Fr. G.

Kiran Kumar SJ

UNIT II: SUBGROUPS & COSETS

SUBGROUPS: Complex Definition – Multiplication of two

complexes – Inverse of a complex – Subgroup definition –
examples – criterion for a complex to be a subgroup. Criterion for
the product of two subgroups to be a subgroup – union and
Intersection of subgroups.
COSETSAND LAGRANGE’S THEOREM: Cosets Definition –
properties of Cosets – Index of a subgroups of a finite group –
Lagrange’s Theorem.

Definition: Complex- Any non-empty subset of a group (G, *) is

called a complex of G.
Eg. H = {1, i} is a complex of group G = {1, -1, i, -i} under
multiplication.

Product of Complexes:
Let H and K be any two complexes of a group (G, .). The product of
H and K denoted by HK is defined as
HK = {hk / h H, k K}
Similarly KH = {kh / k K, h H}
Note:
i) If H and K are complexes of (G, .) then HK and KH are also
complexes of G.
ii) If (G, .) is an abelian group then HK = KH

Inverse of a Complex
Let H be any complex of a group (G, .) then inverse of H is
defined as H-1 = {h-1 / hϵH}.
Eg. If H = {1, -i} of group G = {1, -1, i, -i} then H-1 = {1, i}
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Properties:
i) If H, K are complexes of a group (G, .) then HK is also a complex
of G.
ii) If H, K, N are complexes of (G, .) then (HK)N = H(KN)
iii) If H is a complex of group (G, .) and e is the identity element in G,
then eH = He = H
iv) If H, K are complexes of group (G, .) then (HK)-1 = K-1H-1
(reversal law)

Definition Subgroup: A non-empty subset H of a group G, is said to

be a subgroup of (G, .) if (H, .) is a group with respect to the
same binary operation as in the group (G, .)

Note:
1) For any group G, the subsets H = {e} (where e is the identity
element in G) and H = G are subgroups known as trivial or
improper subgroups of G.
2) A subgroup of a group G, other than trivial subgroups is known as
non-trivial or proper subgroup.
3) Identity element of a subgroup H is the same as identity element in
the group G.
4) Inverse of an element ‘a’ in a subgroup H is the same as the inverse
of ‘a’ in the group G.
E.g. 1) H1 = {1}, H2 = {1, -1} and H3 = {1, -1, i, -i} = G
H1 and H3 are trivial subgroups and
H2 is non-trivial subgroup of G.
2) The set of even integers (2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +) the set
of integers.
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty

subset H of a group (G, .) to be a sub group of G is that
a, b  H  ab1 H for all a, b in H.
Proof: Condition is Necessary:
Let H be a subgroup of G
then H is a subset of G and (H, .) is a group.

By inverse law, b H  b1 H and

By closure law, a,b  H  a,b1 H  ab1 H for all a, b in H

Thus condition is necessary.
Condition is Sufficient:

Let H be a subset of G satisfying a,b H  ab1 H a,b H

We have to prove that (H, .) is a group.

Identity Law: By the given condition for a, a  H  aa1  e H

(H, .) has identity element e.
Inverse Law:

By the given condition for e, a  H  ea1  a1 H

Therefore a  H  a1 H for all a in H. (H, .) satisfy inverse

law
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Closure Law:

By Inverse law b H  b1 H and so by the condition

1
for all a,b H  a,b1 H  a  b1   ab H .
 

(H, .) is closed.
Associative Law:
As all element of H are the elements of G and as they satisfy
associative law in group (G, .), they will also satisfy the
associative law in (H, .)
Therefore (H, .) is a subgroup of (G, .)
Hence the theorem

Theorem 2: The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-

empty subset H of a finite group (G, .) to be a sub group of G is
that a, b  H  ab  H for all a, b in H.

Proof: Let H be a subgroup of a finite group (G, .) then H is also a

finite group. And by closure law a, b  H  ab  H for all a, b in
H
Thus condition is necessary.
Conversely suppose that H is a non-empty subset of a finite group G
with a, b  H  ab  H clearly the above condition states that
(H, .) is closed
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

As all the elements of H are the element of Group G and they

satisfy associative law in (G, .), they will also satisfy the
associative law in (H, .)
By the given condition

a, aH  aa  a2 H
and a, a2  H  aa2  a3  H and so on.

Thus we get elements a, a2, a3, a4,... are all in H.

As the group (G,.) is a finite group, all these elements cannot be
distinct for otherwise the group G will be an infinite group.
Therefore there are integers r and s with r > s with ar = as,
considering these as the elements of G, post multiplying with a-s
we get
ar. a-s = as . a-s
ar-s = as-s = a0 = e , where e is identity element in G,
as the identity element in the sub group is the same as identity
element in the group, (H, .) also has identity element e.
To each a  H there exists ar s1 H such that
[Link]s1  ars  eH
thus a  H has multiplicative inverse ar s1 H .
(H, .) also satisfy the inverse axiom.
Hence (H, . ) is a group.
Hence the theorem
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Theorem 3: The Union of two subgroups of a group is a sub group

if and only if one is contained in the other.

Proof: let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of a group (G, .)

Then H1  G, H2  G and (H1, .) ,(H2, .) are groups,

H1  H2 is a non-empty subset of G.

We shall prove that H1  H2 is a subgroup if and only if

H1  H2 or H2  H1

Let H1  H2 then H1  H2  H2 and ( H1  H2 , .) = (H2 , .) is a

subgroup of (G , .)
Let H2  H1 then H1  H2  H1 and ( H1  H2 , .) = (H1 , .) is a
subgroup of (G , .)
Therefore if one subgroup is contained in the other subgroup
then H1  H2 is a subgroup.

Conversely suppose that H1  H2 is a subgroup, we have to show that

either H1  H2 or H2  H1

On contrary suppose that H1  H2 and H2  H1

As H1  H2 there exists a H1 and aH2

As H2  H1 there exists b H2 and bH1

Now a  H1,b H 2  a,b H1  H 2  ab1 H1  H 2 since

H1  H2 is a subgroup.
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Also ab1  H1  H 2  ab1  H1 or ab1  H 2

Let ab1  H1 then

ab1  H1, a  H1  a1  ab1   b1  H1  b H1 but b H1

Let ab1  H 2

then ab1  H 2 ,b H 2   ab1  b  a  H 2 but a  H 2

Thus ab1  H1  H 2 but ab1  H1 and ab1  H 2

and H1  H2 is not a subgroup.

This is a contradiction and so H1  H2 is a subgroup implies

H1  H2 or H2  H1

Theorem: The intersection of two subgroups of a group (G, .) is

also a subgroup of (G, .)
Proof: let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of a group (G, .)
Then H1  G, H 2  G and (H1, .) , (H2, .) are groups, and
e  H1 , e  H 2  e  H 1  H 2
thus   H1  H 2  G .

We shall prove that H1  H 2 is a subgroup of G

let a, b  H1  H 2  a, b  H1 and a, b  H 2

H1 is a subgroup, a, b  H1  ab 1  H1

and H2 is a subgroup a, b  H 2  ab 1  H 2
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Thus a, b  H1  H 2  ab 1  H1 and ab 1  H 2  ab 1  H1  H 2

 H1  H 2 is a subgroup of (G,.).
Note: The above result can be extended to any number of sub groups
i.e., Arbitrary intersection of subgroups of a group is also a sub
group of the group.

Theorem: Let H and K be two subgroups of a group G. Then HK

is a subgroup of G iff HK = KH.
Proof:
1
H is a subgroup of G  H 1  H and HH  H

K is a subgroup of G  K 1  K and KK 1  K
Suppose HK is a subgroup of G.

HK is a subgroup of G  ( HK )1  HK

( HK )( HK )1  HKK 1H 1  HKH 1  KHH 1  KH  HK

Therefore HK = KH
Conversely suppose that HK = KH

( HK )( HK )1  HKK 1H 1  HKH 1  KHH 1  KH  HK

Therefore HK is a subgroup of G.
Hence the theorem.
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Definition: Left Coset:

Let H be a subgroup of a group (G, .) and a  G then the left coset of
H in G generated by ‘a’ is the set {ah / h  H } and it is denoted by
aH.

Definition: Right Coset

Let H be a subgroup of a group (G, .) and a  G then the right coset
of H in G generated by a is the set {ha / h  H } and it is denoted by
Ha.
Note:
1) If the group G is an additive group and H is a subgroup of (G, +),
then the left coset of H is generated by ‘a’ is
a + H = {a + h/ h ∈ H}
and the right coset is
H + a = {h + a /h ∈ H}.
2) If the group G is an abelian group then ah = ha ∀ a ∈ G, h ∈ H.
Then aH = Ha ∀ a ∈ G.
Each left coset of H in G = a right coset of H in G
3) If the group G is non-abelian group then
ah ≠ha
aH ≠Ha
4) If a ∈ H, then aH = H and Ha = H
5) For e ∈ H, eH = H = He
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Properties of Cosets
1) If h ∈ H, then hH = H = Hh
2) (aH)(bH) = abH
i.e. the product of any two left cosets is also a left coset.
3) (Ha)(Hb) = Hab (i.e. the product of two right cosets is also a right
coset)
4) Any two left (right) cosets are either disjoint or identical.
5) If a, b are any two elements of a group G and H any subgroup of G,
then
Ha = Hb ⇔ ab-1 ∈ H
aH = bH ⇔ a-1b ∈ H
6) Every finite group can be uniquely expressed as the union of
disjoint left (right) cosets.
7) Any two left (right) cosets will have the same number of elements.
8) The left coset and right coset of a subgroup H in G has the same
number of elements.
9) The number of distinct left cosets of H in G is the same as the
number of distinct right cosets of H in G.
10) If H is a subgroup of a group G, then G is equal to the union of all
right (left) cosets of H in G. i.e. G = H ∪ Ha ∪ Hb ∪ Hc ∪ …,
where a, b, c, … are elements of G.
11) If H is a subgroup of G, there is a one-to-one correspondence
between any two right (left) cosets of H in G.
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Definition Index of a subgroup:

Let H be a subgroup of a group G, the number of distinct left
cosets or right cosets of H in G is called index of H in G.

Lagrange’s Theorem-
The order of every subgroup of a finite group divides the order of
the group. i.e., o(H) / o(G)
Proof: Let G be a finite group of order n, i.e., o(G) = n
and let H be a subgroup of G with o(H) = m.
Suppose h1, h2, h3, …, hm, are the m distinct elements of H.
Let a ∈ G.
Then aH is a left coset of H in G
and we have
aH = {ah1, ah2, ah3, …, ahm }.
aH has m distinct elements,
since ahi = ahj ⇒ hi = hj (left cancellation law)
|aH| = |H| = m ( o(H) = |H| = no of distinct elements)
Therefore each left coset of H in G has m distinct members.
Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct left cosets of H
in G will be also finite, say, equal to k.
If a1H, a2H, a3H, …, akH are the k distinct left cosets of H in G.
|a1H| = |a2H| = |a3H| = … = |akH| = m
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

The union of these k distinct left cosets of H in G is equal to G.

G = a1H ∪ a2H ∪ a3H ∪ … ∪ akH
We know that any two left cosets of H in G are either disjoint or
identical and every group can be uniquely expressed as the union
of these distinct left cosets of H in G.
⇒ o(G) = o(a1H) + o(a2H) + o(a3H) + … + o(akH)
n = m + m + m +... k times
n = mk and m divides n,
i. e O(H) divides the O(G).
Hence the theorem
Note: a group of prime order has no nontrivial/proper subgroups. i.e.
the only subgroups of a group of prime order are H = {e} and H = G.

Theorem: Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a  G . Then (i)

a  H  Ha  H and (ii) a  H  aH  H .

Proof:
(i) Suppose a  H
Let x  Ha  x  ha where h  H
h  H , a  H  ha  H
 xH
 Ha  H
Let x  H

x  H , a  H  xa 1  H
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

1
Let h  xa  H , then x  ha  Ha
 H  Ha
Ha  H , H  Ha  Ha  H
Conversely suppose that Ha=H
Now a  ea  Ha  H  a  H .
(ii) We can prove a  H  aH  H as above.

Theorem: Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a, b ∈ G. Then

(i) a  Hb  Ha  Hb (ii) a  bH  aH  bH
Proof:
(i) Suppose a  Hb .
a  Hb  a  hb where h  H  b  h1a where h1  H .
Let x  Ha .
x  Ha  x  h1a where h1  H .

 x  h1 (hb)  (h1h)b  Hb .
 Ha  Hb.  (1)
Let x  Hb
x  Hb  x  h2b where h2  H

 x  h2 (h 1a )  (h2 h 1 )a  Ha

 Hb  Ha a  Hb
From (1) and (2) we have Ha  Hb
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Conversely suppose that Ha  Hb

a  ea  Ha  Hb
a  Hb
(ii) Similarly we can prove a  bH  aH  bH .

Theorem: Any two right (left) cosets of a subgroup of a group are

either disjoint or identical.
Proof:
Let H be a subgroup of a group G.
Let Ha, Hb be two right cosets of H in G.
Suppose Ha  Hb  
Let c  Ha  Hb
 c  Ha, and c  Hb

c  Ha  Hc  Ha
c  Hb  Hc  Hb
 Ha  Hc  Hb
Therefore any two right cosets of H in G are either disjoint or
identical.
Hence the theorem.
 Fr. G. Kiran Kumar SJ

Theorem: Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a, b ∈ G. Then

(i) Ha  Hb  ab1  H and (ii) aH  bH  a 1b  H
Proof:
(i) Suppose Ha  Hb .
a  ea  Ha  Hb  a  hb where h  H

 ab1  h  H .
Conversely suppose that ab1  H
Let h  ab1  H
 a  hb  Hb
 a  Hb
 Ha  Hb
(ii) Suppose aH  bH
b  be  bH  aH  b  ah where h  H

 a 1b  h  H
Conversely suppose a 1b  H
Let
h  a 1b  H
 b  ah  aH
 b  aH
 aH  bH