Introduction and Overview

Opening Quote

 Source: Atharva Veda, Bhūmi Sūkta ('Hymn to the Earth')

 Quote: "Free from the burden of human beings, may the Earth with many
heights, slopes and great plains, bearing plants endowed with varied powers,
spread out for us and show us her riches! ... The Earth is my mother and I am her
child."

Big Questions of the Chapter

1. What are the major types of landforms and their significance to life and culture?

2. What are the challenges and opportunities of life associated with each
landform?

Key Definitions

 Altitude: The height of an object above sea level

o Examples: altitude of a mountain, altitude of a bird or plane in flight,

altitude of a satellite

 Landform: A physical feature on the surface of planet Earth

 Terrain: A piece or stretch of land, from the point of view of its physical features

 Precipitation: Water from the atmosphere reaching the ground in any form - rain,
snow and hail are the most common forms

 Sea level: The average level of the surface of the oceans, also called 'mean sea
level'

 Valley: A lower area between hills or mountains, often with a river or stream
flowing through it

 Confluence: The meeting point of two or more rivers

 Resilience: The capacity to meet challenges and di iculties, adapt to them or

overcome them

Basic Concepts

 Humans, like most mammals, live on land

 Land has many forms and features; appearance changes from region to region

 Example journey: Chhota Nagpur (Jharkhand) → Prayagraj (Uttar Pradesh) →

Almora (Uttarakhand) shows three di erent landforms
  Landforms take shape over millions of years

 Landforms have significant connection with environment and life

 Three main categories: Mountains, Plateaus, Plains

 Each landform has di erent climates and hosts variety of flora and fauna

 Humans have adapted to all landforms, but population density varies

Mountains

Definition and Characteristics

 Landforms much higher than surrounding landscape

 Recognition features: Broad base, steep slopes, narrow summit

 Depending on height, some mountains are covered with snow

 At lower altitudes: Snow melts every summer and feeds rivers

 At high altitudes: Snow may never melt, leaving mountain permanently snow-
capped

 Hills: Other highlands with lower height, less steep slopes and rounded tops

Snow and Precipitation

 What is snow: Precipitation of water in solid state

 Himalayan regions with snow: Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,

Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh

 Rest of India: Most precipitation is rain and hail

 Snow falls at higher altitudes when cold enough

 Creates soft and beautiful white blanket on landscape

Mountain Ranges and Examples

 Most mountains grouped in mountain ranges

 Major ranges:

o Himalayas (Asia)

o Alps (Europe)

o Andes (South America)

 Some ranges stretch for thousands of kilometres

Famous Mountains
  Mount Everest: Between Tibet (China) and Nepal, highest peak of Himalayas

 Mount Kanchenjunga: Between Nepal and Indian state of Sikkim, second

highest of Himalayas

 Mount Aconcagua: South America, highest peak of Andes

 Mount Kilimanjaro: Eastern Africa, isolated mountain not part of any range

 Mont Blanc: Western Europe, highest mountain of Alps

 Mount Anamudi: Kerala (also known as 'Anai Peak'), highest mountain in south
India

Mountain Age and Formation

 Young mountains: Tall and sharp peaks like Himalayas

o Formed recently in Earth's history (still millions of years ago)

 Old mountains: Shorter and more rounded like Aravalli Range

o Much older, rounded by erosion

 Ongoing processes: Upliftment and erosion continue

 Some mountains like Himalayas are still growing in height

Mountain Environment

Vegetation

 Montane forest: Type of forest growing in mountainous regions

 Conifer trees: Pines, firs, spruce, deodar

o Grow tall and cone-shaped

o Have thin, pointed leaves

 At higher altitudes: Trees give way to grasses, mosses and lichen

 Moss: Small green plant without flowers or true roots, often spreading in
cushion-like cover

 Lichen: Plant-like organism that generally clings to rocks, walls or trees

Mountain Fauna

 Golden eagle

 Peregrine falcon

 Canadian lynx
  Snow leopard

 Ibex

 Himalayan tahr

 Mountain hare

 Yak

 Grey fox

 Black bear (leopard also mentioned)

 Live in deep forests, flowing rivers, lakes, grasslands and caves

Life in Mountains

Agriculture and Occupation

 Mountain terrain usually rugged with steep slopes

 Regular farming only possible in some valleys

 Terrace farming: Cultivation on slopes by cutting steps into the slope

 Herding often preferred occupation over agriculture in many mountainous

regions

Tourism

 Important source of income for mountain people

 Attractions: Crisp mountain air, scenic beauty

 Sports: Skiing, hiking, mountaineering, paragliding

 Pilgrimage: Centuries-old tradition of traveling to holy sites

 Challenge: Excessive tourism can pressure fragile mountain environment

 Need to find right balance

Notable Personalities

 Bachendri Pal: Started climbing from young age, led women's climbing
expeditions, first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest, awarded Padma
Bhushan in 2019

 Arunima Sinha: Lost leg at age 22, climbed Mount Everest in 2013 with
Bachendri Pal's encouragement, climbed highest peak of every continent
including Mount Vinson in Antarctica, awarded Padma Shri in 2015
Challenges in Mountain Life

 Natural disasters:

o Flash flood: Sudden local flood, often caused by cloudburst

o Landslide: Sudden collapse of mass of earth or rock from mountainside

o Avalanche: Sudden fall of snow, ice or rocks from mountainside; often

occurs when snow starts melting

o Cloudburst: Sudden violent rainstorm

o Heavy snowfall

o Cold weather

 Human-made challenges:

o Uncontrolled tourism

Cultural and Spiritual Significance

 Many traditional communities consider mountains sacred places and worship

them

 Mount Everest (8,849 m, highest in world):

o Tibetan name: 'Chomolungma' (Mother Goddess of the World)

o Nepali name: 'Sagarmatha' (Goddess of the Sky)

 Mount Kailash (Tibet): Sacred to Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Bon

(ancient Tibetan religion)

 Such reverence found elsewhere in India and world

Rivers from Mountains

 Ganga River:

o Indian name of largest river originating in Himalayas

o English name: 'Ganges'

o Nearly 2,500 km long

o Has numerous tributaries

 Himalayan tributaries: Yamuna, Ghagara

 Non-Himalayan tributaries: Son or Sone (originate from Vindhya Range south of

Ganga plain)
Literary Reference

 Kālidāsa: Greatest poet of ancient India (lived at least 1,500 years ago)

 Poem: Kumārasambhava, begins with invocation to Himalayas

 Verses about Himalayas:

o "In the north rises Himālaya, the Lord of mountains, like a living god, who
measures the Earth and stretches from the western to the eastern
oceans."

o "From it the wind comes down, carrying spray from descending Gangā,
shaking the deodar trees, opening the peacocks' tail feathers and cooling
the mountain people after they hunt deer."

Plateaus

Definition and Characteristics

 Landform that rises up from surrounding land

 Has more or less flat surface

 Some sides often have steep slopes

 Can be young or old in Earth's history

 Height varies from few hundred metres to several thousand metres

Major Examples

 Tibetan Plateau:

o Largest and highest plateau in the world

o Average altitude: 4,500 m

o Nicknamed 'Roof of the World'

o East to west: nearly 2,500 km long (distance from Chandigarh to

Kanyakumari)

 Deccan Plateau:

o Central and south India

o One of oldest plateaus in the world

o Formed through volcanic activity millions of years ago

Economic Importance
  Rich in mineral deposits

 Called 'storehouses of minerals'

 Mining is major activity

 Many of world's largest mines found on plateaus

 Examples:

o East African Plateau: famous for gold and diamond mining

o Chhota Nagpur Plateau (India): huge reserves of iron, coal, and

manganese

Plateau Environment

 Very diverse across the world

 Soil characteristics:

o Many plateaus have rocky soil

o Generally less fertile than plains

o Less favourable to farming

o Exception: Lava plateaus (formed through volcanic activity) often have

rich black soil

Waterfalls on Plateaus

 Home to many spectacular waterfalls

 Examples:

o Victoria Falls: Zambezi River, southern Africa

o Hundru Falls: Subarnarekha River, Chhota Nagpur Plateau

o Jog Falls: Sharavati River, Western Ghats

o Nohkalikai Falls: Drops 340 metres from Cherrapunji Plateau

(Meghalaya)

Plains

Definition and Characteristics

 Landforms with extensive flat or gently undulating surface

 No large hills or deep valleys

 Generally not more than 300 metres above sea level

Formation and Types

 Floodplains: One type of plains formed by rivers originating in mountain ranges

 Formation process:

o Rivers collect particles of rock, sand and silt (called 'sediments')

o Sediments carried to plains

o Rivers deposit sediments, making soil very fertile

 Result: Ideal for growing crops of all kinds

 Agriculture is major economic occupation

 Support variety of flora and fauna

Life in Plains

 Thousands of years ago, first civilisations developed around rivers in fertile plains

 Large part of world's population lives in plains today

Ganga Plain (Gangetic Plain)

 Population: About 40 crore people (more than one-fourth of total Indian

population)

 Major occupations: River fishing and agriculture

 Food crops: Rice, wheat, maize, barley, millets

 Fibre crops: Cotton, jute, hemp

Agricultural Practices

 Traditional agriculture: Mostly rainfed (watered through rainfall)

 Modern agriculture: Turned to irrigation

o Water brought through networks of canals

o Pumped from groundwater

 Benefits: Increased agricultural production

 Problems: Contributed to depletion (decrease) of groundwater

Challenges in Plains

 High population

 Pollution
  Depleted groundwater

 Challenge for future of agriculture in region

Cultural Significance of Rivers

 Rivers carry immense cultural value worldwide

 Sacred places: River sources and confluences with other rivers

 In India: Numerous festivals, ceremonies and rituals conducted at such

locations

Transportation and Navigation

 Plains have gentle slope

 River navigation is easy

 Supports many economic activities

 Historical use: People used rivers extensively for travel

 Modern use: Still used in stretches along Ganga for transportation

Additional Landform: Deserts

Definition and Characteristics

 Large and dry expanses with very little precipitation

 Unique flora and fauna

Types of Deserts

 Hot deserts:

o Sahara Desert (Africa)

o Thar Desert (northwest of Indian Subcontinent)

 Cold deserts:

o Gobi Desert (Asia)

o Antarctica continent (some experts describe as desert)

Human Adaptation

 Despite harsh living conditions, humans have adapted to most deserts

 In India: Communities living in or migrating through Thar Desert hold rich

cultural traditions

 Examples: Folk songs and legends related to desert

  Testament to human adaptability and resilience

Ancient Tamil Sangam Poetry: Five Tiņais

Concept

 Five landscapes associated with specific deities, lifestyles, moods or emotions

 Examples of emotions: love, longing, separation, quarrel

The Five Tiņais

1. Kuriñji: Mountainous regions - hunting and gathering

2. Mullai: Grassland and forests - cattle rearing

3. Marudam: Fertile agricultural plains - farming

4. Neydal: Coastal regions - fishing and seafaring

5. Pālai: Arid, desert-like regions - journeying and fighting

Significance

 Di erent classification of landforms than modern one

 Reflects keen awareness of diverse regions and characteristics

 Illustrates deep connection between humanity and natural environment

World Geography References

Major Mountain Ranges, Plateaus and Plains (from world map)

 Mountain Ranges: Rocky, Himalaya, Andes, Atlas, Ural

 Plateaus: Mongolian, Tibetan, East African, Patagonian

 River Plains: Alaska, Mississippi, Nile, Amazon, Indus, Ganga & Brahmaputra,
Yangtze

Summary and Conclusions

Key Takeaways

 Landforms classified into three main types: mountains, plateaus, and plains

 Each has very di erent physical characteristics and environments

 Throughout history, people's lives and activities much impacted by landform

type

 Landforms are integral part of culture across the world

 Indian culture has celebrated them in diverse ways

  Each landform o ers di erent challenges and opportunities

Human Adaptability

 Diverse ways humans have made all landforms their home

 Testament to human adaptability and resilience

Questions and Activities (from textbook)

Reflection Questions

1. In what type of landform is your town/village/city located? Which features do you

see around you?

2. Describe three landforms encountered on trip from Chhota Nagpur to Prayagraj

and Almora

3. List famous pilgrimage spots in India with their landform categories

True/False Statements

 The Himalayas are young mountains with rounded tops

 Plateaus usually rise sharply at least on one side

 Mountains and hills belong to same type of landform

 Mountains, plateaus and rivers in India have same types of flora and fauna

 Ganga is a tributary to the Yamuna

 Deserts have unique flora and fauna

 Melting snow feeds rivers

 Sediments from rivers deposited in plains makes land fertile

 All deserts are hot

Matching Exercise

 Mount Everest - climbing

 Mount Kilimanjaro - Africa

 Gangetic plains - rice fields

 Tibetan plateau - roof of the world

 River - waterway

 Desert - camels

 Ganga - rafting
 Yamuna - tributary