Chapter Five: Persuasion

5.1. Introduction

This chapter deals with the nature of communication and its various models more specific to
persuasion in a negotiation process. Basically, there are three Models of Communication. These
are namely:

1. The information model focuses on objectivity. The purpose of the message sender is to
increase knowledge or enhance understanding, and the role of the audience is to learn
something new. In applied situations, the information model is associated with journalism
or public relations.
2. The persuasion model focuses on advocacy. The purpose of the message sender is to
create, modify or reinforce attitudes and behaviors, and the role of the audience is to
evaluate the message and then to accept or reject it. In applied situations, the persuasion
model is associated with advertising and public relations.
3. The dialogue model focuses on relationships. The purpose of the message sender is to
create environment of mutual trust and to both share information and seek it about the
other partner in the communication relationship. The role of the audience is reciprocal, that
is, to engage in a simultaneous process of sharing information and seeking insight into the
communication partner. In applied situations, the dialogue model sometimes is associated
with public relations. This also is the model most associated with intercultural and inter-
religious relationships.

5.2 Persuasion Model of Communication

What is persuasion? Persuasion has been variously defined as communication with a specific
purpose and perspective.

 Persuasion is a process of verbal and nonverbal communication that consciously/deliberately

attempts to influence people in their attitudes, opinions and behaviors, using ethical means
that enhance an open society and an atmosphere of free choice. Persuasion is intentional
communication that seeks to influence people on the basis of both emotional presentations
and rational arguments without the use of coercion/force, manipulation or propaganda.

The tools of persuasion are signs and symbols, specifically the words of verbal communication
as well as the symbols, images and other elements of nonverbal communication. The
contemporary understanding of persuasion is closely linked with social psychology, which
houses the study of attitudes and attitudinal change. One important observation from this
field is that people cannot be forcibly persuaded; rather, they persuade themselves. So-called
persuasive messages primarily are stimuli logical arguments as well as emotional atmosphere
which touch upon people’s desires and lead them to accept or reject the message. When they
accept the message, we say they have been persuaded.

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The study of persuasion is both ancient and modern. Plato’s student Aristotle studied and
taught about persuasive communication. One of his enduring/continuing legacies is the continued
use of three concepts of persuasive communication: ethos (the nature and credibility of the
speaker), logos (rational arguments presented to an audience) and pathos (the emotional state of
audiences and the emotional impact of messages).

Now we can see three of them in detail as follows.

1. Ethos (Character): Persuasion and the Message Source: Aristotle observed, and
contemporary research has verified, that persuasion is more likely to occur when the
audience has a positive relationship with and appreciation for the speaker. Note that three
characteristics, while residing within the speaker, are recognized and granted by the
audience: these are credibility, charisma and control.
a. Credibility: is the power to inspire belief. It involves several components such as;
expertise: Audience perception that speaker has particular knowledge of what he/she
is speaking about. Status: Audience perception of the social position or prestige of a
message source. Competence: Audience perception that the speaker can remain calm
under pressure and is clear and dynamic in presenting the message to others.
Honesty: Audience perception that the speaker is sincere and trustworthy in
presenting the information and is doing so for the sake of truth or the good of the
audience, rather than for biased or selfish motives.
b. Charisma: is the magnetic appeal or personal charm that some message sources
enjoy over an audience. Like credibility, charisma is a matter of perception.
Familiarity. The extent to which an audience already knows (or thinks it knows) the
message source. Likability. The extent to which the audience admires what it
knows about the source or what it sees and hears when the speaker begins to
communicate. Similarity. The extent to which the message source resembles the
audience (or the way the audience would like to see itself). Attractiveness. The
extent to which the audience appreciates the message source’s physical looks,
/manner/conduct and presence, as well as clothing worn and the setting in which the
source is presented.
c. Control: is the third element of an effective message source. This is rooted in a
speaker’s command over the audience and on the perceived willingness to exercise
that power. Power: The raw and recognized ability to dominate and to reward or
punish. Authority: The right to rule over or direct the actions of another, a
relationship more or-less granted by the audience. Scrutiny: The ability to examine
or investigate and thus to pronounce blame, proclaim innocence, and grant
forgiveness.
2. Logos (logic): Persuasion by Appealing to Reason: In order to be effectively persuasive,
communication needs to be rooted, at least in part, on logic and rationality. Here are some
common principles of the rational side of persuasive communication.

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Types of logical propositions:

 Factual proposition states that something exists, based on provable evidence.

 Conjecture/guess proposition states that something probably exists, based on reasoned
conclusions drawn from physical evidence, and asks the audience to agree with that
conclusion.
 Value proposition identifies the virtue/good quality of something.
 Policy proposition identifies a new course of action and encourages its adoption.

Avoid errors of logic such as unwarranted conclusion (a deduction that is not supported by
evidence) or by a false assumption (a conclusion that the audience may not accept).

3. Pathos (Passion): Persuasion by appealing to sentiment: Human beings are not mere
thinking machines. Instead, we rely heavily on feelings, and effective communicators
consider how to use both positive and negative feelings in persuasive communication. Ethos
has been defined as the use of emotional messages, but it is significantly more. Aristotle saw
it as th e emotional state of the audience, their relationship with both the issue and the
speaker. Positive appeals such as love, virtue, humor and sex appeals. Or negative
appeals like fear, guilt and hate appeals.

5.3 Managing Power: Influence and Persuasion

During negotiations, actors frequently need to convince the other party they have offered
something of value, that their offer is reasonable, and that they cannot offer more. Negotiators
may also want to alter the other party’s beliefs about the importance of his own objectives and
convince him that his concessions are not as valuable as he first believed. People differ widely in
their ability to use influence effectively. The nature of persuasive abilities of people differ,
persuasion is as much as science as a native ability, improving persuasive skills is an opportunity
open to everyone. Research by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo, suggests that there are two
general paths by which people are persuaded.

1. Central route Path

2. Peripheral route Path
1. Central Route Path: the message and its delivery

Facts and ideas are clearly important in changing another person’s opinions and perceptions, but
the effectiveness of a persuasion effort depends on how the facts and ideas are selected,
organized, and presented. There are three issues to consider when constructing a message:

a) Content of the message: facts and topics that should be covered

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  Make offer attractive, frame the message, and make message normative and agreement in
principle.
b) Structure of the message: how the topics and facts should be arranged and organized

One or two side messages, message components, repetition and conclusion

c) Delivery Style: how the message should be presented

Active participation, vivid language/metaphors, receiver fears, receiver expectations

 The central attitude change expected to be internal commitment, relative enduring and
resistant to counterinfluence.
2. Peripheral Routes to influence

It indicates way that a person can influence others through the ‘peripheral’ route. In such cases,
the receiver attends less to the substance of persuasive arguments and is instead susceptible to
more ‘automatically’ influence through subtle cues/signs. This usually occurs when the target of
influence is either unmotivated or unable to attend carefully to substance contained within a
persuasive message. Persuasion through this technic is less likely to bring about real attitude
change, is more likely to last a shorter time, and is more vulnerable to counterinfluence.

The three set of strategies of peripheral influence:

a) Aspects of the message that foster peripheral influence: when targets of influence are
unmotivated or unable to pay attention to influence seeker’s message, they are susceptible to
being influenced by the message elements that exist apart from the actual arguments
involved. One of such an element is the way in which the influence seeker chooses to order
those arguments, and the other element is the use of distraction to interfere with the
target’s ability to think effortful about the arguments in play.
b) Source characteristics that foster peripheral influence or attribute of the persuader:
Someone who is not paying close attention to the message may be unduly influenced by the
characteristics of the person or organization delivering the message. The main characteristics
might be credibility, attractiveness and authority of the persuader.
c) Aspects of context that foster peripheral influence or elements of the influence context:
it is the situation beyond the message itself and sender of the message that create
opportunities to pursue the peripheral route to influence. The five strategies includes:
 Reciprocity: give concession and expect concession in return
 Commitment to a position: Relies heavily on the common need that people have to
appear consistent, both to themselves and to others.
 Social proof: People look to others to determine the correct response. This principle
suggests that people often behave in certain ways because everyone else is doing so.
 Scarcity: When things are less available, they will have more influence

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  Reward and Punishment: control over resources was a strong source of power. Reward
can be expressed by exchange ‘If I do X for you, will you do Y for me? Punishment:
influencing others by pressure or threat of punishment. E.g. an agent can make demands;
suggest consequences about what will happen if the demands are not meet.

The Role of Receivers Targets of Influence

As a negotiator message sender can work to increase their credibility and attractiveness,
receivers can signal the sender about the general acceptability and favorableness of the message
being sent, and senders can monitor the receiver’s receptiveness and adapt the message
accordingly. The receiver is expected to focus on the following points.

 Attending to the behavior: none verbal acts are very important in connecting with another
person, the three important attending behaviors includes;
 Make eye contact: it is one way to show others you are paying attention and listening,
and that you are consider them important.
 Adjust Body Position
 Nonverbally encourage or discourage what the other says
 Exploring and ignoring the other’s Position
 Selectively paraphrase
 Reinforce points you like in the other party’s proposal
 Resisting the other’s influence
 Have a BATNA, and know how to use it
 Make a public commitment
 Inoculate yourself against the other party’s arguments

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The Six Principles of Persuasion and Influence

Social psychologist Robert Cialdini (2006) provide the following six principles of persuasion that are
powerful and effective:

1. Reciprocity: It is the mutual expectation for exchange of value or service. In all cultures, when
one person gives something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate. Reciprocity builds trust and
the relationship develops, reinforcing everything from personal to brand loyalty. By taking the
lead and giving, you build in a moment where people will feel compelled from social norms and
customs to give back.
2. Liking: this principle indicates that individuals respond more favorably to people they like and
who like them. In order to use this principle, you need to discover any kind of similarities you
have with your counterpart. Similarities such as life experiences, interests, personality traits or
opinions. It is assumed that people who have a similar background can create trust.
3. Authority: People look to experts for advice and important information. This can be an
extremely strong form of influence and persuasion due to the overall response to an expert’s
authority. To develop and earn this sense of authority and loyalty among employees and peers,
leaders and managers often try to ensure they look and act the part, and make certain they are able
to back up their actions and requests with clear sources of support. By citing respected sources
and generating awareness of their education, experience and expertise, individuals and
organizations can gradually become powerful and influential representations of authority.
4. Social Proof: Social influence is a very powerful use of persuasion. The overall influence of
peers can directly affect the actions and beliefs of an individual. In a business environment, the
most significant influence on an individual’s behavior often comes directly from the observation
of peers and co-workers rather than those who are in a higher position. When peers act and
behave in a certain manner, it is often subconsciously believed that this behavior not only is
correct, but acceptable. Organizations often use this tactic with consumers by demonstrating the
popularity of their products and services. When presented with the facts that their peers are using
or showing interest in something, others are much more inclined to give it a try.
Providing people with examples of others who followed a similar behavior can be persuasive. Donations
for walkathons increase as more people realize others have agreed to donate. Social proof or examples
work well if a person is unsure how to respond but can be shown how others responded and that it was the
proper decision.

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5. Consistency: Once people demonstrate and vocalize a preference or opinion, odds increase
exponentially they will stick with that choice. The concept of offering a clear and voluntary commitment
has a strong influence on individuals and often ensures they will remain consistent with those
commitments. The added benefit to this persuasion tactic is that it influences future actions and makes
decisions easier because they were made before and people can be reluctant to change. Leaders can
invoke this form of consistency by requiring employees to commit verbally or in writing to tasks and
responsibilities.

Sales people take advantage of this tendency by getting customers to commit to making a small purchase,
then relying on the need for consistency to ensure a larger purchase later. In negotiations making a small
request followed by a larger one is often called the “Foot in the Door Strategy.”

6. Scarcity: People will always want more of what they can’t have. This tactic is extremely useful in
influencing and persuading employees and consumers. The concept of scarcity demonstrates that products
and services can seem more valuable when they are of limited availability. The chance of losing
something can be a very persuasive factor in an individual’s decision process and overall loyalty. The
concept of scarcity also can apply to exclusive information. The fact that only a few people know
something increases its apparent value.

The appearance of scarcity enhances the competitive nature of people, Paulson said, and drives them to
view something in limited supply as more valuable. It is why retailers trumpet a “limited time offer” in
sales pitches. Negotiators can promote deadlines or diminishing supplies in the future to make their
offering more valuable.

These six persuasion principles may work separately, but also can be applied in combinations. Knowing
these principles also lets you recognize them when someone else uses the techniques in negotiations.

Negotiations are stitched into every aspect of business from simple sales to supply chain contracts. No
matter whether you negotiate complex deals or negotiate internally with upper management, being a
skilled negotiator will help you to achieve the outcome you want at any bargaining table.

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