International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education

December 2021, Volume 14, Issue 2, 163-177

Improving the Reading and Writing

Performance of a Student with
Dyslexia: An Action Research Study
Yakup Balantekin*

Received : 31 May 2021 Abstract

Revised : 15 November 2021
Accepted : 28 December The aim of this study was to improve the reading and
DOI : 10.26822/iejee.2022.236 writing performance and reading motivation of a third
grade primary school student who does not have any
a
Correpondance Details: Yakup Balantekin, Primary
Education Department, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey cognitive or physical disabilities. In the study conducted by
E-mail: yakupbalan@[Link] the action research method, one of the qualitative research
ORCID: [Link] methods, the student’s reading and writing performance
and reading motivation were evaluated by scales. While
fluent reading strategies were used to improve the student’s
reading performance, the strategy of identifying the main
idea at the sentence level was used to improve his reading
comprehension skills. On the other hand, the programmed
instruction approach was adopted to improve the
student’s writing skills. At the end of the study, there was
an improvement in the student’s word recognition level,
reading speed, comprehension percentage and reading
motivation. While planning support programs for students
with reading and writing problems, it is recommended
that it is necessary to decide whether to develop both skills
together or only one skill by considering the intensity of
the students’ needs and that reading books prepared for
students should consist of stories short enough to end in one
reading.

Keywords:
Reading; Comprehension; Reading Motivation; Writing; Legi-
bility

Introduction

R eading and writing skills are required for individuals to be

successful during their education and activities of daily
living (Birgisdottir et al., 2020; Horowitz-Kraus et al., 2020). It
can be said that literacy is a developmental stage of the
individual since reading and writing are a prerequisite for
learning both at school and throughout life (Lonigan et al.,
2009), which has caused literacy to cease to be an exception
Copyright ©
and has transformed it into a requirement (Harmey, 2020).
[Link]
ISSN: 1307-9298
Reading, which is referred to as the process of making sense
© 2021 Published by KURA Education & Publishing. out of the text (Fox & Alexander, 2011), allows individuals to
This is an open access article under the CC BY- get to know life, to find out and fulfill their needs, to have fun,
NC- ND license. ([Link] and to enrich their lives in many areas (Jenkins & O’Connor,
licenses/by/4.0/) 2002; Tekşan & Yılmaz-Alkan, 2020). In addition to such a

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 December 2021, Volume 14, Issue 2, 163-177

decisive contribution of reading to the personal lives of academic development (Barnett et al., 2020).
individuals, it also has effects on social and economic However, some students may have problems in
development (Snow et al., 1998). The clues of whether writing such as insufficient legibility, unwillingness to
a child will be successful in his/her education life and write, difficulty in writing, slow writing, and feeling
whether he/she will be able to contribute to society uncomfortable while writing (Hartingsveldt et al.,
can be observed in his/her success in reading and 2015). Under normal conditions, students who have
writing (NAEYC, 1988). Therefore, it should not be the problems mentioned in the writing skill learned
forgotten that the support provided for individuals’ at school may need support throughout their lives
reading skills also helps to improve their social life. (Barnett et al., 2020). Therefore, early identification
of problems faced by students in writing and taking
The reading act achieves its purposes by recognizing measures to solve these problems may prevent worse
the words and knowing their meanings and grasping consequences in writing (Thomas et al., 2020). The
the information in the background of the text, and fact that children realize that the sounds in the spoken
readers’ sufficient knowledge of the alphabet, form, language represent the letters used in writing from
sound and spelling, phonological awareness, and early childhood will enable them to be successful
fluent reading skills should be developed (Jenkins & in their writing education (Laing & Espeland, 2005).
O’Connor, 2002). In order to achieve this, phonology Therefore, Bus et al. (1995) recommend that adults
instruction is a necessary component of reading should read books to children so that they can be
instruction (Saha et al., 2021), and phonological aware of the relationships between the sounds and
awareness, decoding and repetition have significant letters.
roles in the acquisition of reading skills (Wagner
& Turgosen, 1987). The process of learning to read The literacy skill supports individuals in fulfilling
supported by phonological sensitivity supports the their lifelong changing needs and desires and in
development of reading skills (Plaza & Kohen, 2003). overcoming the difficulties they face in their lives
To this end, Duke and Block (2012) recommend that all (Eldering & Leseman, 1993), and constitutes the basis
students, especially students in the risk group, should be of all knowledge, skills and experiences of individuals.
provided with access to pre-school education within If students’ literacy skills are not developed, students
the context of reading skills in primary school for the will face difficulties in other learning domains (Geske
development of their reading skills, that a conscious & Ozola, 2008). Since the formal education process
phonological awareness instruction in areas such as is based on reading comprehension, it is a fact that
how many sounds the words consist of, which letter reading difficulties will inevitably lead to educational
represents which sound, and decoding in the axis of difficulties (Hulme & Snowling, 2011; McQuillan,
vocabulary instruction. In addition, they state that it 2019). In particular, students leaving primary school
would be beneficial that vocabulary instruction should without acquiring the literacy skills required for a
be carried out in grades at the primary school level, higher education level (Torgesen, 2002) and students’
that the recognition of the concepts and language academic failures due to inadequacies in literacy
structures in a wide variety of areas should be ensured skills may lead to school dropouts (Meeks et al., 2020).
to improve reading comprehension skills, that readers Therefore, supporting students with the mentioned
should be able to use comprehension strategies in literacy problems in the earliest period will prevent
a planned and conscious manner so that they can the emergence of bigger problems such as school
understand the text, and that school administrations dropouts (Jenkins & O’Connor, 2002; Snow et al., 1998).
should conduct out-of-school activities for the
development of students’ reading skills. Since children do not have the same opportunities
and facilities in their lives before they start primary
Writing is another skill that is learned in the first years of school, some children cannot start primary school at
life (Hartingsveldt et al., 2014). Writing requires intensive a sufficient level of readiness, which prevents them
functioning of cognitive processes (Roitsch et al., from benefiting equally from reading and writing
2020) and many competencies such as phonological education in primary school. One of the main grounds
awareness, spelling and writing rules, metacognitive of this study is to ensure that all children receive an
skills, the ability to read and spell words accurately, and equal education within the context of reading and
recognition of the meaning of words and the syntax of writing. Although not being sufficiently ready to read
the language (Watson et al., 2016). Meeks, Madelaine and write is not a problem caused by children, its
and Stephenson (2020) emphasized the role of writing consequences primarily affect them. Since reading
skill in the education and training environment by and writing performance is one of the prerequisites for
indicating that students with insufficient writing skills academic achievement, and academic achievement
may face academic failure. also prevents children from dropping out of school,
literacy support provided to a child will also ensure
The acquisition of writing skills by students in a timely that the child will be protected from adverse
and effective manner will support their subsequent environmental conditions and habits outside of school

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 Improving the Reading and Writing Performance of a Student with Dyslexia: An Action Research / Balantekin

by ensuring his/her presence in the educational the first year of primary school. His school is close to
environment for a longer period of time. The aim his home, and he goes to school accompanied by an
of this study, which is based on the importance of adult and does not take the school bus. The mother
literacy in individual and social life, is to develop the of “F” is a housewife and his father works as a worker
literacy skills of a student whose reading and writing in the private sector. The house belongs to them but
skills could not reach a sufficient level in the collective F does not have a private room. Nobody stays in the
instruction conducted in the classroom, in accordance home except for the family members, and he lives
with the action plan. Since reading and writing have with his paternal grandmother and grandfather in
similar ways of presenting information, and cognitive a two-story house with his nuclear family. Moreover,
processes, contexts and their development progress his maternal grandmother resides within walking
in parallel with each other, it is efficient to carry distance of the student’s house. Since the sister of “F”
out their learning processes together (Fitzgerald & has a chronic illness, she regularly receives inpatient
Shanahan, 2000). Furthermore, the support education treatment with her mother at the hospital. Therefore,
to be provided for students in the risk group in terms “F” sometimes stays with his maternal grandmother
of literacy performance should be more intense and and sometimes with his paternal grandmother when
detailed than the instruction activities applied in his mother is in the hospital, which has significantly
classrooms (Torgesen, 2004). Therefore, in the present affected the learning process and school attendance
study, the difficulties experienced by the student of “F”. “F” does not have any disorder but wears glasses
regarding reading and writing skills were discussed due to amblyopia. It was determined based on the
together, and more intense activities were carried out classroom teacher’s observations that the student
to improve both skills. had problems in reading, comprehension and writing.
While the observations indicating that the student
Method had reading and comprehension problems were
verified by the Informal Reading Inventory, which was
Research Model adapted to Turkish by Akyol (2019), the writing problem
was verified by the Multidimensional Legibility Scale
This study was conducted in accordance with the developed by Yıldız and Ateş (2010). In the evaluation
action research design, one of the qualitative research performed with a reading text at a lower level than
methods. This design is a reflective process that the grade level of the student, it was determined that
enables researchers and implementers to develop the student was literate at the frustration level and
practical solutions to problems and allows questioning that his writing was at the illegible level. Permission to
and discussion instead of theoretically dealing with study with “F” was obtained from his family, and the
the problems they detect in the learning environment materials such as the notebook and story book used
(Ferrance, 2000). This design is based on a flexible during the study were provided by the researcher.
approach that gives the researcher the opportunity
to produce solutions, to make choices among them Data Collection Tools
and to implement them (Burns, 2009). Due to the
flexible structure, the solution process of the problem The measurement tools used during the study process
is planned, monitored and evaluated, and as a result and the purposes for which these tools were used are
of this, changes can be made in the action plan if explained below.
needed (Tripp, 2005). In this study, the aim is to improve
the reading and writing performance of a third grade Informal Reading Inventory
student who needed support within the context of
reading and writing skills in accordance with the This was prepared by Akyol (2019) to determine the
specified characteristics of the action research. reading levels of students by benefiting from Harris
and Sipay (1990), Ekwall and Shanker (1998) and May
Characteristics of the Participating Student (1986). Students’ word recognition and comprehension
percentages can be calculated by means of this
This study was conducted with a third grade primary inventory and the accompanying tables. Three
school student who had no physical, mental or personal levels, namely Independent Level, which is defined
problems, and who was examined by the school as the student’s ability to read and understand the
counseling service and found to have no difference in text without any support, Instructional Level, which is
terms of the competences in any area compared to his defined as the student’s ability to read and understand
peers. The name of the student was kept confidential the text as desired by receiving support from a
in accordance with the ethical rules, and the student teacher or an adult, and Frustration Level, which is
was coded with the initial letter of his name, “F”. “F” is defined as the student’s understanding of very little
nine years old, the second child and the only boy in of what he reads and making a lot of reading errors,
the family, and is studying in a public primary school. were determined to make sense of the percentages.
He has been studying with the same teacher since Due to these categories, the level at which primary

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 December 2021, Volume 14, Issue 2, 163-177

and secondary school students are readers can be of correlation between the factors depending on the
determined. consistency coefficients (between the values r = .65
and r =. 810) between the two implementations. The
The student’s correct reading rate per minute was scale was prepared as a four-point Likert-type scale,
calculated based on the formula of the number of which is scored as 1 point for Very Different From Me, 2
words read correctly/the total number of words in the points for A Little Different From Me, 3 points for A Little
text x 60 recommended by Akyol and Yıldız (2010). Like Me and 4 points for A Lot Like Me, and consists of
21 items. The lowest and highest scores that can be
Multidimensional Legibility Scale obtained from the scale are 21 and 84, respectively.
With this scale, the change in the student’s reading
This scale is used to evaluate the legibility of the text motivation level was determined by measuring it at
and was developed by Yıldız and Ateş (2010). In this the beginning and at the end of the action research.
scale prepared based on the analytical evaluation
approach, legibility is evaluated with five factors, Analysis of Data
namely slope, space, size, form and line tracking.
Each factor is evaluated as completely sufficient (3), The student's word recognition percentage and
partially sufficient (2) and insufficient (1). The slope comprehension percentage were calculated using
factor was excluded from the measurement since the Informal Reading Inventory. The student read the
the use of vertical basic letters is recommended in text aloud and his reading was recorded. The number
the Ministry of National Education [MoNE, (2019a)] of words that the student misread was determined
Turkish Course Curriculum. Under these conditions, by listening to the recordings. The student's word
the lowest and highest scores obtained from the scale recognition percentage was determined by matching
are 4 and 12, respectively. Writing with a total score the number of misread words and the total word count
of 4-6.7 is considered as illegible, writing with a total of the text on the row column axis in the inventory
score of 6.8-9.5 is considered as moderately legible, table. The student's comprehension percentage was
and writing with a total score of 9.6-12 is considered calculated by the answers given to the open-ended
as legible. With this measurement tool, the student’s questions. In cases where open-ended questions
legibility level was determined, and at the end of the are used, it is recommended that the questions
action research, the change in the student’s legibility should require simple and deep comprehension. In
level was determined. this study, the student's comprehension level was
determined by five questions, consisting of three
Motivations for Reading Questionnaire questions requiring simple comprehension and two
questions requiring deep comprehension. While
This scale, developed by Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) simple comprehension questions were scored as two
and later revised by Wang and Guthrie (2004), was points for full answering, one for half answering, and
adapted to Turkish by Yıldız (2010). The construct zero point for non-answering, deep comprehension
validity of the scale was tested by confirmatory questions were scored as three points for full and
factor analysis, it was determined that the correlation effective answering, two points for expressing more
coefficients between the factors and their items varied than half of the expected answer, one point for half
between .41 and .73 and that the chi-square fit index answering, and zero point for non-answering. The
(χ 2 df = 2.51) was at an acceptable level. The scale student's comprehension percentage was calculated
consists of two main factors: the Intrinsic Motivation by dividing the score that the student got from the
Factor consisting of the sub-factors of interest and answers given to the questions by the full score that
curiosity, and the Extrinsic Motivation Factor consisting would be obtained if all the questions were answered
of the sub-factors of recognition, social, competition correctly and completely. This result was placed in
and harmony. The reliability study of the scale was the relevant table of the inventory and the student's
conducted by the internal consistency coefficient comprehension level was determined. The word
and test-retest method. The Cronbach alpha internal recognition percentage and the comprehension
consistency coefficient was calculated as α =.59 for percentage calculated in this way were interpreted
the curiosity sub-factor, α =.68 for the interest sub- in the table containing the three literacy levels
factor, α =.52 for the recognition sub-factor, α =.62 for (independent, instructional, frustration), and the
the social sub-factor, α =.62 for the competition sub- student's general literacy level was revealed. The
factor, α =.54 for the harmony sub-factor, α =.68 for mentioned measurement and analysis processes
the Intrinsic Motivation Factor, α =.82 for the Extrinsic were carried out separately for five reading texts.
Motivation factor, and α =.86 for the whole scale. The
consistency of the scale over time was calculated The Motivations for Reading Questionnaire was
by the test-retest method with 71 students three applied before and after the action plan. The
weeks after the main implementation, and it was pre-and post-measurement results of the student
determined that there was a moderate and high level were compared specifically for the sub-factors of

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 Improving the Reading and Writing Performance of a Student with Dyslexia: An Action Research / Balantekin

recognition, social, competition, and harmony of process was supported. Therefore, the books were
the extrinsic motivation dimension constituting the read only during the implementation process, and the
scale, and the interest and curiosity sub-factors of the student was asked not to read these books at other
intrinsic motivation dimension. With this comparison, times.
the effect of the action plan on the student's reading
motivation was determined. Hulme and Snowling (2011) indicate that although
some students are proficient in oral reading, they may
Multidimensional legibility scale was applied before have problems in reading comprehension, and that
and after the action plan to determine the change their success in oral reading may prevent teachers
in the student's legibility level. Scoring was done from understanding that they have problems in
separately for the space, size, form and line tracking comprehension. No situation similar to the mentioned
factors of the scale. Based on the pre- and post- problem was encountered during this study. In the
measurement scores, the change in the student's interim evaluations made during the action plan
legibility level was interpreted. process, although there was an improvement in the
student’s reading fluency, since the same level of
Preparation and implementation of the Action Plan improvement was not observed in his comprehension
level, comprehension development work was
Before the action plan was prepared, the execution performed from the eleventh week onwards to
processes and the recommendations sections of the increase the student’s comprehension level. To this
studies in the literature on improving students’ reading end, The strategy of identifying the main idea at the
comprehension and writing skills (Aktaş & Çankal, 2019; sentence level, which was designed by Pollac et al.
Akyol & Çoban Soral, 2020; Akyol & Ketenoğlu Kayabaşı, (2021) to improve the reading comprehension skills of
2018; Akyol & Kodan, 2016; Akyol & Sever, 2019; Akyol & students with comprehension difficulties, was used.
Yıldız, 2010; Dağ, 2010; Duran & Karataş, 2019; Dündar This strategy is based on the principle of finding the
& Akyol, 2014; Kurtdede Fidan & Akyol, 2011; Kuşdemir main idea by analyzing the sentences that make up
et al., 2018; Yangın & Sidekli 2011; Yıldız, 2013) were the text one by one and understanding the whole
examined. These studies were used in the preparation text. This strategy is applied in three stages, namely (i)
of the action plan, and it was concluded that the determining “Who?” or “What?”, (ii) determining two
plan should be kept to as long as possible. Therefore, important words, and (iii) writing the main idea. In the
no time limit was imposed for the action plan, and first stage, the student determines the subject of each
the plan was implemented until the student moved sentence with the questions “Who?” or “What?”. In this
up to the next level from the levels predicted in the stage, the teacher supports the student on how to find
measurement tools in terms of reading, comprehension the subject of the sentence with the help of sentences
and legibility. Therefore, measurement and evaluation that he has planned previously. In the second stage,
were performed periodically to evaluate the student’s the student determines two important words for each
performance. The action plan was planned as two sentence. With this practice, the student learns to
days a week and three course hours in a day. The distinguish the important words that will enable him
courses were applied at 40-minute intervals and with to understand the sentence from other words. In this
5-10 minutes of listening time between each course in stage, the teacher makes the student distinguish the
the home environment. Except for the measurements important words in the sentence by thinking out loud.
made before the implementation, the entire action In the third stage, the information obtained in the first
plan continued for 18 weeks. Three course hours per and second stages is combined and the main idea
week were allocated for reading and writing studies of the whole text is found. The third stage consists of
for 10 weeks, and four hours of writing studies and two three steps in itself. In the first step, the most common
hours of reading studies were performed in the last 8 answers to the questions “Who?” and what?” in the first
weeks. stage are determined in the whole text; in the second
step, five words in the whole text that best explain the
The reading books used in the reading activities subjects of the sentences are selected among the two
during the action plan consisted of story books chosen important words selected for each sentence in the first
the student in the bookstore. During the selection of stage; and in the third step, the main idea sentence is
the book, the student was guided to ensure that the formed by combining the subject and five important
book was suitable for his level, that it should not be too words. In this process, the teacher supports the student
thick, that it should be illustrated and that the font size in finding the additional words that will be required
should be large. Among the strategies recommended to form the main idea sentence in accordance with
by Akyol (2019), repetitive reading, paired reading the grammar rules. A total of eight reading texts were
and choral reading strategies were used to improve studied with this strategy.
the student’s reading fluency. During the reading, the
student was briefly reminded of the chapter read in In the writing activities, the principles of programmed
the previous implementation and the comprehension instruction recommended by Skinner for individual

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 December 2021, Volume 14, Issue 2, 163-177

instruction (Senemoğlu, 2005) were adopted. Mager the letters consisting of vertical and horizontal lines,
(2014) indicated that programmed instruction allows and during the writing of these letters, line exercises
the arrangement of the learning environment were performed to prepare for the writing of letters
in accordance with the needs of the students in consisting of curved and rounded lines. While only line
instruction carried out individually instead of in groups. exercises and letter writing activities were performed
The writing studies were carried out in accordance in the first nine weeks, only letter writing and writing
with the steps of programmed instruction: small steps, of words and sentences containing the letters learnt
clear response, immediate feedback and self-pacing. were performed from the tenth week to the fifteenth
First, the needs of the student were determined, the week, and dictation practice was performed from
letters were divided into units according to ease of the sixteenth week onwards. While only a notebook
writing, immediate feedback was given to the student consisting of four lines and three spaces was used
in the activities, the action plan was not limited to a during the first nine weeks, both a notebook consisting
period of time so that that the activities would be of four lines and three spaces and a lined notebook
suitable for the student’s learning speed, and the were used after the tenth week.
activities were continued until the legibility reached
the next level. Due to reasons arising from the student’s Since the action research was conducted by the
inability to hold the pencil correctly during the writing researcher, support was received from a lecturer
activities, writing was initiated with line exercises who had experience in action research and from a
because of his inability to draw the general form of classroom teacher in order to avoid bias. The lecturer
the letters. Vertical, curved, horizontal and round line examined the plan before the implementation of the
exercises were performed. The line exercises were action plan and suggested that the student should
also continued during the writing of the letters. The choose the reading books. Furthermore, he also
letters were divided into categories according to the indicated that four hours should be allocated to the
number of moves needed for the writing of the letters, writing exercises, that were applied three hours a
and whether they would consist of vertical, horizontal week during the implementation of the plan, after
and round lines. In small letters, there are five (c, ı, l, the 10th week. The classroom teacher determined
o, s) letters written with one move, eighteen (a, b, ç, the student's reading errors while using the Informal
d, e, f, g, h, i, j, n, p, r, ş, t, u, v, y) letters written with Reading Inventory, scored the student's answers to the
two moves, five (ğ, k, m, ö, z) letters written with three open-ended questions, and evaluated the legibility
moves, and one (ü) letter written with four moves. In of the student's writing with the Multidimensional
capital letters, there are five (C, I, J, O, S) letters written Legibility Scale. During the implementation of the
with one move, ten (Ç, D, G, İ, L, P, Ş, T, U, V) letters action plan, since the desired improvement in the
written with two moves, eleven (A, B, F, H, Ğ, K, N, Ö, student's comprehension level was not achieved
R, Y, Z) letters written with three moves, and three (E, despite the improvement in the student's reading
M, Ü) letters written with four moves. While the letters performance, the strategy of identifying the main
were being ordered, priority was given to the letters idea at the sentence level was added to the plan from
that supported each other’s writing. For instance, the the 11th week.
letter “I” supports the writing of the letter “F”, and the
letter “F” supports the writing of the letter “E”. Similarly, Results
the letter “P” supports the writing of the letter “B”, the
letter “n” supports the writing of the letter “m”, the The results of the measurement procedures performed
letter “v” supports the writing of the letter “Y”, and the before the implementation of the action plan until its
letter “u” supports the writing of the letter “y”. These completion are respectively presented in Table 1.
conveniences were also taken into consideration in
the writing order of the letters. Priority was given to
Table 1.
Data on the measurement and evaluation process performed in the action plan process
Reading text Number of Number of read- Word recognition Reading time Reading Comprehen-
words ing errors level speed (words sion percent-
per minute) age

Daisy and Poppy 159 24 E* 188 sec 51 16%

Efe Goes to the 116 11 E 125 sec 54 33%
Theater
The Orange Tabby 166 10 94% 121 sec 56 50%
and her Kittens
The Miser’s Cats 155 6 96% 157 sec 58 67%
My friend Papi 181 5 97% 145 sec 58 75%

* In the Informal Reading Inventory, the abbreviation E is interpreted as a word recognition percentage of less
than 91% in texts consisting of 156-160 and 116-120 words.

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 Improving the Reading and Writing Performance of a Student with Dyslexia: An Action Research / Balantekin

It is recommended by Akyol (2019) that texts to be used Figure 1.

to determine the reading and comprehension level of Text samples
students should be selected from a lower level than
the student’s grade level and that the word count First implementation
of the texts should be in the range of 100-200 words
for third graders. Therefore, the reading texts were
taken from the second grade Turkish course book and
arranged by considering the word number criterion in
such a way that the content integrity would not be
impaired. When Table 1 is examined, it is observed that
the student’s number of reading errors, which was 24
before the action plan was applied, decreased to 5,
that his word recognition percentage, which was at
the frustration level, increased to 97%, that his reading
speed, which was 51 words per minute, increased to
58 words per minute, and that his comprehension
level, which was 16% increased to 75% by the end of
the implementation. “F”, whose general literacy level
was at the frustration level with his word recognition
(E) and comprehension level (16%) before the
implementation, increased to the instructional level
with his word recognition (97%) and comprehension
level (75%) after the implementation.

The first and final measurement scores for reading

motivation, which was applied to determine the effect Final implementation
of the action plan on the student’s reading motivation,
are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.
First and Final Measurement Scores of the Motivations
for Reading Questionnaire
Factors Sub-Factors First Final
Measurement Measurement
Extrinsic Recognition 5 7
Motivation
Social 6 8
Competition 7 10
Harmony 6 8
Extrinsic Motiva- 24 33
tion Total Score
Intrinsic Interest 6 12
Motivation
Curiosity 4 8
Intrinsic Motiva- 10 20
tion Total Score
Grand Total Score 34 53

Transcription
It was a hot summer day. Can and Elif went to pick flowers.
When Table 2 is examined, it is observed that while They picked daisies for their mother. Both of them were
the students’ extrinsic motivation score was 24 and happy. They gave the daisies to their mother. They hugged
each other.
33 before and after the action plan, respectively,
his intrinsic motivation score was 10 and 20 before It was calculated that the first test score and the final
and after the action plan, respectively, and his total test score of the Multidimensional Legibility Scale
reading motivation score was 34 and 53 before and were 5 (space = 1; size = 1; form = 1; line tracking = 2)
after the action plan, respectively. and 8 (space = 2; size = 2; form = 2; line tracking = 2),
respectively. Based on these scores, while the student’s
Examples of the student’s writing before and after the
legibility level was illegible before the action plan, it
implementation are presented in Figure 1 to reveal the
was determined to be moderately legible after the
effect of the action plan on the student’s legibility.
action plan.

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 December 2021, Volume 14, Issue 2, 163-177

Discussion was aimed to improve the reading fluency of students

with instruction supported by the neurological-impress
In this study aimed at improving the reading, method (NIM), activities were organized before
comprehension and legibility of a third grade primary reading in order to transform the words in the text into
school student, practices were performed to reduce acquired words, and it was ensured that the student
the student’s reading errors and increase his legibility. became familiar with the words. Therefore, if books
Therefore, reading and writing practices were consisting of short and limited words are preferred
carried out together. In terms of reading errors, it was for students with poor reading skills, it can be ensured
determined that the student frequently failed to say that the student achieves the pleasure of reading an
the last letters and syllables of words, and that after entire book by preventing him/her from abandoning
reading the root of the word, he made mistakes in the book halfway through. Insufficient vocabulary
reading the whole word by guessing the affixes without may cause students to have difficulty in reading
reading them. In the reading activities performed with words that they have not encountered previously
the student before the action plan, it was observed while reading, which will make it difficult to use these
that the student made the mistake of skipping lines words in their writing (Hebert et al., 2021). The new
while reading texts written with a single line spacing. words that students learn during reading activities will
Therefore, attention was paid to ensure that the line support their writing skills as well as their reading skills.
spacing of the selected story books would be wide.
Furthermore, the reading texts used for evaluation Since the individual must pay attention to the
were prepared in one-and-a-half line spacing. text intensively and consistently for reading
Easterbrooks and Lederberg (2021) indicate that comprehension, reading anxiety negatively affects
students’ probability of comprehending the text will his/her reading comprehension (Macdonald et al.,
decrease when they read without paying attention to 2021). The student said, “I get bored while studying,
punctuation, stress and intonation. Reading exercises but I never get bored when I study with you”. Similarly,
were carried out together due to reasons such as the the student’s mother revealed the student’s affective
student’s failure to pay attention to the punctuation approach to the study by stating “On the days when
marks, recognize the line he skipped, and correct the he is to study with you, he prepares his equipment
words that he misread. In the study conducted by early and waits for you”. Reading requires attention
Kanık Uysal and Akyol (2019), it was observed that the and emotional integration (Jakovljević et al., 2021). It is
participating student made the same mistakes, and a considered that the student’s positive approach to the
reading program to be carried out with the student implementation was affected by the fact that he was
was prepared. The fact that the student who was just accompanied and chose the books himself while
supported performed reading under the supervision buying them. It was observed that for the student,
of the researcher ensured the elimination of reading going to buy a book after the end of each book was
errors in a shorter period of time. a reinforcer for the student. It is also considered that
the student’s review of the books, prediction of the
It was observed that the reading performance of content by interpreting the visuals, and choosing the
the student gradually increased from the first pages books himself increased his motivation. Tezel et al.
to the next pages while the story books were read. (2019) indicate that children’s choice of books that
During the book reading activities performed with the they will read and prioritization of the topics that
student, the student had difficulty in reading words children love and care about in choosing the books
he encountered for the first time. However, when will support their reading habits.
the number of pages read in the book increased, he
could read more comfortably the words he previously While students with underdeveloped reading skills
had difficulty with. Since some words are frequently mostly maintain reading by reading slowly with
repeated in books due to the subjects of the books, hesitation and receiving support for correction from
there was a noticeable improvement in both the word another person (Knight-McKenna, 2009), individuals
reading performance and general reading fluency of with developed skills read words in an automated
the student as the number of pages he read increased. way, and the words must have been engraved in
It was observed that there was a slight decrease in this the brain beforehand for this (Jenkins & O’Connor,
performance when a new book began to be read, 2002). According to Çaycı and Demir (2010), the
whereas there was an improvement again as the word repetition method is useful for fluent reading
pages progressed. The fact that students make simple of words that hinder the reading fluency of students
mistakes while reading may cause them to read less who read the words that they know fluently but
by reducing their desire to read (Torgesen, 2004). This sometimes hesitate, and that the student has difficulty
may cause students to make more mistakes in more in recognizing while reading the text. Therefore, the
difficult texts they will encounter, which may also words that the student had difficulty in reading, and
affect the reading performance of students in a cycle. that he repeated and misread during the story book
In the study conducted by Kaşkaya (2016) in which it reading activities were detected during reading,

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and then, these words were written on cards and are considered, it can be said that line skipping is
speed reading exercises were performed. With the an error type that further prevents comprehension.
word repetition method applied by Sağlam et al. Onursoy et al. (2010) indicated that with regard to
(2020), the reading fluency of students was supported eye movements, readers focus more on images than
and positive results were obtained. In the studies texts while reading, and they recommended that
conducted by Uzunkol (2013) and Yılmaz (2008), it short texts should be preferred more than long texts
was concluded that the word repetition technique by placing the visuals in appropriate places in the
increased students’ reading fluency. page layout. In the preparation of book designs in
accordance with the reading practices of students
Since the academic success of students during with problems in line tracking due to eye movement
the education and training process depends on deficiency, the recommended page layout for the
reading performance, academic failure due to development of these skills and the use of these books
reading inadequacy may negatively affect students’ in support programs may be a solution to the line
motivation for learning, for the course and for tracking problem.
school (Torppa et al., 2019). Moreover, since students’
experience of difficulties in reading may cause them The student’s proper grip of the pencil and the sitting
to face some social and emotional problems, these position are important factors to ensure legible writing
difficulties should be identified and eliminated as (Hartingsveldt et al., 2015). Moreover, the development
early as possible (Jakovljević et al., 2021). A delay in of the inner muscles of the hand is also a determinant
providing support to students in this context may lead of legibility (Reis, 1989). In the pre-implementation
to an increase in performance difference between performed with the student, it was observed that
them and their peers within the context of literacy the student could not hold the pencil correctly.
and may cause problems to become permanent, The student held the pencil at its midpoint, which
which may prevent the support programs that are prevented him from grasping and controlling the
provided from achieving their goals. A third grade pencil. When the student was asked why he held the
primary school student was supported in this study. pencil at its midpoint, he said “I cannot see the writing
This grade level is considered to be late for students I write when I hold it closer to the end point.”. It was
who need support. According to Torgesen (2004), found out that the student had this problem because
a significant number of the students who still have he could not adjust the degree of tilt while holding
reading problems towards the end of primary school the pencil. It was observed that the student’s writing
show indications that they experienced these was more obscure since he could not apply pressure
problems during pre-school education and in the first on the pencil with his current pencil grip, and that his
year of primary school. Foorman et al. (1988) stated pencil control skill was insufficient between two lines
that instruction should be provided to students who due to the failure to grasp the pencil well. The pencil
are at risk of failing to acquire reading skills. Hulme and grip with wrist slightly bent, holding the pencil with the
Snowling (2011) went one step further and stated that index finger and thumb, and supporting the pencil
teaching children to read correctly, fluently and with with the middle finger recommended by Graham
adequate comprehension is one of the main goals and Miller (1980) and Yıldız et al. (2015) was adopted
of early education. These determinations confirm as the student’s technique for holding the pencil. In
that supporting students simultaneously with the order to achieve this, the student was warned by the
formal education process from the pre-school period researcher, and the correct pencil grip was shown.
onwards will contribute to their social and emotional However, no change was achieved because the
development. From this point of view, it can be stated student’s pencil grip had turned into a habit. Therefore,
that it is a wrong decision to wait until the third grade apparatuses that enable students to hold the pencil
so that students who are in the third grade of primary correctly were used, and thus, the student’s pencil grip
school and have insufficient literacy skills in Turkey could be changed. Since writing skill has an important
can benefit from the support provided by the MoNE place in the life of the individual, it is necessary to find
(2019b) through the Remedial Education Program in solutions to the problems that the child will have in
Primary Schools. this field in the early period (Hartingsveldt et al., 2015).
Most children become acquainted with the pencil in
Reading is a complex skill that requires precise a home environment. If parents consciously monitor
coordination of the eyes to efficiently track the lines of their children’s pencil grip and prevent their incorrect
a text as well as the interaction of cognitive processes pencil grip, this may prevent the occurrence of this
to understand the content (Guimarães et al., 2020). In problem in the education and training environment
this study conducted with “F”, regarding the student’s by preventing it from becoming a habit.
reading errors, it was observed that he frequently
skipped the lines, and wide line spacing and 14 font “F” developed his own style regarding the writing of
size were preferred to prevent this. When the effects each letter while writing. The general tendency of
of the types of reading errors on comprehension the student in writing letters was to write each letter

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in a single move and without raising his hand. For student completed the writing of the letter. Due to the
instance, while writing the letter “A”, he drew the “/” frequent occurrence of this situation, in the interview
line from bottom to top and then drew the “\” line held with the student’s mother, she stated that the
and completed the writing of the letter in a single student showed this behavior when he did not want
move by drawing a curved line from the lowest point to write. In the interview held with the student, he
of this line to the midpoint of the previous line. While said “I am hot and sweaty while writing and I have
writing the letter “t”, he immediately drew the “-” line difficulty in breathing.”. When he was asked about
while drawing a line from top to bottom and then the reason for this, he said “I do not like to write;
completed the writing of the letter by completing the when I was writing in the first grade, my mother was
line he drew from top to bottom. When the student putting pressure on me, holding my hand and writing,
was asked why he wrote each letter at once without and my hand was sweating and painful”. Putman
raising his hand, he replied “I want to finish the writing and Walker (2010) indicate that children’s behaviors
quickly”. Furthermore, when the student was asked are indicators of their motivation and that students
about his opinions on his own writing, it was observed should be provided with motivational opportunities
that the letters were not written properly and that he during reading and writing education. Deniz and
was not aware that his writing crossed the lines. All Demir (2020) indicate that writing motivation affects
of this was interpreted as the fact that the student writing performance and emphasize that the intrinsic
did not like writing very much, perceived writing as a motivations of students support the writing skill more,
task and wanted to finish it as soon as possible, and and that therefore, environmental conditions should
that spelling mistakes had become a non-disturbing be regulated appropriately and external factors
permanent habit for the student. Orhan (2017) indicates should not be exaggerated. Therefore, a break was
that reward is an effective factor in the formation and given when the student was bored during the writing
change of habits. When “F” wrote letters in his own activities, the use of colored pencils during the line
style and did not make an effort to make his writing exercises was provided, and when the student created
legible, the act of writing was completed in a short the correct form of the letter during the letter writing
time and “F” got rid of a boring action for himself. exercises, the writing of that letter was terminated.
In brief, the act of writing with this form of writing
lasted a short time, which may probably have been Recommendations for Researchers, Educators, Parents
perceived as a reward by the student. Therefore, it and Policy Makers
was aimed to prevent the student from getting bored
by taking frequent breaks during the writing activities. (i) Reading books prepared for students that consist
However, it was concluded that a longer-term and of stories ending in one reading will make it easier
planned study was needed to change the student’s for students to understand what they read. (ii) It is
approach to writing. possible to conduct studies that will reveal the order
of letters in accordance with the principle of ‘from
While writing, the student wrote the letters quickly easy to difficult’ in order to improve the legibility of
and attempted to complete the writing task as soon students who have acquired the reading and writing
as possible. In particular, he prevented the legibility of skills but have problems in legibility. (iii )Students with
the letters by moving the pencil in various directions legibility problems should be supported at the earliest
at the end of the last line while drawing the lines possible period before gaining the habit of writing.
that made up the letter. For instance, the letter “L” (iv) Students’ acquaintance with the pencil in early
is written vertically with the line “I” in the first move childhood should not be left to chance, and parents
and horizontally with the line “_” in the second move. should make their children acquire the correct pencil
The student disrupted the aesthetics of this letter holding habit by consciously monitoring their child’s
by moving the pencil up or down at the end of the pencil holding process. (v) Students’ opinions should
horizontal line. He did this while writing every letter. be considered when parents buy books for their
The student was made to write the letters gradually in children and classroom teachers build the classroom
order to solve this problem. For instance, the letter “L” library in order to increase children’s desire for reading.
is written in two moves. Before the first move, the lines (vi) While planning support programs for students with
were drawn by discussing with the student where the reading and writing problems, it should be decided
pencil would be placed, the slope rate of the line and whether to develop both skills together or only one
in which direction to draw, and after drawing this, the skill by considering the intensity of the students’ needs.
second move was made and the writing of the letter The aim of developing only one skill for students
was completed. In this process, it was observed that who need serious support can enable the limited
the student did not take into account the directions time in the action plan to be used more efficiently.
provided while drawing the lines that made up the (vii) Longitudinal studies can be conducted to reveal
letters and drew the lines as he desired. For instance, whether students whose reading and writing skills are
it was stated by the researcher that he did not put supported can maintain the reading and writing level
the pencil in the correct place while writing the letter that they reach.
“A”, and although the student was asked to stop, the

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Limitations Akyol, H., & Sural, Ü. Ç. (2020). Developing reading,

reading comprehension and reading
The most important limitations of this study are the aim motivation: an action research. Education
of improving the reading and writing skills together for and Science, 46(205), 69-92. doi: [Link]
the student with severe reading and writing problems, org/10.15390/EB.2020.8977
and the inadequacy of motivational variables related
to the mentioned language skills. It is inevitable that Akyol, H., & Yıldız, M. (2010). A case study on improving
students who still have reading and writing difficulties the reading and writing skills of a student with
in primary school will have negative affective a reading disorder. e-Journal of New World
attitudes towards these skills, despite the progress of Sciences Academy, 5(4), 1690-1700.
their grade level. Unless these feelings change, it is
difficult to achieve permanent improvements in skills. Barnett, A. L., Connelly, V., & Miller, B. (2020). The
Therefore, if the researcher were to do the same study interaction of reading, spelling, and handwriting
with the participating student again, he would prefer difficulties with writing development. Journal
to conduct the study by preparing an action plan of Learning Disabilities, 53(2), 92–95. [Link]
that was planned on only one skill and supported by org/10.1007/s40474-020-00216-8
intensive motivational elements.
Birgisdottir, F., Gestsdottir, S., & Geldhof, G. J. (2020).
Declaration of Commitment to the Ethical Rules Early predictors of first and fourth grade reading
and math: The role of self-regulation and
Approval was received for this study from the family early literacy skills. Early Childhood Research
of the participating student and Türkiye/Bursa Uludağ Quarterly, 53, 507-519. [Link]
University Research and Publication Ethics Committee. ecresq.2020.05.001
Scientific research ethics were observed during the
study. Burns, A. (2009). Action Research. J. Heigham, & R. A.
Croker (Eds.), Qualitative research in applied
Declaration of Interest Statement linguistics (ss. 112-151). Palgrave Macmillan.

The author has no conflict of interest with any Bus, A. G., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995).
institution or person regarding this paper. Joint book reading makes for success in learning
to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational
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 Improving the Reading and Writing Performance of a Student with Dyslexia: An Action Research / Balantekin

APPENDIX Action Plan

Day 1 Day 2

READING WRITING READING WRITING

(2 course hours) (1 course hour) (1 course hour) (2 course hours)
Week 1 Reading the book entitled Pencil holding practice Reading the book entitled Pencil holding practice
The Red Spotted Caterpillar Line exercises The Red Spotted Cater- Line exercises
pillar
Week 2 Reading the book entitled Ak- Pencil holding practice Reading the book entitled Pencil holding practice
kuzu, Karakuzu and the Crows Line exercises Akkuzu, Karakuzu and the Line exercises
Crows
Week 3 Reading the book entitled Pencil holding practice Reading the book entitled Pencil holding practice
The Little Sparrow Line exercises The Little Sparrow Line exercises
Week 4 Reading the book entitled Writing the letters I, İ, ı, i Reading the book enti- Writing the letters L, F
The Little Sparrow Line exercises tled Uzun Köprü Statue of Line exercises
Liberty
Week 5 Reading the book entitled Writing the letter E Reading the book enti- Writing the letters E and T
Uzun Köprü Statue of Liberty Line exercises tled Uzun Köprü Statue of Line exercises
Liberty
Week 6 Reading the book entitled Writing the letter H Reading the book entitled Writing the letters H and l
Prince Yusuf Line exercises Prince Yusuf Line exercises
Week 7 Reading the book entitled Writing the letter N Reading the book entitled Writing the letters N, M
Prince Yusuf Sun Girl and t
Week 8 Reading the book entitled Writing the letters V and v Reading the book entitled Writing the letters Y, Z
The Sun Girl The Sun Girl and z
Week 9 Reading the book entitled Writing the letters K and k Reading the book entitled Writing the letters A, a
Gülperi Gülperi and d.
Week 10 Reading the book entitled Writing the letters g and ğ. Reading the book entitled Writing the letters P, B
The Black Snake Writing words and sentenc- The Black Snake and p. Writing words and
es consisting of the letters sentences consisting of
learned. the letters learned.
READING WRITING READING WRITING
(1 course hour) (2 course hours) (1 course hour) (2 course hours)
Week 11 Comprehension studies with Writing the letters B, R and b. Reading the book entitled Writing the letters U,Ü, u,
the sentence analysis meth- Writing words and sentenc- Pinocchio ü and y
od. (The Old Woman) es consisting of the letters
learned.
Week 12 Comprehension studies with Writing the letters r, n and m Reading the book entitled Writing the letters J and j.
the sentence analysis meth- Pinocchio Writing words and sen-
od. (The Untidy Crow) tences consisting of the
letters learned.
Week 13 Comprehension studies with Writing the letters D, d and h. Reading the book entitled Writing the letters C, Ç, c
the sentence analysis meth- Pinocchio and ç.
od. (The Little Penguin) Writing words and sen-
tences consisting of the
letters learned.
Week 14 Comprehension studies with Writing the letters G and Ğ. Reading the book entitled Writing the letters O, Ö,
the sentence analysis meth- Writing words and sentenc- Pinocchio o and ö
od. (The Good Citizen) es consisting of the letters
learned.
Week 15 Comprehension studies with Writing the letters S, Ş, s, and ş . Reading the book entitled Writing the letters e
the sentence analysis meth- Rüzgaroğlu and f.
od. (What is Money?) Writing words and sen-
tences consisting of the
letters learned.
Week 16 Comprehension studies with Sentence writing exercises Reading the book entitled Sentence writing exercis-
the sentence analysis meth- through dictation. Rüzgaroğlu es through dictation.
od. (What Should You Eat?)
Week 17 Comprehension studies with Sentence writing exercises Reading the book entitled Sentence writing exercis-
the sentence analysis method through dictation. Rüzgaroğlu es through dictation.
(Well done)
Week 18 Comprehension studies with Sentence writing exercises Reading the book entitled Sentence writing exercis-
the sentence analysis method through dictation. Rüzgaroğlu es through dictation.
(The Red
Balloon)

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