3. Steel pipes
4. RCC pipes
5. PSC pipes
6. AC pipes
7. Plastic pipes

SUSTAINABLE WATER AND SANITATION

· The problem of access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities in urban areas of India is a major concern.

· India is facing huge problem about safe drinking water.

· In India, 163 million people do not have access to safe drinking water and 210 million people lack access to
improved basic sanitation in India.
. In addition, there is a lack of wastewater treatment facilities to treat the wastewater of growing population.

· Smart water management systems can provide a more resilient and efficient water supply system, reducing costs
and improving sustainability.
· High technology solutions for the water sector include digital meters and sensors, supervisory control and data
acquisition system and GIS.

· The ultimate goal of a more integrated approach to urban water management development more sustainable.
Sustainable development has been defined by the World Commission on the Environment and Development as:

"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs"
· In the case of water management, sustainability can be divided into three major dimensions:
1. Social - Water management contributes to the quality of life of all citizens
2. Economic - Operation and maintenance of water services are cost-efficient

3. Environment - The ecological balance of natural water systems is maintained by not abstracting more than can
be replenished and preventing pollution and erosion.

·When applied to the three basic components of urban water management, the different dimensions of
sustainability can be considered as follows
1. Water supply
2. Sanitation Systems

· Benchmarks for Smart Water Supply:

1. 24 x 7 supply of water
2. 100% household with direct water supply connections
3. 135 liters of per capita supply of water
4. 100% metering of water connections
5. 100% efficiency in collection of water related charges Supply

SUSTAINABLE SANITATION
· Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for thesafe disposal of human urine and
feces, and its proper disposal in an economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally
appropriate, besides protecting environment and the natural resources.
· Sustainable Sanitation is not a technology, but an approach having certain principles.

· The first principle of Sustainable Sanitation is to recognize that excreta and wastewater are not wastes, but
resources that are valuable and can be reused and recycled.

· The main objective of sanitation is to provide a healthy and clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease.

Issues and challenges in Urban Sanitation

· The challenges in urban sanitation includes:
1. Rapid urbanization and need for a policy for urbanizing areas such as the census towns and Nagar Panchayats.
2. Inadequate maintenance
3. Ineffective management of faucal water
4. Rising groundwater contamination.
5. Over-dependence on centralized waste water management
6. Maintenance and up gradation of STP/Waste treatment facilities,
7. Need for capacity building of officials.
8. Management and accountability by ULB officials. (ULB= urban local authority)
9. Gender considerations

PROBLEMS IN PRESENT SANITATION PRACTICES

1. Consumption of more Water and Energy
2. Unable to separate Feces and Urine
3. Problems with existing drainage system

INNOVATIVE SANITATION SOLUTIONS FOR SMART CITIES

1. Reducing the quantity of water usage in toilets.
· Present Toilet sanitation needs 13 to 15 liters of water per one flush. As with a typical Indian house needs 60 to
90 liters of water for cleaning toilet in a day. This situation witnesses high electric power consumption for both
fetching water from ground and for recycling flush water, and water consumption.

· In the new redesigned five liter toilet, siphon system pipe is modeled with spring. As feces, urine and water
comes the center of gravity moves to left causing spring bend downwards to allow easy exit, which in turn
requires less water.

3. Solar-Powered, Self-Cleaning Toilet.

· Sleek and made of stainless steel, these toile are designed to be installed in places where access to electricity
and common sanitation methods is difficult, if not impossible. What makes these toilets even more user-friendly
is that they can be located through an Android app called e-Toilet.

. They come equipped with sensor's for light and exhaust fan to ensure that they consume less power minimum
amount of water.

· Also, there are provisions for waste treatment using anaerobic bio degradation. the added advantage of being
eco-friendly, with provisions for waste treatment using anaerobi biodegradation

4. Ensuring sanitation of toilets using lot.

· In large premises like hospitals, railway stations and educational there whose sanitation supervision is difficult
by physically visiting them. The difficulty can be reduced by placing odor sensors in toilets, getting sensors
equipped with communication modules connected to WLAN to get the notifications in the institute monitoring
server/system when odor intensifies.

SEWERAGE SYSTEM
Wastewater generation scenario in Indian city and its treatment
· In India, the estimated sewage generation from Class I cities and Class II towns (representing 72% of urban
population) is 38,524 million litres/day (MLD), of which there exists treatment capacity of only 11.787 MLD
(about 30%). The 35 major metropolitan areas (with population over 1 million) have a collective sewage
treatment capacity of just over 50%, but high variability exists among them. Only five metro cities have treatment
capacity close to 100% of their sewage generation, these are Hyderabad, Vadodara, Chennai, Ludhiana and
Ahmedabad. Delhi has the largest sewage treatment capacity in absolute terms, but it is only about 60% its needs,
while Mumbai has the second largest treatment capacity in absolute terms but meets only 80% of its needs.
Almost all other major metropolitan cities have treatment capacities below 50% of their sewage generation.
There have two type of challenges in wastewater treatment trade.
(a) On site challenges
(b) Offsite challenges

(a) On site challenges

. The conventional engineered wastewater treatment system is extremely expensive and requires complex
operations and maintenance cost of expanding sewer networks, which are very rudimentary or non-existent in
many Indian cities,

. The total capital cost of establishing collection and treatment systems for the entire urban wastewater generated
is much more than what the government plans to spend; as a result progress in increasing coverage is likely to be
slow in the foreseeable future.

(b) Offsite challenges

Analysis exhibits that macro factors such as FTA (Free Trade Agreement), cost sensitivity, and varied climatic
and usage considerations directly impact operations in India. There exists immense opportunities for foreign
companies owing to:
1. Commercially viable advanced technology
2. Environmentally conforming solutions

Need For Wastewater Treatment

· Waste Water contains a variety of organic and inorganic substances dissolved which also includes toxic
elements such as Cadmium, Zinc, Copper(Cu), Chromium (Cr), Ar-senic(As), Mercury (Hg), Lead(Pb) etc.
· Disposal of the waste water directly into water bodies like rivers and oceans may affect the aquatic animal life.
· Consumption of this contaminated water leads to health problems in a long run.

Sewer Network The Present Indian Scenario

· The proper sewerage system includes collection of sewage from source of generation through sewer network,
treatment using appropriate available economical technology to the prescribed disposal standards and sate
disposal to natural water bodies.
· There are two systems available in general for Waste Water Collection and Disposal, ViZ.
1. Separate System - Sewage and storm water are collected separately & sewage is treated for safe disposal
2. Combined System
· The following are the major disadvantages or challenges being faced due to lack of proper sanitation facilities.
1. Population affected with health issues and ultimately affecting GDP of the country

2. The ground and surface water sources are being polluted and hence water supply is becoming costly &
inadequate
· The major reasons for inadequate sewer networks / sanitation facilities are
as follows.
1. Insufficient funds.
2. Improper design approaches & management of sewer network systems

IOT BASED SMART WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1. Preventing CSOs (combined sewage overflows)
The lot sensors are capable to detect combined sewage overflows. You can set threshold values with the help of
smart solutions and get a real-time notification as soon as the sewage water overflows.

· During rains, rainwater results in an overflow of combined sewer systems in poor wastewater management
systems.

· Monitoring the inflow of water with the help of lot sensors can help water utilities to detect overflows in real-
time and take appropriate actions to reduce water wastage.

2. Tracing chemical detection

· loT can play a significant role in detecting chemicals in water pipelines. With non-loT wastewater management
systems, researchers would have to detect chemical levels in water manually.
· lot sensors can not only easily detect the presence of chemicals, but also send alerts to a remote dashboard.

3. Replacing leaky pipes

· A leak in distribution pipes that distributes water regionally can result in heavy loss of water. Hence, these pipes
need to be changed regularly according to necessity.

· lot sensors can collect data like type of sand that pipes rest on, topography, and weather records. And then Al
can help analyze these data to find patterns that offer clues to the water utilities abou which pipes are at risk of
leakage.

4. Select best treatment process

· Specific constituents require particular treatment processes to be removed. The advanced analytics feature of
an loT solution can recommend a series of apt processes based on the concentration of water.

ADVANTAGES OF USING SMART WASTEWATER SYSTEM

1. Real-Time Data Integration
2. Enhancing Customer Satisfaction
3. Accurate Forecasting of Demand

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
· India is highly vulnerable, as most of its geographical area is prone to annual flooding. The high losses and
damages due to floods show the poor adaptation and mitigation status of India and inadequacy in disaster
management and preparedness.
. Thus, there is a need for an Integrated flood management system.

1. Disaster Preparedness Plan:

· A comprehensive flood management plan is needed to include Disaster preparedness. This may require
strengthening of the following:
. Flood Hotspot Mapping at local and regional scale.
· Management and regulation of riparian zones to prevent spilling and erosion.
· River flood modelling to prepare for incidences like reservoir breach and emergency water release from dams.

. Advanced techniques such as mapping based on satellite imagery and Geographic Information Systems will
help in development of flood early warning systems.

2. Integrated Approach
· Steps need to be taken for watershed management through an integrated approach.

· Hard Solutions: It involves civil engineering construction such as dams, culverts and dykes, widening and
deepening of river channels and diversion channels to store and divert water to increase the lag time of water
reaching downstream.

· Ecological Soft Solutions: The solutions such as restoration and management of riparian zones, Afforestation
along the river channels which led to retention of rainwater and reduces the river discharge.

3. Prioritizing Buffers, Flexibility and Adaptability

· This includes reviewing safety criteria of dams and canals, re-building these with higher safety factors, creating
new intermediate storages.

4. Reducing Disaster Risk Reduction

· There is a need for efficient implementation of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, this will reduce
the vulnerability of any disaster.

CAUSES OF FLOODS
. The causes of flooding in all the major river systems are:
1. Intense rainfall
2. Topography of the catchment
3. Sedimentation of rivers and reservoirs
4. Obstruction in the river flow
5. Failure of dam
6. Failure of river embankment
7. Inadequate cross drainage works
8. Contraction of waterway

CAUSES OF FLOODS
1. Intense rainfall
. An intense rainfall can occur only over a comparatively small area. Whenever such a precipitation bursts over
a small watershed, it results in a high surface runoff, which reaches the main channel faster than it can be
discharged, flooding the low lying area along the stream.
. The seriousness of the flood will depend upon the following factors:
. The intensity- and duration of precipitation
. Surface slopes of the watershed
. Nature of the surface soil and covering vegetation
· The intense precipitation sometimes also known as cloud burst.

2. Topography of the catchment

. For mountainous regions the relation of intensity of rainfall and slope of the surface have been found to have a
good relationship. The same intensity of rainfall produces more discharge in a mountainous region than plain
area.

. The shape of the catchment also affect the surface runoff and flood. For a fan- shaped catchment, the time of
concentration will be less and hence the peak flow will be more. But, in case of fern-leaf type (elongated)
catchment of the same areamand same storm, the time of concentration will be more.

. The more pervious the soil, the greater is its water retention power and longer the period of saturation, resulting
in lesser floods.

3. Sedimentation of rivers and reservoirs

. If the top soil layer in the catchment area is loose and the vegetation cover is less, the tributaries flowing through
such areas carry heavy sediment load. This sediment load is deposited in the river bed and the reservoir in which
the river merges.

4. Obstruction in the river flow:

· Sometimes, due to heavy landslides in the river, the natural flow of water is obstructed resulting in flood
situation on the upstream of the river. When the obstructions in the river are removed due to heavy water pressure
accumulated on the upstream, flooding is caused on the downstream of the river.

5. Failure of dam
· to tore huge quantity of water in the reservoir created on the upstream of the dam. Due to failure of the dam the
large quantity of water stored in the reservoir instantly released causing flood in the downstream of the dam.
A dam may fail due to the following reasons:
Piping
Erosion
· Foundation failure
· Earthquake, etc.

ILL EFFECTS OF FLOODS

· The ill-effects of floods can be classified into the following three groups:
1. Inundation of low lying areas
2. Erosion of river banks
3. Change of river course

1. Inundation of low lying areas

· The following factors may cause the inundation of low lying areas:
(i) excessive runoff and inadequate channel capacity
(ii) Presence of obstructions in the stream
(iii) Inadequate waterway due to rail, road or canal crossing.
(iv) Congestion of confluences
(v) Tides resisting flood flows

2. Erosion of river banks:

· The fast flowing current may eat away the banks, formed of easily erodable soil and thus may affect vast
stretches of agricultural land.

3. Change of river course:

The change in the course of the river may develop due to the following reasons:
i. Due to high velocities of the river water
ii. Due to abrupt variation in the bed gradient and heavy sediment charge.
iii. Due to oscillatory bed of the river Flood Damages

Flood damages can be classified into two groups:

1. Direct damage
2. Indirect damage

1. Direct damage:
· It implies damage due to physical contact with water.
· For example, Erosion of agricultural land
· Loss of human life and animals
· Loss of property Breach of roads, canals, ponds, etc. - Loss of forest and wild life
· Breach of roads, canals, ponds, etc.
· Loss of forest and wild life

2. Indirect damage
· In this case flood water does not come in direct contact of the property, etc. but causes damage by interruption
and other causes .
.Labour is put out of employment or work due to submergence of the factory.
· Schools and colleges remains closed for few days due to flood.
· Due to interruption of transportation services, business industry is affected.

FLOOD ALLEVIATION OR FLOOD MITIGATION OR FLOOD CONTROL

· Flood control is also known as flood management.
· In India about 40 Mha of land is food prone, which is about 12% of the total geographical area of 328 Mha.
· There are two types of measures to mitigate the lood disaster:
1. Structural mitigation measures
2. Non-structural mitigation measures

1. Structural mitigation measures

· Storage reservoirs
· Levees
· Flood Walls
· Channel improvement works to flood ways
· Construction of high earth platforms
· Diversion of flood water to
· Sluices

2. Non-structural mitigation measures

Flood plain zoning
· Flood plain zoning means dividing the entire flood plain area into different zones and to restrict the occupancy
of the different zones of the flood plain to uses which will suffer little or no damage du floods.

· The objectives of flood plain zoning are:

1. To restict encroachment of the zone which frequently comes under the influence of flood.

ii. To direct selected activities in the zone which come under the influence of flood less frequently in such a
manner that they are susceptible to flood damage.
iii. To demarcate the zones which are subjected to flood only on rare occasions.

2. Flood forecasting and warning:

· Flood forecasting or warning, if could be conveyed earlier, disaster due to the probable flood can be minimized
to a great extent. Temporary evacuation of persons and shifting the

important property to safe places could be done before the flood arrives. Once the flood occurs, the normal
activities of the society are badly disrupted with immense losses.

· In India, seven flood forecasting units have been operating at New Delhi, Guwahati, Jalpaiguri, Patna,
Bhubaneswar, Surat, Lucknow.

· Forecasting of flood magnitude is evaluated by the following methods:

1. Rainfall-runoff relationship
2. Unit Hydrograph (UH)

3. Synthetic unit Hydrograph (SUH)

4. Flood routing model both hydrological and hydraulic
5. Stage discharge relationship

3. Emergency evacuation of area:

Sometimes emergency evacuation of the threatened area is one of the most effective ans of reducing flood
damage. This technique is adopted for sparsely populated means areas where the property is also low valued.
These areas do not justify other expensive methods of flood control. Loss of life can be prevented by emergency
evacuation.

4. Management of flood plain

The flood plain of a river is formed by sediment deposition or removal which usually occurs due to intermittent
overflows of the stream above its banks.
The various tools of flood plain management are as follows:
(1) Flood hazard surveys
(2) Flood plain zoning
(3) Flood proofing
(4) Flood insurance

5. Flood proofing
· It essentially consists of a combination of both structural change and emergency action. Structural change
includes construction of the building wall with some water proofing material, closure of lower level windows,
construction of the house with the arrangement of stilts.

FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING IN INDIA

Concepts
Flood forecasting (FF') enables us to be forewarned as to when the river is going to use its flood plain, to what
extent and for how long. The forecast of a flood may be for the water level (state forecast), discharge and area
likely to be submerged (inundation forecast) at various points/particular stations at a specific time.

A nation-wide food forecasting and warning system covering major inter-state rivers has been established by the
Central Water Commission (CWC). The system under CWC is often supplemented by the states that make
arrangements for advance warning at other stations strategically important to them. The CWC also extends FT
services to such stations strategically important to them. The CWC also extends FF services to such stations at
the request of the states concerned. With reliable advance information/warning about impending Moods, loss of
life and property can be reduced to a considerable extent. People, cattle and valuable assets can be shifted in
advance to safer places.

FLOOD FORECASTING AND WARNING IN INDIA

Methodology
Flood forecasting services include the following phases

1. Data Collection
· Real time hydrological data viz. gauge and discharge and meteorological data, viz. rainfall basic requirements
for the formulation of a flood forecast. The hydrological and hydro-meteorological data from over 945 stations
in the 62 river sub-basins are daily collected, analysed and utilised for formulation of flood forecasts.

2. Transmission of Data to the Forecasting Centers

· Transmission of data on a real-time basis from the hydrological and hydro meteorological stations to the flood
forecasting centers is a vital factor in the FF system. Landline communication.
· During the flood season, the data is communicated two to three times in a day.
3. Data Processing and formulation of Forecasts
· Historical data like gauge, discharge and rainfall are utilised for the development of techniques for formulation
of forecasts on a real-time basis. Forecasts are formulated at the FF stations by predicting river stage/inflow with
time of occurrence. After receipt of the hydrological and meteorological data from field formations, the data is
processed in FF centers/control rooms to check its consistency and the data is modified, if any inaccuracy is
found, before using in forecast formulation. All the forecasting centers of the CWC have been provided with
computer facilities for data processing.

· Forecasts (stage/inflow) are issued whenever the river stage at the FF site exceeds or is likely to exceed a
specified level called warning level of the site which is fixed in consultation with the concerned state government.
The warning level is generally 1 m below the danger level of the site.

4. Dissemination of Flood Forecasts and Warnings

. The final forecasts are then communicated to the user agencies such as the concerned administrative and
engineering authorities of the state/central governments including railways, defence and other agencies connected
with flood protection and DM by special messenger/telegram/wireless/telephone /fax/e-mail etc. Flood forecasts
are also passed on to the All India Radio (Air), Doordarshan and local newspapers for wide publicity in the
affected area.

WATER RESOURCES CONSERVATION SYSTEM

Water Resources of India
· India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of the world's surface area, 4 per cent of the world's water resources and
about 16 per cent of the world's population. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year
is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenish able groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
Out of this, only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilizable water resource in the country
is only 1,122 cubic km.
· The per capita availability of water is dwindling day-by-day due to increase in population.

Water Conservation and Management -Need

· water availability from sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinization, is considered negligible, India has to take
quick steps and make effective policies and laws, and adopt effective measures for its conservative.

· Besides developing water-saving technologies and methods, attempts are also to be made to prevent the
pollution.

· There is need to encourage watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and
conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.

1. Prevention of Water Pollution

· In plains, river water is used intensively for irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial purposes. The
concentration of pollutants in rivers, especially remains very high during the summer season when flow of water
is low.

. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has been
monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations. Ex. the Sabarmati at Ahmedabad
Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride and nitrates at
different parts of the country.

· The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and Environment
Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented effectively.

· There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and impacts of water pollution.
The public awareness and action can be very effective inreducing the pollutants from agricultural activities,
domestic and industrial discharges.

2. Recycle and Reuse of Water

· Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed wastewater would be an attractive option for industries for
cooling and fire fighting to reduce their water cost.

· In urban areas water after bathing and washing utensils can be used for gardening. Water used for washing
vehicle can also be used for gardening.

3. Watershed Management
· Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater
resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods
like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc.

· Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society
on the other.

· There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and impacts of water pollution.
The public awareness and action can be very effective in.
· The Central and State Governments have initiated many watershed development and management programmes
in the country. Ex. Neeru-Meeru (Water and You)programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in
Alwar, Rajasthan)
· Watershed development projects in some areas have been successful in rejuvenating environment and economy.

4. Rainwater Harvesting
5. Redistribution of Water
· Water found on the surface of the earth is not equally distributed. Existing form of distribution also becomes a
reason for the water crisis.

· By arranging supply of water from areas having lesser demand to the areas having greater demand, water crisis
can be minimized. By construction of surface water reservoirs and storage of excess water in them, supply can
be made to scarcity affected areas.

· Excess rainfall water which flows away from rivers without being used, can be stored by construction of water
reservoirs, from where it can be supplied for agriculture, industries, urban areas etc. Facilities of fisheries and
transport also exist in stored water.
· Redistribution of water is also possible through canal system.

6. Rational use of ground water

· Groundwater meets 25 per cent of total supply of water in the world, remaining 75 per cent supply is met by
surface water sources of rivers, lakes etc.
· After exploitation a groundwater, its re-infiltration takes a very long time to complete. Ex. India
· For recharging ground-water, necessary drainage area should also be made available.

7. Renovation of Traditional Water Sources

· In India, traditional water storage places have been able to meet the demand of drinking water in many regions
but they have been renovated from time to time.

· Important traditional water conservation methods for irrigation include Kuhul in hilly areas, Jing (Ladakh),
Kool, Water Kundis called Khoop in Arunachal Pradesh, Zabo method of Nagaland, Aabi tanks of Haryana,
Dong Pokhar of Assam, Bandhare of Maharashtra, Kere of Karnataka

8. Use of Modern Irrigation Methods

· A large portion of water can be conserved by adoption of modern methods of irrigation. Irrigation consumes
double the quantity of water in comparison to all other uses. Sprinkler and drip irrigation methods save 50 per
cent water.

9. Increasing forest cover

· Forest cover has been destroyed there due to mining of limestone. As a result of it, rain water flows away very
fast to the rivers. A similar thing is happening in the Dehradun area of Uttaranchal.

· The old tradition of tree plantation on the banks of rivers and tanks will have to be revived. Forest cover will
have to be developed on uncultivable waste lands and hilly slopes on a large scale.

10. Water Conservation by Municipal Bodies

· Municipal bodies should manage both individual demand and supply of water as well as conserve water.
Municipal laws should provide for collection of rain water from roof tops and implement it. Individual awareness
is very important in water conservation.
11. By Individuals

· Installing flow-restricting shower heads to save water during showers. Taking bucket baths instead of showers.
Turning off the tap while shaving or brushing teeth. Immediately fixing any leaking taps and pipes in our homes.
Practicing rainwater harvesting to reduce the wastage of rainwater.