Radio Telephony Restricted

Unit 2

RADIO PROPAGATION

1. Introduction
Radio Propagation is the movement of waves from
the Transmitter to the Receiver through a medium.
Radio waves used in aviation are part of
Electromagnetic Waves. Depending on the
frequency characteristics, they can move through
variety of mediums (Even Vacuum).
Aviation depends heavily on predictable radio wave
behavior for safe communication and navigation.
Reasons for di erent behaviors of waves-
• Frequency di erences- Low frequencies bend
around the Earth. High frequencies travel straight
(line-of-sight). HF reflects from ionospheric layers.
• Atmospheric conditions- Humidity, temperature
inversions, pressure gradients a ect signals.
• Terrain obstructions- Mountains block VHF
communication. HF can still reach beyond terrain
via skywave.
• Ionospheric activity- Day vs night ionization
changes propagation.
• Polarization

Importance of Radio propagation in Aviation-

• Pilot–ATC Communication- VHF used for
domestic & terminal communication. HF used for
oceanic & remote region communication
• Navigation Aids- NDB, VOR, ILS etc.
• Surveillance & Satellite Operations- GPS,
SATCOMM, RADAR

2. Properties of Radio Waves

• Time Period (T)- Time taken to complete a cycle in
the wave. Usually expressed in seconds

• Frequency (f)- Number of cycles of a wave that

pass a point per second.
𝟏
f=
𝑻
Expressed in Hertz (Hz)

• Wavelength (λ)- Distance between two

successive wave peaks (crests). Expressed in
meters.
Determines antenna size (higher freq → shorter
antennas).
A ects how waves interact with terrain and
atmosphere. The wave reflects/deflects more by
object of size comparable to the wavelength of the
wave.

• Velocity (v)- Speed of radio waves in vacuum is

v = 3 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s

• Frequency and Wavelength relation- Frequency

and Wavelength are inversely proportional to each
other i.e. As frequency (f) increases →
wavelength (λ) decreases
𝒗
f=
𝝀

• Polarization- Signifies the plane of Electric

component of the wave. Depends on the plane of
the transmitting antenna. If plane of antenna is
vertical, wave also has vertical polarization.
For maximum reception the plane of receiver
antenna should be same as polarization of the
wave.
3. Radio Frequency Spectrum

Di erent services (ATC communication, navigation

aids, military operations, SATCOM) operate in
di erent frequency bands.
RF spectrum ranges approximately from 3 kHz to
300 GHz.
The frequency a ects way the waves propagate
which in turn a ects the range.
Band Frequency Range Wavelength General Use

Submarine comm,
VLF 3–30 kHz 10–100 km
navigation

LF 30–300 kHz 1–10 km NDB, navigation

AM radio, some aviation

MF 300–3000 kHz 100–1000 m
beacons

HF 3–30 MHz 10–100 m Long-distance HF comm

VHF 30–300 MHz 1–10 m ATC comm, VOR, ILS

UHF 300–3000 MHz 10–1 cm DME, TACAN, radar

SHF 3–30 GHz cm wavelengths Satellite communication

EHF 30–300 GHz mm wavelengths Advanced radar

4. Types of Radio Propagation

4.1 Ground Waves

In this, the wave follows Earth's surface.

Used by LF/MF navigation aids like NDB.
Used in HF comm (Combined with Sky Waves).
Good for long-range at low frequencies.
Better Range over sea than land, due to less
obstacles.

4.2 Sky Waves

In this the wave is reflected by ionosphere. It has a

very Long-distance capability.
 Used in HF Communication
 Unreliable during Dawn & Dusk
 Waves get reflected by E and F layers
4.2.1 Ionosphere

• Formation- As we go higher (approximately 60

km), the pressure decreases. Due to proximity to
Sun, intense radiation causes ionization.

• Structure of Ionosphere- Since the normal

atmospheric mixing processes associated with
the lower levels of the atmosphere are absent.
Gravitation and terrestrial magnetism a ect the
distribution of gases.
This means that the increase in ionization is not
linear but the ionized particles form into discrete
layers. The ionization is most intense at the center
of the layers decreasing towards the lower and
upper edges of the layers.

• Layers of Ionosphere-
 D- Layer- The lowest of these layers occurs at an
average altitude of 75 km. A fairly di use area
which, for practical purposes, forms at sunrise
and disappears at sunset. No D- Layer at night
time.
 E- Layer- Found at an average altitude of 125 km.
Found in both Day and Night. Reduces in altitude
at sunrise and increases in altitude after sunset

 F- Layer- Found at an average altitude of 225 km.

Splits into 2 layers during day- F1 & F2. They rejoin
into single layer during night.

• Stability of ionosphere- The structure of the

ionosphere gives stable conditions by day and by
night. Around dawn and dusk, the ionosphere is in
a transitional state. The result is that around dawn
 and dusk, radio navigation and communication
systems using the ionosphere are subject to
excessive interference and disruption.

4.2.2 Sky Wave Terminologies

• Critical Angle- The angle of wave from normal of

transmitter when it starts getting reflected by
ionosphere
• Skip Distance- Skip distance is the minimum
distance from the transmitter to the point where a
skywave returns to Earth after reflection from the
ionosphere.
Relevant for HF comms.
The region between the transmitter and the skip
distance is called the skip zone or dead zone.

Skip Distance and Frequency- As the frequency

is increased, the Skip Distance increases. This
increases the Dead Space, thus a ecting the
minimum range. So for a predetermined minimum
range, there is a maximum usable frequency
 (MUF). This max frequency penetrates least before
reflecting, so minimum static.

HF Freq: Day vs Night- At night time the ionosphere

is weaker due to lower ionization. It follows that the
frequency required for use at a particular range by
night will of necessity be less than the frequency
required for use by day. A good rule of thumb is that
the frequency required at night is roughly half that
required by day.

• Dead Space- Distance between the point of

reception of last ground wave and point of
reception of 1st Sky Wave

4.3 Space Waves

 Travel line-of-sight, the transmitter and receiver
must be visible to each other.
Higher-frequency waves do not bend around
obstacles.
Used by VHF/UHF systems: VOR, VHF COM, ILS
The Range depends on Trx and Rx Heights

LOS Range = 1.23*( √(Height of TX) + √(Height of A/C) )

*Range in NM and Heights in ft

4.3.1 Special Cases of LOS

 • Super Refraction- Significant at frequencies
above 30 MHz (that is VHF and above).
Radio waves experience greater refraction that is, they
are bent downwards towards the earth’s surface more
than in normal conditions.
Gives notable increase in line of sight range- range to
as much as 40% above the usual.
Conditions for Super Refraction-
 Decrease in relative humidity with height
 Temperature falling more slowly with height than
standard
 Fine weather and high-pressure systems
 Warm air flowing over a cooler surface

• Ducting- A special type of Super Refraction.

Caused in extreme cases when there is a low level
temperature inversion with a marked decrease in
humidity with increasing height.
A low-level duct may be formed which traps radio
waves at frequencies above 30 MHz giving extremely
long ranges.
This may be problematic. Eg- Freq of both Delhi SMC
and Mumbai Twr is 121.9 MHz. If an aircraft is flying
over Mumbai and in contact with Mumbai Twr and this
phenomenon occurs, it will be able to get messages
from Delhi SMC which will cause confusion.

Sub Refraction- Much rarer than super-refraction.

Sub-refraction causes a reduction in the normal
refraction giving a decrease in line of sight range,
causes a reduction in the normal refraction giving a
decrease in line of sight range by up to 20%.
Conditions for Sub Refraction-
 An increase in relative humidity with increasing
height
 Temperature decreasing with increasing height at
a greater rate than standard
 Poor weather with low pressure systems
 Cold air flowing over a warm surface
5. Factors A ecting Propagation-
• Frequency: Higher frequency = shorter range
• Terrain: Hills/buildings block VHF
• Weather: Static a ects LF/MF
• Ionosphere: Night e ect on NDB, Range of HF
Comm

6. Frequency and Propagation

LF/MF/HF- Ground and Sky Wave Propagation
VHF/UHF/SHF- Space Wave Propagation

7. Satellites
Angle of Inclination- The angle between Plane of
satellite and the Equatorial Plane.

7.1 Polar Orbital Satellite

Orbits the Earth from north pole to south pole
Altitude- Typically 500–1000 km above Earth
Orbital Inclination- Nearly 90° to the equator
Orbital Period
 Short: 90–120 minutes
 Completes 12–16 orbits per day
As the satellite orbits pole-to-pole, Earth rotates west-
to-east beneath it. The satellite eventually passes over
every part of the Earth.
Continuous Coverage is achieved by using a
constellation (group of satellites).
Ensures that at least one satellite is always in view.

Advantages of Polar Orbital Satellite-

 Low Signal Delay
 High Accuracy
  Better Polar Coverage

Application-
Used as Weather Satellites
Monitor:
 Cloud cover
 Storm systems
 Cyclones
 Temperature & humidity profiles
Cover entire Earth including poles.
Provide high-resolution images.

7.2 Geostationary Satellite

A geostationary satellite is a satellite that orbits the
Earth in the equatorial plane
Has the same angular velocity as Earth
Appears stationary relative to a point on Earth
Orbital Height- 35,786 km above the Earth’s
equator
 Orbital Period- 24 hours
Each GEO satellite covers about one-third of the
Earth’s surface
Three GEO satellites can cover most of the world
(excluding polar regions)

Limitations-
 Poor or no coverage at high latitudes (polar
regions).
 Signal delay due to large distance
 Lower Accuracy

Application-
 Used in SatComm
ADS-B- Automatic Dependent Surveillance –
Broadcast
CPDLC- Controller–Pilot Data Link Communication,
Digital text-based communication between pilot
and ATC
ACARS- Aircraft Communications Addressing and
Reporting System. Sends automatic reports:
o Position
o Fuel status
o Maintenance data