Academy of Environmental Sciences & Agriculture

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 19-10-2023

Environmental Impact
Assessment
(EIA)
पयावरणीय भाव आकलन

पछले वष के पर ा न के साथ
पयावरणीय भाव आकलन
क चचा

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

• EIA is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a

proposed project or development, taking into account inter-related
socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial
and adverse.

• UNEP defines EIA as a tool used to identify the environmental, social

and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making.

• It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project

planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse
impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present
the predictions and options to decision-makers.
 19-10-2023

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for

ensuring optimal use of natural resources for sustainable development.

• EIA systematically examines both beneficial and adverse consequences of the project.

• In India, EIA is now mandatory for over 30 classes of projects.

• Columbia and the Philippines are the earliest examples of developing nations who
introduced EIA in their policies.

• Columbia brought it in 1974 while the Philippines in 1978.

• In 1989, EIA was adopted as the major development project by the World Bank.

• EIA is mentioned explicitly under Principle 17 of the Rio declaration of 1992

History/Development of EIA

 The EIA process finds its origin from United States where due to huge public pressure; the
government enacted National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969.

 The role of EIA process was formally recognized at the Earth Summit in Rio Conference in 1992.

 The Rio declaration stated that EIA shall be taken as national instrument for proposed projects
which might adversely impact the environment.

 Environment Impact Assessment in India is statutorily backed by the Environment Protection Act,
1986 which contains various provisions on EIA methodology and process.

 The EIA started in 1976-77 when the Planning Commission asked the Department of Science and
Technology (DST) to examine the river-valley projects from an environmental angle.
 19-10-2023

 Till 1994, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative decision
and lacked legislative support.

 On 27 January 1994, the then Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (Now MoEFCC),
under the Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, promulgated an EIA notification making
Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for expansion or modernisation of any activity or for
setting up new projects listed in Schedule 1 of the notification and in 1997 public hearing
added to EIA.

 Since then there have been 12 amendments made in the EIA notification of 1994.

 The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified new EIA legislation
in September 2006.

 The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)

notified new EIA legislation in September 2006.
 The notification makes it mandatory for various projects such as mining, thermal
power plants, river valley, infrastructure (road, highway, ports, harbours and
airports) and industries including very small electroplating or foundry units to get
environment clearance.
 However, unlike the EIA Notification of 1994, the new legislation has put the onus
of clearing projects on the state government depending on the size/capacity of the
project.

 The new EIA legislation in September 2006 was amended in 2016, 2020 and 2021.
 19-10-2023

Salient Features of 2006 Amendments to EIA Notification

• Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has decentralized the

environmental clearance projects by categorizing the developmental projects in two
categories, i.e.,

1. Category A (national level appraisal) and

2. Category B (state level appraisal).

 Category A projects are appraised at national level by Impact Assessment Agency (IAA)
and the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) and

 Category B projects are apprised at state level by State Level Environment Impact
Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC)
provide clearance to the Category B projects.

Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus

they do not undergo the screening process.

Category B projects undergoes screening process and they are classified into
two types.

1. Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).

2. Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).

• Thus, Category A projects and Category B, projects undergo the complete EIA
process whereas Category B2 projects are excluded from complete EIA
process.
 19-10-2023

• EIA conducting time reduced from 20-28 months to 10-14 months

• Compliance report to be submitted by parties in every 6 months

• Public consultation after EIA report submission

After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises of four stages:

1. Screening

2. Scoping

3. Public hearing

4. Appraisal
 19-10-2023

Exemptions from Environmental clearance

• Strategic and Defence Projects
 highway projects of strategic and defense importance, which are 100 km from the Line
of Control.

 Char Dham project, which includes widening of 899 km roads in ecologically sensitive
areas of Uttarakhand (strategically important)

• Biomass Based Power Plants:

 Thermal power plants up to 15 MW based on biomass or non-
hazardous municipal solid waste
• Ports and Harbour dealing in Fish
• Toll Plazas

Draft EIA Notification 2020

• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has published the draft
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2020, with the intention of replacing the existing EIA
Notification, 2006 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

• The Key Proposals of the 2020 Draft include:

• Reduced Time for Public Hearings: Reduce the notice period for public hearings from 30 days to 20
days.

• Exemption of Projects: Furthermore, by classifying a number of projects into A, B1 and B2, a host
of projects are exempted from public scrutiny.

• Post-clearance compliance

• Annual Submission of Reports: submission of compliance reports annually whereas as per the
2006 notification, the compliance report was to be submitted every six months.

• No Public Reporting for Non-Compliance

• Post-facto Clearance: A project that has been operating without environmental clearance, can be
regularised or allowed to apply for clearance.
 19-10-2023

Stakeholders in the EIA Process

1. Those who propose the project

2. The environmental consultant who prepare EIA on behalf of project proponent

3. Pollution Control Board (State or National)

4. Public has the right to express their opinion

5. The Impact Assessment Agency

6. Regional centre of the MoEFCC

Steps in EIA Process

1. Screening

2. Scoping

3. Collection of baseline data

4. Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and permanent
impacts

5. Mitigation measures and EIA report

6. Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living close to project
site may be informed and consulted.

7. Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP
(Environment Management Plan).

8. Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan

9. Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation Measures and Environmental Impact Assessment

Report:

10. Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability and index also form part of EIA procedures.
 19-10-2023

Screening:
This is the first step in the EIA process.
At this stage it is decided whether the proposed project needs an EIA
and if so to what detail.
Screening criteria are based upon:
Scales of investment
Type of development
Location of development

Scoping:
 It is the most significant step in the entire EIA process as key environmental issues involved are

identified at this stage.

 Scoping has to be done by consultants in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if

needed, from Impact Assessment Agency

 The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published sector-wise guidelines which outline the

significant issues which have to be addressed while conducting the EIA studies.

 At the end of scoping, detailed terms of reference (TOR) are prepared of EIA.

 TOR is a written document containing written requirements governing EIA implementation,

consultations to be held, data to be gathered, methodology to be used etc

 19-10-2023

Collection of baseline data:

 It describes the existing environmental status of the identified study area.
 The site-specific primary data is monitored and supplemented with secondary data

Impact prediction:
 Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and permanent
impacts
 Under this, possible effects on the physical, biological, social and economic
conditions are taken into consideration and measures are suggested to prevent,
reduce or compensate for the impacts.

Public hearing:
 On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living close to project
site may be informed and consulted.
 Public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion
of EIA report
 Gram Sabha must be consulted before the project starts. Gram Sabha means the
electorate (people eligible to vote) of the region

Decision making:
 Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts consult the project-in-charge along
with consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment
Management Plan).
 19-10-2023

Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental Impact

Assessment Report:
 For every project, possible alternatives are to be identified and environmental impacts and
benefits to be compared.

 Alternatives should then be ranked for selection of the best environmental option for
optimum economic benefits to the community at large.

Environment Management Plan (EMP):

 Once alternatives have been reviewed, an impact mitigation plan is drawn up for the
selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to
guide the proponent towards environmental improvements.
 EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and therefore details of
monitoring should be included in it.
 EMP is a site-specific plan developed to ensure that the project is implemented in an
environmentally sustainable manner where all contractors and subcontractors, including
consultants understand the potential environmental risks arising from the project and take
appropriate actions to properly manage that risk.
 An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report prepared at this stage should provide
clear information to the decision maker on the different environmental scenarios without
the project, with the project and with project alternatives.
 19-10-2023

Risk assessment:
 Inventory analysis and hazard probability and index also form part of EIA
procedures.

Post-Monitoring:
 Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases of a
project.
 This is not only to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also
to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports were correct or not.

Methodologies of environmental impact assessment

1. Adhoc method

2. Checklist method

3. Matrix method

4. Network method

5. Overlay method

6. Environmental index using factor analysis

7. Cost/Benefit analysis

8. Predictive or Simulation methods

 19-10-2023

Ad hoc methods
• Ad hoc methods indicate broad areas of possible impacts by listing composite environmental
parameters (Ex: flora and fauna) likely to be affected by the proposed activity.

Types of Ad hoc method are:

a) Opinion poll

b) Expert opinion and

c) Delphi methods

• This method is very simple and can be performed without any training.

• It does not involve any relative weighting or any cause-effect relationship.

• It provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas for possible
impacts.

• Moreover, it does not even state the actual impacts on specific parameters that will be affected

Matrices Method

• Matrix methods identify interactions between various project actions and environmental
parameters and components.

• A simple interaction matrix is formed when project actions are listed on one axis (usually vertical)
and environmental impacts are listed along the other axis.

• This technique was pioneered by Leopold et al in 1971.

• It lists about 100 project actions and about 88 environmental characteristics and conditions.
 19-10-2023

Network Method
• This method uses the matrix approach and extends it to include both the primary as well as
the secondary impacts.

• It is shown in the form of a tree called impact tree.

• This diagram is also called as reference or sequence diagram.

• Identification of direct, indirect along with short, long term impact is a crucial and basic step
of making an impact tree.

• The impact tree is used to identify cause-effect linkages.

• The impact tree is a visual description of linkages.

Overlays Method

• Overlay methods involve preparation of a set of transparent maps, which represent the
spatial distribution of environmental characteristics (e.g., Extent of dense forest area).

• Information on wide range of variables will be collected for standard geographical units
within the study area which will be recorded on series of maps typically one for each
variable.

• These maps will be overlaid to produce a composite.

• The resulting composite maps characterize the area's physical, social, ecological, land use
and other relevant characteristics relative to the location of the proposed development.
 19-10-2023

Checklists

• Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of
project.

• Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no potential
impact is overlooked.

• They are a more formalized version of ad hoc approaches in that specific areas of impact
are listed and instructions are supplied for impact identification and evaluation.

Advantages of EIA
 Reduced cost and time of project implementation and design,

 Avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and regulations.

 Greater awareness of environmental legislation;

 Protection of Environment

 Optimum utilization of resources

 EIA reports are a critical component of India’s environmental decision-making process

 Identification of potential impacts of proposed projects.

 It helps in predicting environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design.

 Involvement of public (public hearings)

 Ensure environmentally safe and sustainable development.

 19-10-2023

Limitations of EIA

• Time-consuming

• Little public participation in actual implementation

• Sometimes too focused on the scientific analysis

• Compliance monitoring after EIA is seldom carried out

• Biodiversity is often inadequately addressed.

Discussion
of
some important
&
Previous years exams questions
 19-10-2023

Question. 1

 EIA 2006 Amendment included 4 stages in EIA cycle

1. Screening

2. Scoping

3. Public hearing

4. Appraisal

Q. The Leopold Matrix lists………….specified actions and ………………Environmental

items.

(a) 100, 90
(b) 90, 100
(c) 99, 100
(d) 100, 99

Leopold Matrix
 A simple interaction matrix is formed when project actions are listed on one axis (usually vertical) and
environmental impacts are listed along the other axis.
 It lists about 100 project actions and about 88 environmental characteristics and conditions.
 Total interactions = 100 * 88 = 8800
 19-10-2023

Question.

Question.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),

 NEPA is the first major U.S. environmental law.
 Enacted in 1969 and
 signed into law in 1 January, 1970 by President Richard M. Nixon.
 The primary responsibility for overseeing implementation of NEPA rests with the Council on
Environmental Quality (CEQ), which was created by the U.S. Congress as part of NEPA.
 19-10-2023

Question: Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) and State Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) are
constituted by MoEF&CC for recommending the issuance of EC for projects. Which category of projects
are considered by EAC for recommending issue of EC?
(a) B1
(b) B2
(c) A
(d) A1

Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus they do not undergo the
screening process.

Category B projects undergoes screening process and they are classified into two types.

1. Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).

2. Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).

Question.

Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus they do not undergo the
screening process.

Category B projects undergoes screening process and they are classified into two types.

1. Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).

2. Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).

 19-10-2023

Q. The Scoping for EIA decided by

(a) Consultant
(b) Project proponent
(c) Public
(d) Expert Appraisal Committee

Q. Project category for “ chemical fertilizer industry” is

(a) Category A
(b) Category B
(c) Category C
(d) Category D

Q. Environmental Clearance (EC) at state level is given by

(a) State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
(b) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
(c) State Department of Environment
(d) State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA)

Q. A project may not be permitted if EIA reveals impacts that are

(a) Short term
(b) Temporary
(c) Naturally reversible
(d) Naturally irreversible
 19-10-2023

Q. EIA is generally carried out by

(a) Environmental Engineer
(b) Multi-disciplinary team
(c) Process Engineer
(d) Microbiologist

Q. Which component is not included in EIA

(a) Air quality
(b) Wastewater quality
(c) Human behaviour
(d) Safety

Q. EIA is
(a) Friendly to people
(b) Friendly to industry
(c) Friendly to environment
(d) Friendly to people, industry and environment

Question.
 19-10-2023

Question. In large River Valley projects, one of the most sensitive environmental

issue is

(A) Area under irrigation

(B) Displacement and resettlement of People

(C) Capacity of the reservoir

(D) Generation of power

Question.

Question.
 19-10-2023

Question.

Question. In Environmental Impact Assessment, the full form of CEQ is

(A) Council on Educational Quality
(B) Council on Environmental Quality
(C) Center for Educational Quality
(D) Centre for Environmental Quality

Question. In which year the EIA notification was published for the
first time in India?
(A)1974
(B)1978
(C)1981
(D)1994

First EIA notification was published in 27 January 1994

 19-10-2023

Question. What is the process of scrutiny, by the competent authority

appointed under the current EIA notification, of the application and other
documents submitted by the applicant for grant of environmental
clearance called?
(A)Appraisal
(B)Assessment
(C)Monitoring Baseline
(D)Prediction

Question. As per the EIA notification, 2006, the full form of SEAC is
(A)State Environmental and Academic Council
(B)State Education and Academic Council
(C) State Environmental Affairs Council
(D) State level Environmental Appraisal Committee

SEAC - State Level Expert Appraisal Committee

 19-10-2023

Q. In accordance with the Indian EIA notification 2006, within how many days if
Environmental Appraisal Committee does not specify the Terms of Reference, the proponent
can go ahead with its own terms of reference.

a 15 days b 45 days

c 60 days d 90 days
 19-10-2023

• Environmental Auditing is an independent assessment performed by different

organisations to ensure that they are complying with the Environmental Policies.
• It examines the amount of risk or injury or actual harm caused and determines the
types of Pollution produced by assessing the range of locations, procedures and
activities.
• An environmental audit is a type of evaluation intended to identify environmental
compliance and management system implementation gaps, along with related
corrective actions.
• In this way they perform an analogous (similar) function to financial audits.
 19-10-2023

Important abbreviations

 EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment

 EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
 EIR - Environnemental Impact Report
 EIS - Environnemental Impact Statement
 NEPA - National Environmental Policy Act
 MoEFCC - Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
 EC - Environmental Clearance
 IAA - Impact Assessment Agency
 EAC - Expert Appraisal Committee
 SEIAA - State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority
 SEAC - State Level Expert Appraisal Committee
 EMP - Environmental Management Plan
 CEQ - Council on Environmental Quality
 SPCB - State Pollution Control Board
 CPCB - Central Pollution Control Board
Sanitary landfills/ Municipal landfill/ Engineered landfills

For Competitive exams

o CPCB Scientist B Post Exam
o State Pollution Control Board
o Junior Scientific Officer HPPSC
o Environmental Scientist APCB
o UGC-NET
o ASRB-NET
o ICAR-SRF
o UPSC
o PCS

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

 Open Dumping vs Sanitary Landfill

❑A landfill is a final control measure of waste

disposal on or in the land

❑A sanitary landfill is a pit with a protected bottom

where trash is buried in layers and compressed to
make it more solid.

❑An open dumping site is one where solid waste is [Link]

disposed of in a way that does not safeguard the

environment, is subject to open burning, and is
exposed to the elements, vectors, and scavengers.

[Link]
 Open Dump Sanitary Landfill
land site where piles of garbage are accumulated land site designed for waste management.
unorganized and improper way of disposing waste. It is an organized way for disposal of waste.
It is generally illegal. It is regulated by the government.
Open dumps are very hazardous to the environment. Sanitary landfills are less hazardous to the environment.
No monitoring is involved, which results in foul odor. Carefully monitored, thus preventing foul odor. As a result,
This attracts rats, rodents, and other pests. pests are avoided.
An open dump is smaller than a landfill. A sanitary landfill is bigger as compared to a dump area.
No treatment systems or liners are involved. Leachate collection and liners are involved.
Setting up a landfill requires a fixed type of location, away from
An open dump can be located anywhere.
a residential area.

[Link]
 Landfill

• A landfill site, also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a site
for the disposal of waste materials.

• Landfill is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of the
waste began in the 1940s.

• The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste.

• Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors (bioreactors) in which microbes will
break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time.
• Modern landfills are well-engineered and managed facilities for the disposal of solid waste.

• Landfills are located, designed, operated and monitored to ensure compliance with regulations.

• Landfills cannot be built in environmentally-sensitive areas

• These monitoring systems check for any sign of groundwater contamination and for landfill gas,
as well as provide additional safeguards.
❑In 1937, Fresco, California, opened the first sanitary landfill.

❑In 1959, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) developed the first recognized definition of

sanitary landfills.

❑India has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai

❑Wastes are generally divided into two groups which are hazardous and non-hazardous wastes.

❑In this regulation, disposal sites of non-hazardous waste are called sanitary landfills and they

require engineering operations to meet certain standards in design and operational stages.

Source: Iravanian & Ravari, 2020

❑In 1979, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed standards for solid
waste disposal facilities that reduce the impact of the disposal sites on human health and the
environment.

❑Any landfill that fails to meet these standards is considered an open dump.

❑Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) prohibit the use of open dumping, therefore,
open dumps must be closed or updated to meet the sanitary landfills standards.

Source: Iravanian & Ravari, 2020

Source: Iravanian & Ravari, 2020

A typical sanitary landfill

Source: Help Save Nature
 India’s SWM status in landfills

▪ Delhi has three major dumpsites: Ghazipur, Okhla and

Bhalswa. Generated/managed
Waste (TPD) % Share
▪ The total quantity of Solid waste generated -160038.9 TPD
Total waste generated 160038.9
▪ of which 152749.5 TPD of waste is collected at a collection Waste Collected 152749.5 95.40%
efficiency of 95.4%. Waste treated 79956.3 50%

▪ 79956.3 TPD (50 %) of waste is treated and Landfilled 29427.2 18.40%

Un-accounted 50655.4 31.70%

▪ 29427.2 (18.4%) TPD is landfilled.

▪ 50655.4 TPD which is 31.7 % of the total waste generated

remains un-accounted.

CPCB, 2020-21
❑ In India, 1924 sites for landfill have been
identified in 2020-21, of which
❑ 305 landfills have been constructed,
❑ 126 are under construction,
❑ 341 are in operation,
❑ 17 are exhausted and
❑ 11 landfill have been capped.
❑ Maximum numbers of sites have been identified
in Maharashtra (382), Madhya Pradesh (341) &
Karnataka (221).
❑ Maximum numbers of landfill sites in operation Year wise solid waste landfilled (%)
are in Maharashtra (137), Karnataka (52) and
Uttar Pradesh (86).
Number of dumpsites in country: 3184
Source: Banega Swachh India 2018
 Types of landfills

1. Municipal Solid Waste Landfills (MSWLFs) – for non-hazardous waste

• Bioreactor Landfills – A type of MSWLF that operates to rapidly transform and degrade organic waste.

2. Industrial Waste Landfill – Designed to collect commercial and institutional waste (i.e. industrial waste),

• Construction and Demolition (C&D) Debris Landfill –

• Coal Combustion Residual (CCR) landfills –

3. Hazardous Waste Landfills -for the disposal of hazardous waste.

These landfills are not used for the disposal of solid waste.

• Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) landfills

❑Landfilling will be done for the following types of waste:

(i) Comingled waste (mixed waste) not found suitable for waste processing;

(ii) Pre-processing and post-processing rejects from waste processing sites;

(iii) Non-hazardous waste not being processed or recycled.

❑Landfilling will usually not be done for the following municipal solid waste:

(i) Biowaste/garden waste;

(ii) Dry recyclables.

❑Landfills minimize the harmful impact on the environment by

(a) Isolation of waste through containment

(b) Elimination of polluting pathways

(c) Controlled collection and treatment of products

(d) Environmental monitoring till the waste becomes stable

 Seven essential components of a MSW landfill
1. A liner system at the base and sides of the landfill which prevents migration of leachate or gas
to the surrounding soil.

2. A leachate collection and control facility

3. A gas collection and control facility

4. A final cover system at the top of the landfill which enhances surface drainage, prevents
infiltrating water and supports surface vegetation.

5. A surface water drainage system

6. An environmental monitoring system

7. A closure and post-closure plan

 Locational Criteria
❑ A locational criteria may be specified by a regulatory agency (e.g. Pollution Control Board).
▪ Lake or Pond: No landfill should be constructed within 200 m of any lake or pond.
▪ River: No landfill should be constructed within 100 m of a navigable river or stream.
▪ Flood Plain: No landfill should be constructed within a 100 year flood plain.
▪ Highway: No landfill should be constructed within 200 m of the right of way of any state or national highway.
▪ Habitation: A landfill site should be at least 500 m from a notified habitated area.
▪ Public parks: No landfill should be constructed within 300 m of a public park.
▪ Critical Habitat Area: No landfill should be constructed within critical habitat areas.
▪ Wetlands: No landfill should be constructed within wetlands.
▪ Ground Water Table : should not be constructed where water table is less than 2m below ground surface.
▪ Water Supply Well: No landfill should be constructed within 500 m of any water supply well.
▪ Coastal Regulation Zone, Unstable Zone, Buffer Zone and Airport: should not be constructed in these areas
 Design Life

• A landfill design life will comprise of an active period and an closure and post-closure period.

• The active period may typically range from 10 to25 years depending on the availability of land
area.

• The closure and post-closure period for which a landfill will be monitored and maintained will be
25-30 years after the active period is completed.
 Liner or lining System

• Liner systems comprise of a combination of leachate drainage and collection layer(s) and barrier
layers.

• It is used to avoid or minimize the seepage of leachates from landfills.

• This system may be single or multilayered

❑Liners are generally made of:

✓ Naturally in-situ clay: should not less than 2m thickness, permeability better than 10-9 m/sec

✓ Imported clay: thickness 0.5m, permeability lesser than 10-9 m/sec

✓ Bentonite-improved earth: permeability varies 10-9 to 10-10 m/sec

✓ Synthetics: LDPE & HDPE, Thickness available 0.5-2mm

❑ For single composite liner system

(a) The primary leachate collection layer of thickness 30 cm or more

made of granular soil having coefficient of permeability (K) greater than
10-2 cm/sec.

(b) A protection layer (of silty soil) 20 cm to 30 cm thick.

(c) A HDPE geomembrane of thickness 1.5 mm or more.

(d) A compacted clay barrier or amended soil barrier of thickness more

than 1 m (sometimes 150 cm) having coefficient of permeability (K) of
less than 10-7 cm/sec.
❑ Region where high rainfall or soil is highly permeable or water table is 2-
6m beneath the base of landfill for double composite liner system is used

❑ Specification

(a) The secondary leachate collection layer of thickness 30 cm or more made

of granular soil having coefficient of permeability (K) greater than 10-3
cm/sec.

(b) A HDPE geomembrane of thickness 1.5 mm or more.

(c) A compacted clay barrier or amended soil barrier of thickness 45 cm or

more having coefficient of permeability (K) of less than 10-7 cm/sec.

❑ The geomembrane must have

✓ Tensile strength at yield > 18 kN/m

✓ Tensile strength at break > 30 kN/m

✓ Tear resistance > 150 N

✓ Puncture resistance > 250 N

 Cover criteria
• The cover system designed to protect the rainwater infiltration in the system

• Promote the surface water drainage that accumulate over cover

• Function with minimum maintenance for post closure period of 30 years

❑Minimum Specifications

✓ A surface soil layer of local top soil thickness should not less than 60cm

✓ A drainage layer of thickness of 30 cm or more having coefficient of permeability (K) of more than 10-2
cm/sec.
❑ A single composite barrier comprising of

✓ HDPE geomembrane of thickness 1.5 mm or more

✓ A compacted clay barrier or amended soil barrier of

thickness 60 cm or more having coefficient of permeability
(K) of less than 10-7 cm/sec.

✓ Amended soil should be mixed with bentonite to achieve

desire permeability

❑ A regulatory layer (optional) of thickness of 30 cm or more

having coefficient of permeability (K) of greater than 10-2
cm/sec.
Landfill liner

Landfill cover
Liner system
Leachate collection layer Geomemb Compacted clay layer
Thickness Permeability rane Thickness Permeability
Single liner system ≥ 30 cm > 10-2 cm/sec ≥ 1.5 mm > 100-150 < 10-7 cm/sec
cm

Double liner system Primary: ≥ 30 cm Primary: > 10-2 cm/sec ≥ 1.5 mm ≥ 45 cm < 10-7 cm/sec

Secondary: ≥ 30 cm Secondary: > 10-3 cm/sec

Cover system
Regulatory layer (optional) Compacted clay layer
Geomembrane
Thickness Permeability Thickness Permeability
Single cover system ≥ 30 cm > 10-2 cm/sec ≥ 1.5 mm ≥ 60 cm < 10-7 cm/sec
Typical Constituents of Municipal Landfill
 Estimation of Landfill Capacity, Landfill Height, Landfill Area

• Current Waste generation per year = W (tons per year)

• Estimated rate of increase (or decrease) of waste generation per year = x (percent)

• Proposed life of landfill (in years) = n (years)

𝑥 n
• Waste generation after n years (t/yr) = W (1 + )
100

1 𝑥 n
• Total waste generation (T) in n years in tons = [W + W (1 + ) ]n
2 100
• Total volume of waste in n years (Vw) (cu.m.) = T/density of waste

• Total volume of daily cover in n years (Vdc) (on the basis of 15 cm soil cover on top and sides for
lift height of 1.5 to 2 m)

Vdc = 0.1 Vw (cu.m.)

• Total volume required (Vc) for components of liner system and of cover system (on the
assumption of 1.5m thick liner system (including leachate collection layer) and 1.0 m thick cover
system (including gas collection layer)

Vc = k Vw (cu.m.)

k = 0.25 for 10 m high landfill, 0.125 for 20 m high landfill and 0.08 for 30 m high landfill.
• Volume likely to become available within 10 years due to settlement / biodegradation of waste
(Vs)

Vs = m Vw
m = 0.10 for biodegradable waste; m will for less than 0.05 for incinerated/inert waste

• First estimate of landfill capacity (Ci)

Ci = Vw + Vd + Vc - Vs (cu.m.)
❑Maximum working area (Amax) for landfills

𝟎.𝟏 𝑾
Amax =
𝑹

W = Average annual waste input (tons)

R = Average annual rainfall (m)

3
0.1 m /tonne is assumed the absorption capacity of waste

Example: Compute the maximum working area if W is 20,000 t/yr and R is 1.2 m/yr?
Solution

𝟎.𝟏 𝑾 𝟎.𝟏 ∗𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

Amax = = = 1667 m2
𝑹 𝟏.𝟐
 Stages/phases of a municipal landfill
1. Initial adjustment (Phase I): Aerobic phase

• Takes few days to few weeks

• As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O2).

• With added and compacted wastes, the O2 content gradually decreases.

• Microbial populations grow, density increases.

• Aerobic biodegradation dominates

2. Transition (Phase II): Aerobic phase

• Duration: Few weeks to few months

• The O2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations.

• The decreasing O2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers.

• The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O2 is rapidly
displaced by CO2 in the effluent gas.

❑Sometimes phase I and II consider single phase

3. Acid formation (Acidogenesis) (Phase III)

• Duration: 3-5 years

• Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which
leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate.

• The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6.

• During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical
oxygen demand (COD).

• Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C2H4O2), CO2, and hydrogen gas
(H2).

• High concentrations of VFAs increase both the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA
concentrations, which initiates H2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth
of H2-oxidizing bacteria.
4. Methane fermentation (Phase IV)

• The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are
converted to CH4 and CO2 by methanogenic microorganisms.

• As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality.

• The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with
increases in CH4 and CO2 gas production.

• This is the longest decomposition phase.

CHONS + H2O → H2O + CO2 + CH4 + H2 + NH4 + HS (Anaerobic bacteria)

5. Final maturation and stabilization (Phase V)

• The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the
supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes
increasingly scarce.

• CH4 production almost completely disappears, with O2 and oxidized species gradually
reappearing in the gas wells as O2 permeates downwardly from the troposphere.
Changes in the composition of landfill gases
Stage I: Aerobic Phase
Stage II: Acidogenesis
Stage III: Unsteady Methanogenesis
Stage IV: Steady methanogenesis
Water balance in landfills
 After closer of the landfills

• After closer of landfill, post inspection should be done for the 30 years.

• Cover system inspection should be done 2-4 times in a year

• Surface water drainage system inspection should be done 2-4 times in a year

• Gas and leachate management system inspection should be done 2-4 times in a year

• Groundwater , air quality and vadose zone monitoring should be done 2-4 times in a year
❑Landfill gases
• Gases such as CH4, CO2, etc. are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes.

• Methane and carbon dioxide make up 90 to 98% of landfill gas.

• The remaining 2 to 10% includes nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia, sulfides, hydrogen and various other
gases.

• In landfill, monitoring of environmental parameters should be done 1 or 2 times in a month.

 Hedonic Tone
• Hedonic tone is the degree to which an odour is perceived as pleasant or unpleasant.
• Such perceptions differ widely from person to person, and are strongly influenced, inter alia, by
previous experience and emotions at the time of odour perception.
 Measurement of odour concentration - Olfactory Methods

• Olfactory method involves the assessment of odour under controlled conditions by a panel of
selected persons (called panelists).
• This standard sets down rigorous procedures for determining the odour strength of a gaseous
sample.
 Discussion of some important
&
Previous years exams questions
Q. What is the major environmental concern related to landfill?

a) Limited space

b) Limited technology

c) Less man-power

d) Discharge of leachates
Q. What is the method that fills in gas into the landfills?

a) Vermicomposting

b) In-situ aeration

c) Incineration

d) Recycling
1
1
1
2
 1

Where,
I – Rate of infiltration
P- precipitation
CR/O – Coefficient of Runoff
AET – Actual Evapotranspiration
S – Soil moisture content retention capacity
b
❑ Explanation: Single composite liner system has a leachate collection layer of thickness 30 cm or more with
coefficient of permeability in excess of 10-2 cm/sec
 a) 100 cm
b) 150 cm
c) 200 cm
d) 250 cm

❑ Explanation: Single composite liner comprise compacted clay layer of thickness 150 cm or more with
coefficient of permeability of 10-7 cm/sec or less.
 a. 10-2
b. 10-3
c. 10-4
d. 10-5

❑ Explanation: Double composite liner system has a leachate collection layer of thickness 30 cm or more with
coefficient of permeability in excess of 10-2 cm/sec
a. 25 cm
b. 30 cm
c. 45 cm
d. 100 cm
3
 a. 50 cm
b. 60 cm
c. 90 cm 2

d. 100 cm

❑ Explanation: A layer of local top solids which provisions self sustaining vegetation should have thickness not less
than 60 cm and drainage layer thickness should be 30 cm or more.
Q. What is the normal storage time of incinerable hazardous waste at the incinerator site?
a. 2 months
b. 6 months
c. 8 months
2
d. 1 year
Q. What is the Post-closure monitoring time for landfills?
a. 10 years
b. 20 years
c. 30 years
d. 40 years

3
Q. When the matter present inside the sanitary landfill breaks down, which of the following gas generates?

a. Methane

b. Carbon dioxide

c. Hydrogen

d. All of the above

Q. Which gas is generated on the decomposition of the organic matter present in the sanitary landfill?
a. Oxygen
b. Methane
c. Nitrogen
d. Hydrogen
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