INTRODUCTION

 India's independence was achieved through great sacrifices after years of struggle against
colonial rule.

 The Constitution laid foundational principles including Universal Adult Franchise - all adult
citizens have the right to vote irrespective of social or economic background, gender, race,
or religion.

 The people of India directly elect their representatives to the Lok Sabha.

 The Parliament is the supreme legislative body that makes laws for the country and controls
the work of the government.

 The government functions with the people's consent.

 There have been 17 Lok Sabhas since 1952. The 18th Lok Sabha was formed in June 2024.

COMPOSITION OF THE PARLIAMENT OF INDIA

 The Indian Parliament consists of:

(i)The President

(ii)The Lok Sabha (House of the People / Lower House)

(iii)The Rajya Sabha (Council of States / Upper House)

 This structure with two houses is called a 'bicameral' system ('bi' = two, 'cameral' =
chamber/house).

Lok Sabha (Lower House):

 Members are directly elected by the people through universal adult su rage

 Maximum number of members is 550

 Based on each state's population

 Has a Speaker elected by its members

Rajya Sabha (Upper House):

 Members are elected indirectly by an electoral college

 Presided over by the Vice President of India as its chairperson

 Both the number of Rajya Sabha seats and Lok Sabha members are based on each state's
population.
FEDERALISM IN INDIA

 India practices federalism - a form of government where power is distributed between the
centre, states, and local governments.

 This system maintains balance between national unity and local interests.

 The Constitution has three lists clarifying areas where di erent governments can make laws:

 Union List - Only the Union Government can legislate on these subjects

 State List - Only the State Government can legislate on these subjects

 Concurrent List - Both Union and State Governments can legislate (but Union law takes
priority if conflict)

LEGISLATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARLIAMENT

The Parliament performs four main legislative functions:

1) Constitutional Functions

 The Parliament is entrusted with upholding core Constitutional values:

 Enabling parliamentary democracy through universal adult su rage

 Following separation of powers between legislature, executive, and judiciary

 Ensuring federalism

 Upholding Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy

2) Lawmaking

 A bill is a draft of a proposed law that needs Parliament's approval before becoming an act
(law).

Steps in the lawmaking process:

 Introduction in either House of Parliament

 Reading of the bill

 Referred to Standing Committee (permanent committee that scrutinizes the bill)

 Clause-by-clause discussion and amendments voted

 Vote on the bill in the House

 Process repeated in the other House

 Presidential assent (approval)

 Gazette notification (o icial announcement)

 Note: Not all bills are referred to Committees.

  Money Bills - Draft laws concerned with financial matters (taxation, government borrowing)
can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha with the President's prior recommendation.

3) Executive Accountability

 The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers are part of the Union Executive and must:

 Implement and enforce laws

 Oversee e ective running of government

 Take decisions about day-to-day government functioning based on Constitutional principles

 Answer to the Lok Sabha through Question Hour - a period (typically the first hour of a
Parliamentary session) where MPs can ask ministers questions about government policies
and activities

 Attend special committee meetings to explain and justify their policies

 Provide necessary and accurate information to Parliament

4) Financial Accountability

 The Parliament approves and monitors government expenditure through the annual budget.

 It examines the distribution of funds to di erent ministries.

 The government must account for how it spends money belonging to the people.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARLIAMENT

1) The President

 The President is the Head of State and nominal head of the Executive.

 The President:

 Appoints the Prime Minister and other ministers

 Summons Parliament

 Gives assent to bills

 Can exercise discretionary powers during political crises (when no party holds a clear
majority)

2) The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

 The Prime Minister is the de facto (real) executive authority in India's Parliamentary
system.

 The President appoints the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha as Prime
Minister.

 The Prime Minister serves with support of the majority MPs in the Lok Sabha.
  Prime Minister's key functions:

 Leading the Council of Ministers

 Advising the President

 Coordinating the work of di erent ministries

 Shaping national policies

 The Council of Ministers is chosen from Members of Parliament (MPs) of both houses.

 Ministers are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

 Most bills introduced to Parliament are initiated by the government.

 Civil servants (administrators/bureaucrats) help implement laws and policies under the
direction of ministers.

THE JUDICIARY — CHECKS AND BALANCES

 The Judiciary is responsible for interpreting and applying laws.

 The Judiciary acts as the custodian of the Constitution.

 Functions of the Judiciary:

 Interprets laws and resolves disputes

 Ensures laws passed by Parliament do not violate the Constitution

 Checks if the Executive violates the Constitution when implementing laws

 Safeguards Fundamental Rights

 The system of checks and balances among Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary ensures no
single organ becomes too powerful.

LEGISLATURE AND EXECUTIVE AT THE STATE LEVEL

 Each state has its own legislature and executive called the 'State Assembly'.

 Just as Parliament has Members of Parliament (MPs), states have Members of Legislative
Assembly (MLAs).

 MLAs make laws on subjects in the State List and Concurrent List.

State Legislature Structure

 State legislatures can be:

 Unicameral - Having only one house (Vidhan Sabha)

 Bicameral - Having two houses (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad)

  States with bicameral systems: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh

 All other states have unicameral systems

Parallel Structure of Union and State Governments

Feature Union Government State Government

President (elected by electoral

Constitutional Head Governor (appointed by President)
college)

Term of Head 5 years 5 years

Executive Head Prime Minister (de facto authority) Chief Minister (de facto authority)

Leader of majority party/coalition Leader of majority party/coalition in

Selection
in Lok Sabha Vidhan Sabha

Council of Ministers Selected by Prime Minister Selected by Chief Minister

Collectively responsible to Lok Collectively responsible to Vidhan

Responsibility
Sabha Sabha

Bicameral (Lok Sabha and Rajya

Legislature Structure Unicameral or bicameral
Sabha)

Lower House Lok Sabha (House of the People) Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly)

Upper House Rajya Sabha (Council of States) Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council)

Presiding O icer (Lower

Speaker Speaker
House)

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS AND SITTINGS

 The Parliament typically meets three times a year in sessions:

 Budget Session

 Monsoon Session

 Winter Session

 Each session has 'sittings' where Parliament meets to:

 Deliberate upon proposed laws

  Discuss important matters of governance

 Seek explanations from the Executive

 Usually, Parliament sits for 6 hours a day during sessions (can be extended for urgent
business).

 State Assemblies have similar schedules.

CHALLENGES TO EFFECTIVE FUNCTIONING OF THE LEGISLATURES

 Regular absenteeism of members from sessions

 Non-cooperative conduct of members

 Reduced quality of important debates

 Disruptions of the Question Hour

 Low productivity - Parliament not functioning for scheduled hours