BPSC CONCEPT WALLAH DAKSH-70 SCI-TECH

NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION IN INDIA

What is Nuclear Technology?

Installed India currently has a nuclear power capacity of 7.5 GW, spread over 23 reactors –
Capacity comprising 19 PHWRs, 2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs), and 2 Pressurised Water
Reactors (PWRs).
Recent Two indigenously designed 700 MW PHWRs have been recently commissioned at
Additions the Kakrapar Atomic Power Plant, marking a significant step in expanding
domestic capabilities.
Electricity Share Nuclear power contributes about 2.8% of the total electricity generation in the
country (data from 2022-23).
Future Targets India aims to triple its nuclear power capacity by 2030, demonstrating a strong
commitment to increasing clean energy production.
Small Modular India is progressing with the development of SMRs, which are advanced, smaller-
Reactors (SMRs) scale reactors (up to 300 MW(e) each). These reactors promise cost savings,
quicker construction times, and enhanced safety compared to larger plants.
Closed Fuel The country has adopted a closed fuel cycle strategy, which involves reprocessing
Cycle spent fuel to recover uranium and plutonium. This recycled fuel is then used again
in reactors, helping to reduce nuclear waste and optimise resources.

Nuclear technology involves the manipulation of atomic nuclei to release energy for various
applications. Its core principles include nuclear fission, where atoms split to produce energy, and
nuclear fusion, where atoms combine. This technology powers electricity generation, medical
treatments, and scientific research, while also carrying implications for environmental sustainability

Nuclear energy is produced in two ways: Nuclear Fission and Fusion.

and safety

Nuclear Fission: Splitting Atoms to Generate Power

Nuclear fission occurs when a neutron collides with a large atomic nucleus, causing it to become
unstable and split into two smaller atoms, known as fission products. This splitting process releases
additional neutrons, which can trigger a self-sustaining chain reaction, producing an enormous
amount of energy in the form of heat.

• Why Uranium and Plutonium?

Elements like Uranium and Plutonium are preferred as fuel in nuclear reactors because they
are easier to initiate and control during the fission process. Their properties make them the
ideal choice for ensuring a steady and manageable reaction.
• How Nuclear Fission Generates Electricity
The energy released from fission heats water into steam, which then spins a turbine to
generate carbon-free electricity. This process provides a reliable, large-scale energy source
without direct carbon emissions, making it a crucial component of modern clean energy
solutions.

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Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Stars on Earth

Nuclear fusion occurs when two light atomic nuclei collide and merge into a heavier atom, similar to
how hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium in the Sun’s core. This process releases an immense
amount of energy, far exceeding the output of nuclear fission.

Fusion is the ultimate energy source of the universe, capable of producing clean, abundant, and
sustainable power. While still in the experimental phase, it holds the potential to revolutionize energy
production, offering a nearly limitless and carbon-free solution for the future.

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NUCLEAR REACTORS
At their core, nuclear reactors function like giant kettles, heating water to produce massive amounts
of low-carbon electricity. They come in various sizes and designs, each capable of running on
different types of nuclear fuel.

How Do Nuclear Reactors Work?

• Energy Generation: A nuclear reactor splits atoms of specific elements, a process known as
fission, to release a controlled amount of energy.
• Steam Production: The heat generated is used to convert water into steam.
• Electricity Generation: The steam drives a turbine, which in turn generates electricity—all
without producing direct carbon emissions.

Components of Nuclear Reactor

• Fuel: The fuel used in a nuclear power plant contains fissile atoms whose energy is extracted
by fission. Uranium-235 is the most common fuel.
• Control Rods: In a nuclear reactor, the chain reaction is constantly managed by means of
control rods which are made from a material capable of absorbing neutrons. They can be
dropped or pulled to maintain or increase the fission rate.
• Moderator: Its role is to slow down the neutrons released during the fission reaction which
can otherwise be too energetic to efficiently provoke other fission reactions.
• Coolant: The heat released during fission must be transferred from the reactor core to the
turbine and alternator. This role is guaranteed by the coolant, the fluid used to remove the
heat generated by the nuclear fuel.
• Steam Generator: These are large heat exchangers for transferring heat from one fluid to
another, here from a high-pressure primary circuit in PWR to a secondary circuit where water
turns to steam.

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India’s 3-Stage Nuclear Programme

India's three-stage nuclear power programme, conceptualized by Dr. Homi Bhabha in the 1950s, was
designed to ensure long-term energy security by harnessing the country’s abundant uranium and
thorium resources. These reserves are primarily found in the monazite sands of South India's coastal
regions. The ultimate goal of this program is to effectively utilize thorium as a sustainable energy
source to meet India's growing power demands.

Why Thorium?
India has limited uranium reserves, accounting for just 1–2% of global uranium deposits. However,
the country possesses one of the largest thorium reserves in the world. While thorium holds great
promise, it is not yet economically viable, as global uranium prices remain low.

Challenges with Thorium as a Fuel

Thorium, by itself, is not a fissile material, meaning it cannot undergo fission directly to generate
energy. Instead, it must be converted into uranium-233 inside a reactor that runs on other fissile
materials like plutonium-239 or uranium-235.

The Three Stages of India’s Nuclear Power Programme

1️. Stage One – Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs):
• Uses natural uranium as fuel.
• Produces plutonium-239 as a byproduct.
2. Stage Two – Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs):
• Fueled by plutonium-239, which is obtained from Stage One reactors.
• Generates more fissile material than it consumes.
• Produces uranium-233, essential for the next stage.
3. Stage Three – Advanced Thorium-Based Reactors (Thermal Breeder Reactors):
• Runs on uranium-233, produced from thorium.
• Enables full utilization of India’s vast thorium reserves for sustainable energy
generation.

Present State of India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

• After decades of operating pressurized heavy-water reactors (PHWR), India is finally ready to
start the second stage.

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• A 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam is set to achieve criticality
any day now and four more fast breeder reactors have been sanctioned, two at the same site
and two elsewhere.
• However, experts estimate that it would take India many more FBRs and at least another four
decades before it has built up a sufficient fissile material inventory to launch the third stage.

CURRENT SIGNIFICANCE:

Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

A Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is a next-generation nuclear reactor that uses fast neutrons to generate
more fuel than it consumes while producing power. Unlike conventional reactors, FBRs are designed
to be self-sustaining by creating additional nuclear fuel during operation.
How It Works
• FBRs use Uranium-Plutonium Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel.
• A Uranium-238 "blanket" surrounds the fuel core, undergoing nuclear transmutation to
produce more fissile material, making them "breeders."
Why FBRs Matter
• Kickstarting Stage 2 of India’s Nuclear Programme – The commissioning of the Prototype
Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) will officially launch the second stage of India's three-stage
nuclear power plan.
• Pathway to Thorium Utilization – Thorium-232 (Th-232) will also be used in FBRs,
converting into Uranium-233, which will fuel the third stage of India's nuclear strategy.
• Technological Breakthrough – Once operational, India will be only the second country after
Russia with a commercial FBR. Other nations like Japan, France, and the US have abandoned
their FBR programs due to safety concerns.
• Reducing Nuclear Waste – By recycling spent fuel from the first stage, FBRs significantly cut
down nuclear waste, reducing the need for large-scale disposal facilities.

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Nuclear Power in Union Budget 2025-26

The Union Budget 2025-26 outlines a significant expansion in India’s nuclear energy sector,
targeting 100 GW of nuclear power capacity by 2047. This initiative is a key part of India’s energy
transition strategy, aimed at reducing fossil fuel dependency and ensuring energy security.

KEY HIGHLIGHTS:
1️. Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat
• Aims to enhance domestic nuclear capabilities and promote private sector
participation.
• Parliament will amend the Atomic Energy Act and Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
Act to encourage investments in nuclear power.
2. Development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
• ₹20,000 crore allocated for research and development.
• Goal: Five operational indigenous SMRs by 2033.
• Modular and scalable, suitable for on-grid and off-grid applications, including remote
areas.
3. Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs)
• Development of 220 MW Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) for industries
like steel and aluminum to aid decarbonization.
• Private sector partnerships to provide land, cooling water, and capital, while NPCIL
manages design, operation, and maintenance.
4️. Expansion of Nuclear Power Capacity
• Current nuclear capacity: 8,180 MW.
• Target for 22,480 MW by 2031-32, with 10 new reactors under construction across
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Kovvada (Andhra Pradesh): 6x1208 MW nuclear power plant planned in collaboration
with the USA.
5. Major Developments in 2024️
• Rajasthan Atomic Power Project (RAPP-7) achieved criticality, marking India's growing
indigenous nuclear capability.
• Discovery of new uranium deposits at Jaduguda Mines, extending the mine’s life by
over 50 years.
• Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) milestones achieved, including core loading
and sodium purification.
• NTPC and NPCIL joint venture ASHVINI established to develop nuclear power plants,
including the upcoming 4x700 MWe PHWR Mahi-Banswara Project.

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The Role of Nuclear Energy in India's Development and Power Production

Introduction
Nuclear power has long been considered an essential part of India's energy strategy. With ambitions
to become a developed economy by 204️7 and achieve net zero emissions by 2070, India faces a
pressing need to expand its electricity generation capacity while reducing its reliance on fossil fuels.
However, despite decades of investment and high expectations, nuclear energy contributes only about
3% of India's total power generation. The challenges include high capital costs, technological hurdles,
regulatory barriers, and limited foreign participation. However, nuclear power remains a crucial part
of India's energy mix, with new policy shifts and institutional reforms aiming to accelerate its
expansion.

1️. Historical Background of India's Nuclear Energy Program

• Post-Independence Vision:
o Since independence in 1947, India has pursued self-reliance in high technology,
particularly in nuclear energy.
o Homi Bhabha, the architect of India’s nuclear program, established the Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in 1945 and later the Atomic Energy Commission
(AEC) in 1948 under Prime Minister Nehru.
• Early Growth and Challenges:
o India developed its three-stage nuclear power program to transition from uranium-
based reactors to thorium-based systems, leveraging its vast thorium reserves.
o The 1974 nuclear test led to Western sanctions, restricting India's access to critical
nuclear technology and slowing progress.
• Self-Reliance and Indigenous Development:
o Despite these challenges, India indigenized its Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors
(PHWRs) and scaled up capacities.
o However, slow reactor construction, cost overruns, and land acquisition issues
prevented nuclear power from reaching its projected targets.

2. Importance of Nuclear Power in India's Energy Security and Economic Development

A. Energy Security and Demand Growth
• India’s electricity demand stood at 1,503 billion units (BUs) in 2022-23, with projections of
5,921 BUs by 2050.
• Renewables, while important, are unreliable as baseload power due to storage challenges
and variability.
• Fossil fuel dependence is unsustainable due to import costs, environmental concerns, and
net zero commitments.
• Nuclear power offers a stable and carbon-free energy source that can complement
renewables.
B. Economic Growth and Industrial Expansion
• India's goal of double-digit GDP growth requires massive energy investments.
• Electricity and economic growth are closely linked; increased electricity consumption
drives industrial output, urbanization, and infrastructure development.
• Nuclear power is crucial for powering sectors like semiconductor manufacturing, green
hydrogen production, and artificial intelligence infrastructure.

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C. Environmental and Climate Change Mitigation

• India aims to reduce its carbon footprint and achieve net zero by 2070.
• Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear power produces zero direct emissions and can provide long-
term clean energy.
• Nuclear energy reduces reliance on coal, which still accounts for over 50% of India's
electricity generation.

3. Challenges in Expanding Nuclear Power in India

A. Slow Progress and Unmet Targets
• India's nuclear energy capacity stands at 7,425 MW, far below past projections (e.g., 8,000
MW target for 1980 set in 1954).
• Even 2024 projections of 13,480 MW were revised downward to 13,080 MW by 2029.
• Cost overruns, delays, and bureaucratic inefficiencies continue to hinder growth.
B. High Capital Costs and Financial Constraints
• Nuclear plants have high upfront costs, making them less attractive than renewables.
• Government funding for large-scale reactors is insufficient, requiring private and foreign
investment.
• High-interest borrowing and lack of economies of scale make nuclear power more
expensive than other sources.
C. Land Acquisition and Public Opposition
• Public resistance to nuclear plants is strong due to safety concerns and displacement
issues.
• Land acquisition for nuclear sites is complex and costly, leading to project delays.
D. Technological and Regulatory Challenges
• India's reliance on Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) limits its ability to scale up
quickly.
• The three-stage thorium program has not materialized, and breeder reactor technology
remains immature.
• Bureaucratic hurdles and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA, 2010) deter
foreign investments.

4️. Path Forward: Reforms and Future Prospects

A. Ideational Transformation: Moving Beyond the Three-Stage Plan
• India must shift away from its exclusive focus on the three-stage program, as thorium-
based reactors remain technologically distant.
• Instead, focus on scaling up PHWRs and Light Water Reactors (LWRs) using readily
available uranium.
B. Institutional Transformation: Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)
• The 2022 government decision to allow NPCIL-NTPC collaboration is a significant step.
• The 2024 budget introduced Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) for Small Modular Reactors
(SMRs).
• Encouraging private sector participation will improve efficiency and funding options.
C. Expanding Foreign Collaboration
• Russia, France, and the U.S. are potential partners in India's nuclear expansion.
• The Indo-U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement (2005) opened doors for foreign investments, but
liability concerns (CLNDA, 2010) have deterred private players.
• India must amend its nuclear liability laws or offer indemnities like those given to Russia.

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D. Advancing SMR Development

• Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer lower costs, faster deployment, and flexibility.
• India plans to develop 40-50 SMRs by 2032, which could help replace aging coal plants.
E. Financing and Market Reforms
• Government-backed funding and international financial support (e.g., Russian loans) are
crucial.
• Liberalizing the energy sector and improving regulatory frameworks will make nuclear
power more viable.

5. Conclusion: The Road Ahead

• Nuclear energy is critical for India’s development, offering energy security, economic growth,
and environmental sustainability.
• Despite historical setbacks, India has a second chance to revive nuclear power with strategic
investments and policy reforms.
• Institutional restructuring, private sector involvement, and international collaboration will be
key to meeting India’s energy goals.
• If the Modi government implements bold nuclear reforms, India can significantly increase its
nuclear power share, reducing fossil fuel dependency while meeting its 2047 and 2070 targets.

Positives and Negatives of Nuclear Energy

Positives of Nuclear Energy
1. Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions
o Nuclear power is a clean energy source, emitting no direct greenhouse gases.
o Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear plants do not contribute to air pollution, reducing carbon
footprints.
2. High Energy Output and Efficiency
o Nuclear reactors produce a consistent and reliable energy supply, unlike intermittent
sources like solar and wind.
o Capacity factor of nuclear plants is above 90%, making them more efficient than
renewable sources.
3. Reduces Dependence on Fossil Fuels
o Helps nations diversify energy sources, reducing reliance on oil and gas imports.
o Countries like France significantly reduced foreign energy dependence by investing in
nuclear power.
4. Long-Term Economic Benefits
o While costly to build, nuclear plants have low operational costs and a long lifespan.
o Produces large amounts of energy with minimal fuel requirements (e.g., uranium).
5. Potential for Nuclear Waste Recycling
o Up to 90% of nuclear waste can be recycled, making it a manageable environmental
issue.
6. Lower Public Health Risks Compared to Fossil Fuels
o Air pollution from fossil fuels causes millions of deaths annually, whereas nuclear
accidents are rare.
o Chernobyl and Fukushima are exceptions, but fossil fuels cause more long-term
damage globally.
Negatives of Nuclear Energy

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1. Risk of Nuclear Disasters

o Accidents like Chernobyl (1986), Fukushima (2011), and Three Mile Island (1979) show
the catastrophic risks of failure.
o Even minor radioactive leaks can cause long-term environmental and health damage.
2. Nuclear Waste Management Issues
o Spent uranium and other radioactive waste require specialized, long-term disposal
methods.
o Storage concerns remain, with over 250,000 tonnes of nuclear waste accumulated
worldwide.
3. High Initial Costs and Long Construction Time
o Nuclear plants take 10+ years to build and cost billions of dollars.
o Slower deployment compared to renewables like wind and solar.
4. Nuclear Proliferation Risks
o Technology used for energy production can be misused for nuclear weapons.
o The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1970) aims to prevent
misuse, but concerns remain.
5. Dependency on Uranium Supply
o While reducing dependence on fossil fuels, nuclear energy relies on uranium imports.
o Major uranium suppliers like Canada, Australia, and Kazakhstan influence energy
security.
6. Potential Target for Terrorist Attacks
o Nuclear plants could be targets for sabotage or attacks, leading to severe
consequences.

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