Understanding

dynamics of
Individual behavior
Unit 2
 Content
∙ Attitude: Components & Major types of Attitude
∙ Personality: Nature, different Perspectives to Personality, Determinants, MBTI,
Big Five Personality Model, Other personality traits
∙ Values: Meaning, Importance, Types of Value
∙ Perception: Factors, Attribution Theory, Shortcuts in judging people
∙ Motivation: Meaning, Types, Theories, Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Theory X and
Theory Y, Two-Factor Theory, McClelland’s Theory of Needs, Carrot and Stick
Approach to Motivation
●Only 10% of any Iceberg is
visible. The remaining 90% is
below the sea level!!
 What is Attitude?

Attitudes are evaluative

statements—either favorable or
unfavorable—about objects,
people, or events.
– They reflect how we feel about
something.
 Components of an Attitude

Cognitive Affective
The emotional or
feeling segment of
an attitude (Feeling)
The opinion or belief
segment of an attitude Behavioral
(Evaluation)

An intention to behave in a
certain way toward someone
or something (Action)

Attitude
 Relationship Between Attitudes and Behavior
● The attitudes that people hold determine what they do.
○ Festinger: cases of attitude following behavior illustrate the
effects of cognitive dissonance.
○ Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility an individual might
perceive between two or more attitudes or between behavior and
attitudes.
● Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency
among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their
behavior.
 Relationship Between Attitudes and Behavior

● Moderating Variables:
○ Attitude’s importance
○ Correspondence to behavior
○ Accessibility
○ Presence of social pressures
○ Whether a person has direct experience with
the attitude
● The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be
much stronger if an attitude refers to something
with which we have direct personal experience.
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR JOB ATTITUDES?

Perceived
Organizational
Job Satisfaction Organizational
Commitment
Support (POS)

Employee Psychological
Job Involvement
Engagement Empowerment
 • A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of
Job Satisfaction its characteristics.

• Degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively

Job Involvement participates in it, and considers performance important to self-
worth.

• The individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and

enthusiasm for the work.
Employee Engagement • Engaged employees are passionate about their work and
company.

Psychological • Belief in the degree of influence over one’s job, competence, job
Empowerment meaningfulness, and autonomy.
 • Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and
wishing to maintain membership in the organization.
Organizational
• Employees who are committed will be less likely to engage in
Commitment work withdrawal even if they are dissatisfied, because they have a
sense of organizational loyalty.

• Degree to which employees believe the organization values their

contribution and cares about their well-being.
Perceived Organizational • Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision
Support (POS) making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.
• POS is important in countries where power distance is lower.
Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and
development of a person’s whole psychological system.

The sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and

interacts with others.
 What is Personality?

• The sum total of ways in which an

Personality individual reacts and interacts with others.

Personality • Enduring characteristics that describe an

Traits individual’s behavior
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16
personality types.

Personality Types
•Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)
•Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)
•Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)
•Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
 Extraverted(E):Outgoing, Sociable and Assertive
Introvert (I): Quiet and Shy
Sensing (S): Practical-prefer routine and order. They focus on details.
Intuitive (N): Rely on unconscious processes and look for “big picture”
Thinking (T): Use reason and Logic to handle problems.
Feeling (F): Rely on their personal values and emotions.
Judging (J): Want control and prefer order and structure.
Perceiving (P): Flexible and Spontaneous

INTJs: Visionaries with original minds and great drive. Skeptical, critical, independent,
determined and often stubborn
ESTJs: Organizers, Realistic, Logical, Analytical, Decisive, perfect for business or
machines
ENTPs: Innovatives, individualistic, versatile, attracted to entrepreneurial ideas -
conceptualizers
 The Big Five Model of Personality
Dimensions
Emotional Openness to
Extroversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness
Stability Experience

Sociable Good-natured Responsible Self-confident Imaginativeness

Secure
Gregarious Co-operative Dependable Artistic
(positive)

Insecure
Assertive Trusting Persistent Sensitivity
(negative)

Intellectualis
Organized Depressed
m

Nervous
 Major Personality Attributes (Dark
Triad) Influencing OB

Core Self –
Machiavellianism Narcissism Psychopathy
Evaluation (CSE)

Self-Monitoring Type A Personality Locus of Control

 Degree to which an
individual is
pragmatic,
maintains emotional
distance, and
believes that ends
can justify means.

Conditions Favoring High Mach

Minimal Rules & Emotions Distract for

Direct Interaction
Regulations Others

Machiavellianism (Mach)
 A person with great sense of self
importance, requires excessive
admiration and is arrogant.

Narcissism
 Psychopathy

● The tendency for a lack of concern for

others and a lack of guilt or remorse
when their actions cause harm.
 Bottom-line conclusions individuals have
about their capabilities, competence, and
worth as a person.

Core Self – Evaluation (CSE)

 A personality trait that measures an individual’s
ability to adjust his or her behavior to external,
situational factors

Self-Monitoring
 Aggressively involved in achieving more &
more things in less & less time.

Type A personality
 • Identifies opportunities, shows
Proactive initiative, acts, and perseveres
until meaningful change occurs.
Personality • Creates positive change in the
environment, regardless or even
despite constraints or obstacles.
Locus of Control: The degree to which people believe they are
masters of their own fate.

Locus of Control
VALUES
 Values
• Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of
Values existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.

• A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of

Value System their intensity.

Judgmental

Intensity
Content
 Types of Values – Rokeach Value Survey

Instrumental
Terminal Values
Values
• Desirable end-states • Preferable modes of
of existence; the behavior or means of
goals that a person achieving one’s
would like to achieve terminal values.
during his or her
lifetime
 Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce
Entered the Approximate
Cohort​ Dominant Work Values​
Workforce​ Current Age​

Adhere to rules, Sacrifice Delayed Reward

Discipline, Don’t question authority, “Giving Back”
Traditionalists 1900-1945 63-86
is important, Hard Work Law and Order Loyalty
Patriotism Patience, Respect for authority

Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of

authority; loyalty to career​, Extremely loyal to their
Baby Boomers​ 1946-1964 43-62 children Involvement Optimism, Personal
Gratification, Personal Growth, Team Oriented
Transformational, Want to “make a difference”
 Entered the Approximate
Cohort​ Dominant Work Values​
Workforce​ Current Age​
Work-life balance, team-oriented, dislike of rules;
loyalty to relationships​
Generation X 1965-1980 42-57 Balance, Entrepreneurial, Highly Educated, High
job expectations, Self-reliance, Think Globally,
Techno literacy
Confident, financial success, self-reliant but team-
oriented; loyalty to both self
and relationships, Achievement, Confident, High
Millennials​ 1981-1996 26-41
morals, Highly tolerant, Hotly competitive, Like
personal attention, Self-confident, Most educated
generation, Extremely techno savvy
Digitally sophisticated, Environmentally
concerned, Ultra-focused, Racially, sexually,
1997 – 2012
Generation Z 10 -25 religiously diverse, Social media
activists, Financially minded
 Person-Job Fit
Personality-Job Fit Theory (Holland)

Identifies six personality types

and proposes that the fit
between personality type and
occupational environment
determines satisfaction and
turnover.
 Holland’s Typology of Personality and
Congruent Occupations
Type​ Personality Characteristics​ Congruent Occupations​
Realistic: Prefers physical activities Mechanic, drill press
Shy, genuine, persistent,
that require skill, strength, and operator, assembly-line worker,
stable, conforming, practical​
coordination​ farmer​
Investigative: Prefers activities Biologist,
that involve thinking, organizing, Analytical, original, curious, independent​ economist, mathematician, news
and understanding​ reporter​
Social: Prefers activities that Sociable, friendly, Social worker, teacher,
involve helping and developing others​ cooperative, understanding​ counselor, clinical psychologist​
Conventional: Prefers rule-
Conforming, efficient, Accountant, corporate
regulated, orderly, and unambiguous
practical, unimaginative, inflexible​ manager, bank teller, file clerk​
activities​
Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities Lawyer, real estate agent,
Self-confident, ambitious,
in which there are opportunities public relations specialist, small
energetic, domineering​
to influence others and attain power​ business manager​
Artistic: Prefers ambiguous
Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,
and unsystematic activities that
idealistic, emotional, impractical​ interior decorator​
allow creative expression​
 Person – Organization Fit

People are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values & they
leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities.
 Implications for Managers
Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness—and the other Big Five traits—depending on the
criteria your organization finds most important. Other aspects, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be
relevant in certain situations.

Although the MBTI has faults, you can use it for training and development; to help employees better
understand each other, open communication in work groups, and possibly reduce conflicts.

Evaluate jobs, work groups, and your organization to determine the optimal personality fit.

Consider situational factors when evaluating observable personality traits and lower the situation strength to better
ascertain personality characteristics more closely.

The more you consider people’s different cultures, the better you will be able to determine their work behavior and
create a positive organizational climate that performs well.
PERCEPTION 51
 ● When you change
the way you look at things,
the things you look at change.
 What is Perception?

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in

order to give meaning to their environment.
It is important to the study of OB because People’s behavior is based
on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
Factors that Influence Perception
 The Vertical lines are both the same length.

The center circles are both the same size.

PERCEPTUAL AMBIGUITY
PERCEPTUAL AMBIGUITY
 Word Color Test
In this test DO NOT READ the words,
say aloud the COLOR of each word.

YELLOW BLUE ORANGE

BLACK RED GREEN
PURPLE YELLOW RED
ORANGE GREEN BLACK
BLUE RED PURPLE
GREEN BLUE ORANGE
 What is attribution theory?

• Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we

attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.
 Causes of Behavior
• Personal characteristics that cause behaviour (e.g.,
Internal factors ability, effort)

• Environmental characteristics that cause behaviour

External factors (e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck)
 Kelley’s Theory of Attribution
Distinctiveness is determined by comparing a person’s behavior on one task
with his or her behavior on other tasks.

High
Low

A B C D E A B C D E

Tasks Tasks
 Kelley’s Attribution Model
Consensus – Involves the comparison of an individual’s behavior with that of his
or her peers.
Low High

A B C D E A B C D E

People People
 Kelley’s Theory of Attribution
Consistency is determined by judging if the individual’s performance on a given task
is consistent over time.

Low High

Time Time
How Kelley’s Model Works
 External Attribution
◼High consensus
◼High distinctiveness
◼Low consistency

 Internal Attribution
◼Low consensus
◼Low distinctiveness
◼High consistency
 • Tendency to underestimate influence of external
factors and overestimating influence of internal
Fundamental factors.
Attribution Error
• We blame people first, not the situation

• Tendency for individuals to attribute their own

successes to internal factors, put the blame for
Self-Serving Bias failures on external factors.
• It is “our” success but “their” failure
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

• Tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the

Selective Perception basis of one’s interest, background, experience &
attitudes.

• Tendency to draw general impression about an individual

Halo Effect on the basis of single characteristics.

• Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected

Contrast Effects by comparisons with other people recently encountered
who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

• Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the

Stereotyping group to which the person belongs.
Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations

Performance Performance
Employment Interview
Expectations Evaluations
 Let's have a look at few
examples of Perception……
 Motivation
● The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence
of effort toward attaining a goal.

Key Elements
[Link]: how hard a person tries
[Link]: toward beneficial goal
[Link]: how long a person tries
 Motivation Theories
Early Theories of motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Theory x & theory Y

Herzberg’s two factor theory

McClelland’s theory of needs

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

As each of these need becomes satisfied (starting at bottom) the next need becomes
activated. Very little evidence found in support of theory.
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

• Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and
Theory X must be directed and coerced to perform.

• Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making
Theory Y decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.
 Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

● Job Satisfaction consists of

two separate and independent
dimensions:
○ Satisfiers or motivators
○ Dissatisfiers or maintenance
factors
Contrasting View of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
 Satisfiers/Motivators

● No satisfaction if they are absent; willing to work to get them

○ Achievement
○ Recognition
○ Advancement
○ The work itself
○ Possibility of growth
○ Responsibility
ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

● Existence: provision of basic material

requirements.
● Relatedness: desire for relationships.
● Growth: desire for personal
development.
● More than one need can be operative
at the same time.
● If a higher-level need cannot be
fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-
level need increases.
 David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

• The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to

Need for Achievement strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation • The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

• The need to make others behave in a way that they would not
Need for Power have behaved otherwise.
 Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation
● Carrot refers to rewards, which are offered or promised to individuals to act in the desired way
● Stick refers to punishments which are to be inflicted on individuals, for not acting in the desired
way
● Carrots (rewards):

Monetary rewards Non-monetary rewards

• Wages/ salaries paid in cash

• Pay increment on a regular basis. • Promotions
• Cash awards • Delegation of authority
• Payment of allowances in cash • Assignment of challenging work
• Bonus payment • Certificates of merit
• Granting leave with pay • Status symbols like, providing a separate
• Profit sharing schemes for employees. room, peon, private Secretary, telephone
• Payment of pension rules. facilities etc.
• Incentive schemes of wage payment.
 Goal-Setting Theory
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed.

● Evidence suggests:
○ Specific goals increase performance.
○ Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.
○ Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.

• Three other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship:

• Goal commitment
• Task characteristics
• National culture
● People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and
behaviors.
○ Those with a promotion focus strive for advancement and

accomplishment and approach conditions that move them

closer toward desired goals.
○ Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and

obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from

desired goals.
Cascading of Objectives
Motivation Application
 Job Characteristic Model (JCM)

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback
 How Can Jobs be Redesigned?

Job • The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another

Rotation

Job • Increasing the number and variety of tasks

Enlargem
ent

• Increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution and evaluation of
Job the work
Enrichme
nt