Microprocessors notes

Introduction to Microprocessors and microcomputers, Study of 8 bit Microprocessor, 8085 pin

configuration, Internal Architecture and operations, interrupts, Stacks and subroutines, various
data transfer schemes.

1. Introduction to Microprocessors and Microcomputers:

• A microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) fabricated on a single chip. It
performs arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output (I/O) operations as specified
by the instructions in the program.
• Microcomputers, often called microcontrollers or simply computers, are complete
computer systems built around a microprocessor. They typically include memory,
I/O ports, and other peripherals.
2. Study of 8-bit Microprocessor:
• An 8-bit microprocessor refers to a microprocessor whose data bus can handle 8
bits of data at a time. The Intel 8085 is a classic example of an 8-bit
microprocessor.
3. 8085 Pin Configuration:
• The Intel 8085 microprocessor has 40 pins.
• These pins serve various functions, including power supply, clock input, address
bus, data bus, control signals, and I/O ports.
• Familiarizing oneself with the pin configuration is crucial for understanding how
to interface with the microprocessor and connect it to other components.
4. Internal Architecture and Operations:
• The internal architecture of the 8085 includes the arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
registers (accumulator, general-purpose registers, flag register, etc.), instruction
decoder, and control unit.
• Operations involve fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, executing
them, and handling data and control signals accordingly.
5. Interrupts:
• Interrupts are signals that temporarily suspend the main program execution to
handle a special condition.
• The 8085 supports several types of interrupts, including maskable and non-
maskable interrupts, which can be prioritized based on their importance.
6. Stacks and Subroutines:
• A stack is a region of memory used for temporary storage of data during
subroutine calls and interrupts.
• Subroutines are sections of code that can be called multiple times from different
parts of a program.
• The 8085 uses a hardware stack to store return addresses during subroutine calls
and interrupt service routines.
7. Various Data Transfer Schemes:
• Data transfer schemes involve moving data between the microprocessor and
memory, I/O devices, or other peripherals.
 • The 8085 supports various instructions for data transfer, including MOV (move),
IN (input), OUT (output), LDA (load accumulator), STA (store accumulator), and
more.

Understanding these concepts provides a solid foundation for working with the 8085
microprocessor and similar architectures. It's essential to practice coding and interfacing exercises
to reinforce this knowledge.
You
Introduction to 8085 instruction set, advance 8085 programming , Addressing modes, Counters
and time Delays, , Instruction cycle, machine cycle, T-states, timing diagram for 8085 instruction.
Let's delve into these topics:

1. Introduction to 8085 Instruction Set:

• The 8085 instruction set comprises a variety of instructions that perform
operations such as arithmetic, logic, data transfer, branching, and I/O operations.
• Instructions are encoded as binary patterns, and each instruction corresponds to
a specific operation performed by the microprocessor.
2. Advanced 8085 Programming:
• Advanced programming with the 8085 involves writing efficient and optimized
code to achieve specific tasks.
• This may include using conditional branching, loops, subroutines, and interrupt-
driven programming techniques.
• Optimization techniques such as code size reduction and execution speed
enhancement are also explored.
3. Addressing Modes:
• Addressing modes specify how the operands of an instruction are accessed.
• Common addressing modes in the 8085 include direct addressing, indirect
addressing, immediate addressing, register addressing, and indexed addressing.
4. Counters and Time Delays:
• Counters are circuits that increment or decrement a value in response to clock
pulses.
• The 8085 can be programmed to implement various types of counters, including
binary counters, BCD counters, and up/down counters.
• Time delays can be achieved using software loops, hardware timers, or specific
instructions like NOP (no operation) with appropriate repetition.
5. Instruction Cycle, Machine Cycle, T-States:
• The instruction cycle is the basic operation performed by the microprocessor to
fetch, decode, execute, and complete an instruction.
• It consists of machine cycles, which are further divided into T-states (time states).
• A machine cycle represents one operation performed by the microprocessor,
while T-states represent the smallest unit of time within a machine cycle.
6. Timing Diagram for 8085 Instruction:
• A timing diagram visually represents the timing relationships between various
signals and events during the execution of an instruction.
• It illustrates the sequence of events such as address bus, data bus, control signals,
and internal states of the microprocessor during each machine cycle and T-state.
• Timing diagrams are essential for understanding the timing requirements of
instructions and designing interfacing circuits.
Mastering these aspects of 8085 programming and operation is crucial for developing efficient
and reliable embedded systems and applications. Practice, experimentation, and hands-on
experience are key to becoming proficient in working with the 8085 microprocessor.
You
Memory System Design & I/O Interfacing Memory interfacing with 8085. Interfacing with
input/output devices (memory mapped, peripheral I/O), Cache memory system. Study of
following peripheral devices 8255, 8253, 8257, 8259, 8251.
Let's break down each topic:

1. Memory System Design & I/O Interfacing:

• Memory interfacing with the 8085 involves connecting external memory devices
such as RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only Memory) to the
microprocessor.
• This includes addressing schemes, decoding techniques, and interfacing circuits
to enable the 8085 to access and communicate with external memory.
• Memory-mapped I/O involves using the same address space for both memory
and I/O devices, simplifying the interfacing process but potentially limiting the
addressable memory space.
• Peripheral I/O involves interfacing with external devices using dedicated I/O ports,
allowing the microprocessor to communicate with various input and output
devices.
2. Cache Memory System:
• Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located between the CPU and
main memory.
• It stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce memory access time
and improve overall system performance.
• Cache memory systems employ caching algorithms and replacement policies to
manage the data stored in the cache effectively.
3. Peripheral Devices:
• 8255 (Programmable Peripheral Interface):
• Provides parallel I/O capabilities with three 8-bit ports.
• Each port can be programmed as input or output independently.
• 8253 (Programmable Interval Timer):
• Provides timing and counting functions, including generating accurate
time delays and generating waveforms.
• Consists of three independent 16-bit counters.
• 8257 (Direct Memory Access Controller):
• Facilitates high-speed data transfer between external devices and
memory without CPU intervention.
• Useful for transferring large blocks of data efficiently.
• 8259 (Programmable Interrupt Controller):
• Manages interrupts from multiple peripheral devices and prioritizes them
for the CPU.
• Supports both level-triggered and edge-triggered interrupts.
• 8251 (Programmable Communication Interface):
• Facilitates serial communication between the microprocessor and external
devices.
• Supports asynchronous and synchronous serial communication modes.
Understanding the interfacing and operation of these peripheral devices is essential for designing
embedded systems and interfacing with external devices in various applications. It involves
configuring control registers, handling interrupts, and managing data transfer efficiently.
You
Difference between 8085 and 8086, Block diagram and architecture of 8086 family, pin
configuration of 8086, minimum mode & maximum mode Operation, Bus Interface Unit, Register
Organization, Instruction Pointer, Stack & Stack pointer, merits of memory segmentation,
Execution Unit, Register Organization
Let's go through the differences and architecture of the 8085 and 8086, followed by the specifics
of the 8086 family:

Differences between 8085 and 8086:

1. Architecture:
• The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor, while the 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor.
• The 8085 has an 8-bit data bus and can address up to 64 KB of memory, whereas
the 8086 has a 16-bit data bus and can address up to 1 MB of memory.
2. Instruction Set:
• The 8085 has a simpler instruction set compared to the 8086, which has a more
extensive and complex instruction set with support for additional addressing
modes and operations.
3. Registers:
• The 8085 has fewer general-purpose registers compared to the 8086, which has
more registers for improved performance and flexibility.
4. Performance:
• The 8086 generally offers higher performance compared to the 8085 due to its
16-bit architecture and more extensive instruction set.

Block Diagram and Architecture of 8086 Family:

1. Block Diagram:
• The 8086 microprocessor consists of two main functional units: the Bus Interface
Unit (BIU) and the Execution Unit (EU).
• The BIU manages the external bus interface, address generation, and instruction
prefetching.
• The EU performs instruction execution, including arithmetic, logic, and control
operations.
2. Pin Configuration of 8086:
• The 8086 microprocessor has a 40-pin dual in-line package (DIP).
• Pins are dedicated to power supply, clock input, address bus, data bus, control
signals, and status signals.
3. Minimum Mode & Maximum Mode Operation:
• In minimum mode, the 8086 operates with a single microprocessor, handling
both bus control and execution functions internally.
• In maximum mode, the 8086 can be used in a multiprocessor configuration with
additional support chips, including the 8288 bus controller and 8284 clock
generator.
 4. Bus Interface Unit (BIU):
• The BIU handles all external bus operations, including fetching instructions and
transferring data between memory and the CPU.
• It generates memory addresses and controls the data flow on the external bus.
5. Register Organization:
• The 8086 includes various registers, including general-purpose registers, segment
registers, and special-purpose registers like the instruction pointer (IP) and stack
pointer (SP).
• Segment registers hold segment addresses for memory addressing.
• General-purpose registers include AX, BX, CX, DX, SI, DI, BP, and SP.
6. Instruction Pointer, Stack & Stack Pointer:
• The instruction pointer (IP) holds the offset of the next instruction to be executed.
• The stack is a reserved area in memory used for temporary storage of data and
return addresses during subroutine calls and interrupts.
• The stack pointer (SP) holds the offset of the current top of the stack.
7. Merits of Memory Segmentation:
• Memory segmentation allows the 8086 to address more than 64 KB of memory
by using segment registers to access different segments of memory.
• It provides flexibility in memory addressing and supports memory protection and
multitasking.

Understanding the architecture and operation of the 8086 microprocessor family is essential for
designing and programming systems based on this platform. It involves knowledge of its internal
structure, register organization, instruction set, and modes of operation.
You
Internal architecture of 8087, Operational overview of 8087, Introduction to 80186, 80286, 80386
& 80486 processors, Pentium processor (P-II, P-III, P-IV).
Let's explore the internal architecture and operational overview of the 8087 math coprocessor, as
well as an introduction to various Intel processors:

Internal Architecture of 8087:

1. Introduction:
• The Intel 8087 is a floating-point math coprocessor designed to work alongside
the 8086 and 8088 microprocessors.
• It provides hardware support for floating-point arithmetic operations, improving
the performance of mathematical computations.
2. Functional Units:
• The 8087 consists of functional units such as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
control unit, register stack, and data buses.
• The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations on floating-point operands.
• The register stack provides temporary storage for operands and intermediate
results.
3. Execution of Instructions:
• Floating-point instructions are executed by fetching operands from memory or
registers, performing the specified operation, and storing the result back in
memory or registers.
 • The 8087 operates asynchronously with the main processor, allowing it to execute
floating-point instructions concurrently with integer instructions.

Operational Overview of 8087:

1. Mathematical Functions:
• The 8087 supports a variety of mathematical functions, including addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, square root, and transcendental functions.
• These functions are implemented in hardware, providing fast and accurate results
for floating-point calculations.
2. Data Formats:
• The 8087 supports several floating-point data formats, including single precision
(32 bits), double precision (64 bits), and extended precision (80 bits).
• Extended precision offers increased precision and range compared to single and
double precision formats.
3. Instruction Set:
• The instruction set of the 8087 includes instructions for loading and storing data,
performing arithmetic and logical operations, and controlling the coprocessor's
operation.
• Instructions are executed in parallel with the main processor's instructions,
enhancing overall system performance.

Introduction to 80186, 80286, 80386, and 80486 Processors:

1. 80186:
• The Intel 80186 is an enhanced version of the 8086 microprocessor with
integrated peripherals and additional instructions.
• It features on-chip peripherals such as timers, interrupt controllers, and serial
ports, making it suitable for embedded system applications.
2. 80286:
• The Intel 80286, also known as the 286, is a 16-bit microprocessor with support
for protected mode and virtual memory.
• It introduced features such as real mode, protected mode, and virtual 8086 mode,
expanding the capabilities of the x86 architecture.
3. 80386:
• The Intel 80386, or 386, is a 32-bit microprocessor with support for multitasking,
protected mode, and virtual memory.
• It introduced a flat memory model, allowing direct access to 4 GB of memory, and
supported multiple privilege levels for enhanced security.
4. 80486:
• The Intel 80486, or 486, is an improved version of the 386 with higher clock
speeds and additional features.
• It introduced an integrated floating-point unit (FPU) and improved performance
compared to the 386.

Pentium Processor (Pentium II, III, IV):

1. Pentium II:
 •The Pentium II is a successor to the original Pentium processor, featuring a new
architecture with improved performance and multimedia capabilities.
• It introduced a Slot 1 form factor and integrated a larger cache memory
compared to its predecessors.
2. Pentium III:
• The Pentium III further improved performance and introduced features such as
SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions) for multimedia applications.
• It was available in both Slot 1 and Socket 370 form factors.
3. Pentium IV:
• The Pentium IV introduced the NetBurst microarchitecture, which aimed to
achieve higher clock speeds and improved performance.
• It featured a longer pipeline compared to previous generations, enabling higher
clock frequencies but also resulting in increased power consumption and heat
generation.

Each of these processors represented advancements in Intel's x86 architecture, offering improved
performance, new features, and enhanced capabilities for various computing tasks